Interesting facts about spacecraft and planetary exploration. Spacecraft and technology

(KA), different kinds aircraft equipped with special equipment and intended for flights into space or in space for scientific, economic (commercial) and other purposes (see Space flight). The world's first spacecraft was launched in the USSR on October 4, 1957, the first manned spacecraft - the Vostok spacecraft under the control of USSR citizen Yu. A. Gagarin - on April 12, 1961.
Spacecraft are divided into two main groups: near-Earth orbital vehicles - artificial Earth satellites (AES); interplanetary spacecraft that go beyond the sphere of action of the Earth - artificial satellites of the Moon (ISL), Mars (ISM), Sun (ISS), interplanetary stations, etc. According to their main purpose, spacecraft are divided into research, testing and specialized (the last 2 types of spacecraft are also called applied). Research spacecraft conduct a set of scientific and technical experiments, research of a medical and biological nature, study the space environment and natural phenomena, determine characteristics and constants outer space, parameters of the Earth, other planets and celestial bodies. Test spacecraft are used for testing and testing in conditions space flight structural elements, systems of units and blocks of developed samples and methods of their application. Specialized spacecraft solve one or more applied problems for national economic (commercial) or military purposes, for example, communications and control, reconnaissance, navigation, etc.
The design of a spacecraft can be compact (with a constant configuration during launch into orbit and in flight), deployable (the configuration changes in orbit due to the opening of individual structural elements) and inflatable (the given shape in orbit is ensured by inflating the shell).
There are light spacecraft with a mass ranging from several kilograms to 5 tons; medium - up to 15 tons; heavy - up to 50 tons and super-heavy - 50 tons or more. According to the design and layout basis, spacecraft are monoblock, multiblock and unified. The design of a monoblock spacecraft is a single and functionally indivisible basic foundation. A multi-block spacecraft is made of functional blocks (compartments) and structurally allows for a change in purpose by replacing individual blocks (building them up) on Earth or in orbit. The basic design and layout basis of a unified spacecraft makes it possible to create devices by installing appropriate equipment for various purposes.
According to the control method, spacecraft are divided into automatic, manned (inhabited) and combined (visited). The last 2 types are also called spacecraft (SC) or space stations (KS). Automatic spacecraft has a set of on-board equipment that does not require a crew on board and ensures the execution of a given autonomous program. Manned spacecraft intended to perform tasks with the participation of a person (crew). Combined spacecraft- a type of automatic, the design of which provides for periodic visits by astronauts during its operation to carry out scientific, repair, testing, special and other work. Distinctive feature most existing and future types of spacecraft - the ability for long-term independent operation in outer space conditions, which are characterized by deep vacuum, the presence of meteoric particles, intense radiation and weightlessness.
The spacecraft includes a body with structural elements, providing equipment and special (target) equipment. The body of a spacecraft is the structural and layout basis for the installation and placement of all its elements and related equipment. The supporting equipment of an automatic spacecraft provides for the following systems: orientation and stabilization, thermal control, power supply, command and software, telemetry, trajectory measurements, control and navigation, executive bodies, etc. Inhabited (manned) and visited spacecraft, in addition, have life support systems, emergency rescue, etc. Special (target) equipment of a spacecraft can be optical, photographic, television, infrared, radar, radio engineering, spectrometric, X-ray, radiometric, calorimetric, radio communication and relay, etc. (see also Onboard spacecraft equipment).
Research spacecraft Due to the wide range of issues being addressed, they are varied in mass, size, design, type of orbits used, nature of equipment and instrumentation. Their mass ranges from several kilograms to 10 tons or more, and the altitude of their orbits ranges from 150 to 400,000 kilometers. Automatic research spacecraft include Soviet artificial Earth satellites of the Cosmos, Electron, and Proton series; American spacecraft of the series of observatory satellites “Explorer”, “OGO”, “OSO”, “OAO”, etc., as well as automatic interplanetary stations. Certain types of automatic research spacecraft or means of equipping them have been developed in the German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Japan and other countries.
Spacecraft of the Cosmos series are designed to study near-Earth space, radiation from the Sun and stars, processes in the Earth’s magnetosphere, study the composition of cosmic radiation and radiation belts, fluctuations of the ionosphere and the distribution of meteoric particles in near-Earth space. Several dozen spacecraft of this series are launched annually. By mid-1977, more than 930 Cosmos spacecraft had been launched.
Spacecraft of the Electron series are designed to simultaneously study the external and internal radiation belts and the Earth’s magnetic field. The orbits are elliptical (perigee height 400-460 kilometers, apogee height 7000-68,000 kilometers), spacecraft mass 350-445 kilograms. One launch vehicle (LV) simultaneously launches into these orbits 2 spacecraft, different in the composition of scientific equipment, size, design and shape; they form a cosmic system.
Spacecraft of the Proton series were used for a comprehensive study of cosmic rays and the interactions of ultra-high energy particles with matter. The mass of the spacecraft is 12-17 tons, the relative mass of the scientific equipment is 28-70%.
The Explorer spacecraft is one of the American unmanned research spacecraft. Its mass, depending on the problem being solved, ranges from several kilograms to 400 kilograms. These spacecraft measure the intensity of cosmic radiation, study the solar wind and magnetic fields in the area of ​​the Moon, the troposphere, the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, X-ray and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, etc. are studied. A total of 50 launches were carried out.
Spacecraft of the series of observatory satellites “OGO”, “OSO”, “OAO” have a highly specialized purpose. OGO spacecraft are used for geophysical measurements and, in particular, to study the influence of solar activity on the physical parameters of near-Earth space. Weight 450-635 kilograms. The OSO spacecraft were used to study the Sun. Weight 200-1000 kilograms, relative mass of scientific equipment 32-40%. The purpose of the JSC spacecraft is to conduct astronomical observations. Weight 2000 kilograms.
Automatic interplanetary stations (AIS) are used to fly to other celestial bodies and study interplanetary space. Since 1959, over 60 automatic interplanetary stations have been launched (by mid-1977): Soviet automatic interplanetary stations of the Luna, Venus, Mars, and Zond series; American automatic interplanetary stations of the Mariner, Ranger, Pioneer, Surveyor, Viking, etc. series. These spacecraft made it possible to expand knowledge about physical conditions The Moon, the nearest planets of the solar system - Mars, Venus, Mercury, obtain a complex of scientific data on the properties of planets and interplanetary space. Depending on the purpose and tasks to be solved, the on-board equipment of automatic interplanetary stations may include various automatic controlled units and devices: self-propelled research vehicles equipped with the necessary set of tools (for example, Lunokhod-type vehicles), manipulators, etc. (see Cosmonautics).
Test spacecraft. In the Soviet Union, various modifications of the Cosmos spacecraft are used as automatic test spacecraft; in the USA, satellites of the OV, ATS, GGTS, Dodge, TTS, SERT, and RW types are used. etc. With the help of spacecraft of the Cosmos series, the characteristics and capabilities of thermal control systems and life support systems for manned spacecraft were studied, the processes of automatic docking of satellites in orbit, and methods of protecting spacecraft elements from radiation were developed. Manned and combined (visited) research spacecraft are designed to conduct medical-biological, physico-chemical and extra-atmospheric astronomical research, research of the space environment, study of the Earth's atmosphere, its natural resources and so on. By mid-1977, 59 launches of manned and visited spacecraft had been carried out. These are Soviet spaceships (SC) and space stations (KS) of the Vostok, Voskhod, Soyuz, Salyut series, and American ones of the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab series.
Specialized spacecraft national economic (commercial) purposes are used for meteorological observations, communications and research of natural resources. Specific gravity This group by the mid-70s accounted for about 20% of all launched spacecraft (excluding military ones). The annual economic benefit from a space-based global weather system that provides two-week forecasts could be as much as $15 billion, according to some estimates.
Meteorological spacecraft are used to obtain on a global scale information that can be used to make reliable long-term forecasts. The simultaneous use of several spacecraft with television and infrared (IR) equipment makes it possible to continuously monitor the distribution and movement of clouds around the globe, the formation of powerful air vortices, hurricanes, storms, and provide control over the thermal regime earth's surface and atmosphere, determine the vertical profile of temperature, pressure and humidity, as well as other factors that have important to make a weather forecast. Meteorological spacecraft include the Meteor (USSR), Tiros, ESSA, ITOS, and Nimbus (USA) types.
The Meteor-type spacecraft is designed to obtain complex meteorological information in the visible and infrared (IR) spectral ranges from both the illuminated and shadow sides of the Earth. Equipped with a three-axis electromechanical body orientation system, an autonomous solar panel orientation system, a thermal control system, and a set of controls. Special equipment includes television and IR cameras, a set of actinometric devices of scanning and non-scanning types.
The American Tyros-type spacecraft is designed to record infrared radiation. Stabilized by rotation. Diameter 1 meter, height 0.5 meters, weight 120-135 kilograms. Special equipment - television cameras and sensors. The received information is stored until it is transmitted to Earth by a magnetic storage device. By mid-1977, 10 Tyros-type spacecraft had been launched.
Spacecraft of the ESSA and ITOS types are types of meteorological spacecraft. The weight of “ESSA” is 148 kilograms, “ITOS” is 310-340 kilograms. By mid-1977, 9 ESSA and 8 ITOS spacecraft were launched.
The Nimbus-type spacecraft is an experimental meteorological spacecraft for flight testing of on-board equipment. Weight 377-680 kilograms.
Communication spacecraft relay radio signals from earth stations located beyond line of sight. The minimum range between stations at which relaying information using communication spacecraft is economically feasible is 500-1000 kilometers. According to the method of relaying information, liaison space systems are divided into active using spacecraft that re-emit the received signal using on-board equipment (“Molniya”, “Rainbow” - USSR, “Sincom” - USA, international “Intelsat” and others), and passive (American “Echo” and others)
Spacecraft of the Molniya type relay television programs and carry out long-distance telephone and telegraph communications. Weight 1600 kilograms. It is launched into highly elongated elliptical orbits with an apogee altitude of 40,000 kilometers above the Northern Hemisphere. Equipped with a powerful multi-channel relay system.
The Rainbow-type spacecraft (international registration index "Statsionar-1") is designed to provide continuous round-the-clock telephone and telegraph radio communications in the centimeter wavelength range and simultaneous transmission of color and black-and-white programs of the USSR central television. It is launched into a circular orbit close to geostationary. Equipped with on-board relay equipment. Spacecraft of the Molniya and Rainbow types are part of the Orbita long-distance space radio communication system.
The Intelsat-type spacecraft serves commercial communications purposes. It has been in regular use since 1965. It exists in four modifications, differing in the capabilities of the relay system. "Intelsat-4" is a cylindrical, rotation-stabilized device. Weight after fuel burn-up is 700 kilograms, diameter is 2.4 meters, height (including antenna unit) is 5.3 meters. Has 3000-9000 relay communication channels. The estimated duration of operational use of the spacecraft is at least 7 years. By mid-1977, 21 launches of Intelsat spacecraft of various modifications were made.
The Echo-type spacecraft is a long-lasting passive communications spacecraft. It is a thin-walled inflatable spherical shell with an external reflective coating. From 1960 to 1964, 2 spacecraft of this type were launched in the USA.
Spacecraft for exploring the Earth's natural resources allow you to obtain information about the natural conditions of continents and oceans, the flora and fauna of the Earth, the results of human activity. Information is used to solve problems in forestry and agriculture, geology, hydrology, geodesy, cartography, oceanology, etc. The development of this direction dates back to the early 70s. The first spacecraft for studying the Earth's natural resources, the ERTS type, was launched in the USA in 1972. The study of the Earth's natural resources is also carried out using a special set of instruments on the Salyut (USSR) and Skylab (USA) spacecraft.
The ERTS type spacecraft was created on the basis artificial satellite Nimbus Lands. Weight 891 kilograms. The special equipment consists of 3 television cameras, a 4-channel television spectrometer with optical-mechanical scanning, two video recording devices and a system for receiving data from earth stations. The resolution of the cameras is 50 meters from an altitude of 920 kilometers. The estimated duration of operational use is 1 year.
A number of specialized spacecraft have been created abroad, mainly in the United States, and are widely used for military purposes. Such spacecraft are divided into reconnaissance, navigation, communications and control, and multi-purpose. Reconnaissance spacecraft conduct photographic, radio engineering, and meteorological reconnaissance, detect launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), monitor nuclear explosions, etc. Photographic reconnaissance has been carried out in the United States since 1959 by spacecraft of the Discoverer type. Detailed photographic reconnaissance using the Samos spacecraft has been carried out since 1961. In total, by mid-1977, 79 such spacecraft had been launched. Samos is designed as a container with reconnaissance equipment docked with the second stage of the Agena launch vehicle. Samos spacecraft were launched into orbits with an inclination of 95-110° and an altitude of 130-160 kilometers at perigee and 450 kilometers at apogee. The period of operational use is up to 47 days.
For periodic monitoring of changes in the terrain, preliminary reconnaissance of the construction of facilities, identifying the situation in the World Ocean, mapping the Earth and issuing target designations for detailed reconnaissance means, survey photo reconnaissance spacecraft are used. They were launched by the USA until mid-1972. Their working orbits had an inclination of 65-100°, an altitude at perigee of 160-200 kilometers, and at apogee up to 450 kilometers. The period of operational use is from 9 to 33 days. The spacecraft could maneuver in altitude in order to reach the necessary objects or reconnaissance area. Two cameras photographed a wide swath of terrain.
Radio reconnaissance has been carried out in the United States since 1962 using Ferret-type spacecraft designed for preliminary reconnaissance of radio systems in a wide frequency range. The mass of the spacecraft is about 1000 kilograms. They are launched into orbits with an inclination of about 75°, at an altitude of 500 kilometers. Onboard special receivers and analyzers make it possible to determine the main parameters of radio equipment (RTS): carrier frequency, pulse duration, operating mode, location and signal structure. Detailed electronic reconnaissance spacecraft weighing 60-160 kilograms determine the parameters of individual radio equipment. They operate at the same altitudes and orbits with inclinations ranging from 64-110°.
In the interests of the US military department, meteorological spacecraft “Toros”, “Nimbus”, “ESSA”, “ITOS”, etc. are used. Thus, the United States used spacecraft to provide meteorological support for military operations in Vietnam in 1964-73. Data on cloudiness were taken into account by the American military command when organizing combat sorties, planning land and sea operations, camouflaging aircraft carriers from Vietnamese aircraft in areas over which thick clouds formed, etc. From 1966 to mid-1977, 22 spacecraft of these types were launched in the United States. US meteorological spacecraft models “5B”, “5C”, “5D” are equipped with two television cameras for shooting clouds in the visible range of the spectrum with a resolution of 3.2 and 0.6 kilometers, two cameras for shooting in the infrared range with the same resolution and instruments for measuring temperatures in the vertical profile of the atmosphere. There are also special meteorological reconnaissance spacecraft that report data on the state of clouds in areas that are subject to photography by photo reconnaissance spacecraft.
Spacecraft for early detection of ICBM launches began to be created in the United States in the late 50s (Midas type, which since 1968 have been replaced by IS type spacecraft).
Midas-type spacecraft were equipped with IR radiation detectors to detect ICBM engine plumes in the middle part of the active part of the trajectory. They were launched into polar orbits at an altitude of 3500-3700 kilometers. Weight in orbit is 1.6-2.3 tons (together with the last stage of the launch vehicle).
IS-type spacecraft are used to detect ICBM flares launched from ground-based launch facilities and submarines. They were launched into nearly synchronous orbits, usually at an altitude of 32,000 - 40,000 kilometers with an inclination of about 10°. Structurally, the spacecraft are made in the form of a cylinder with a diameter of 1.4 meters and a length of 1.7 meters. Total weight 680-1000 kilograms (after fuel burnout about 350 kilograms). Possible composition of special equipment - IR and x-ray radiation, as well as television cameras.
Space control vehicles nuclear explosions developed in the USA since the late 50s. From 1963 to 1970, 6 pairs of NDS-type spacecraft were launched into circular orbits at an altitude of about 110,000 kilometers with an inclination of 32-33°. The mass of the NDS type spacecraft of the first pairs is 240 kilograms, the last ones - 330 kilograms. The spacecraft are equipped with a complex of special equipment for recording nuclear explosions at various altitudes and on Earth, and are stabilized by rotation. The operational life is about 1.5 years. In connection with the creation of a multi-purpose spacecraft of the IMEWS type, launches of NDS spacecraft have been stopped since the early 70s.
Navigation spacecraft are used for navigation support of combat patrols of submarines, surface ships and other mobile units. The operational satellite system for determining the coordinates of warships with an accuracy of 180-990 meters consists of 5 spacecraft, replaced with new ones as they fail. The operating orbits are polar, with an altitude of 900-1000 kilometers.
Communications and control spacecraft have been in regular operation since 1966. In the United States, by mid-1977, 34 spacecraft of the DCP, DSCS-2, and other types were launched.
Spacecraft of the DCP series solve problems military communications. One launch vehicle launches up to 8 spacecraft into orbits at an altitude of 33,000 - 34,360 kilometers with a low inclination (up to 7.2°). A total of 26 spacecraft were launched. Structurally, the spacecraft weighing 45 kilograms is made in the form of a polyhedron with a height of 0.77 meters and a diameter of 0.81 - 0.91 meters. In orbit, it is stabilized by rotating at a speed of 150 rpm. The onboard transceiver has up to 11 duplex telephone channels. DSCS-2 spacecraft solve communication problems in the interests of the command of the US armed forces, as well as tactical communications between military units within the theater of operations.
Multi-purpose military spacecraft serve for early warning of a missile attack, detection of nuclear explosions and other tasks. In the USA, since 1974, the Seuss system has been developed using IMEWS spacecraft for conducting comprehensive reconnaissance. A multi-purpose spacecraft of the IMEWS type provides a solution to 3 problems: early detection of launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles and tracking them; registration of nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and on the Earth's surface; global meteorological intelligence. Weight is about 800 kilograms, structurally designed in the form of a cylinder turning into a cone (length approximately 6 meters, maximum diameter about 2.4 meters). It is launched into synchronous orbits with an altitude of about 26,000 - 36,000 kilometers and an orbital period of about 20 hours. It is equipped with a complex of special equipment, the basis of which is IR and television equipment. An infrared detector built into the telescope detects rocket plumes.
The multi-purpose spacecraft also includes the LASP type spacecraft; Designed mainly for conducting survey and detailed photographic reconnaissance of strategic objects and mapping the earth's surface. From 1971 to mid-1977, 13 such spacecraft were launched into sun-synchronous orbits with an altitude of 150-180 kilometers at perigee and 300 kilometers at apogee.
The development of spacecraft and their use for space research had a significant impact on overall scientific and technological progress and on the development of many new areas of applied science and technology. Spacecraft have found wide practical application in national economy. By mid-1977, more than 2,000 spacecraft had been launched various types, including more than 1,100 Soviet, about 900 foreign, by this time about 750 spacecraft were constantly in orbit.
Literature: Space exploration in the USSR. [Official press reports for 1957-1975] M., 1971 - 77; Zaitsev Yu.P. Satellites "Cosmos" M., 1975; Design of scientific space equipment. M., 1976, Ilyin V.A., Kuzmak G.E. Optimal flights of spacecraft with high-thrust engines. M, 1976, Odintsov V.A., Anuchin V.M. Maneuvering in space. M, 1974; Korovkin A.S. Spacecraft control systems. M., 1972; Space trajectory measurements. M, 1969, Engineering reference book on space technology. 2nd edition. M, 1977. Orbits of cooperation of the International Communications of the USSR in the exploration and use of outer space. M., 1975, Manned spacecraft. Design and testing. Per. from English M., 1968. A.M.Belyakov, E.L.Palagin, F.R.Khantseverov.

Deep space- these are the unexplored worlds of stars and galaxies, everything that is located beyond the boundaries of the galaxy. This terminology is arbitrary, because for some, deep space begins with crossing the boundaries of our solar system. And man can only dream about deep space. Today, deep space represents a world of unknown galaxies and stars. A person knows very little about them, because he receives basic information using telescopes.

Exploring deep space using spacecraft

To thoroughly study space objects, spacecraft are sent to them. In order for the device to become a satellite of the Sun, it must be accelerated to 11.2 km/sec - the second cosmic speed. And in order for the device to leave the solar system, it must accelerate to 16.6 km/s - the third cosmic speed. Spacecraft that are designed to carry out work in deep space are sent there irrevocably. Their flight often lasts for years, and during this period they transmit various information to Earth that they received during the flight.

The number of vehicles sent into deep space is very small. An example is the spacecraft and Voyager-2, which were launched 37 years ago. Today they are many kilometers away from the sun. Both devices have energy and fuel to operate almost until 2020-2025. During this time, Voyager 1 will move away from the Sun by about 19 billion km, and Voyager 2 by almost 15 billion km. After -6-10 years, communication with the devices will almost certainly cease, they will become dead piles of metal.

However, even after this, the Voyager mission will continue. On board the devices there are golden records with special information about human civilization, so the probes will be a kind of “parcels” that earthlings sent to the stars. However, Voyagers will fly to other stars for a long time. Only after 40 thousand years will Voyager 1 pass in the constellation Giraffe at a distance of 1.7 light years from the nearest star AC+79 3888. Voyager 2 only after 29.6 thousand years will pass from Sirius, the brightest star, at a distance of 4 ,3 light years. Due to the great technical complexity, flight duration and high cost, such missions are rare, but they are incredibly interesting and perhaps they will be able to reveal secrets deep space.

Exploring deep space using telescopes

The study of deep space today mainly occurs with the help of telescopes. Among the most famous telescopes, which made many discoveries and lifted the veil of deep space, was the Hubble telescope. installed into orbit in 1990. Astronomers began to find the first planets outside our native solar system two years after its launch.

The unexplored depths of space have interested humanity for many centuries. Explorers and scientists have always taken steps towards understanding the constellations and outer space. These were the first, but significant achievements at that time, which served to further develop research in this industry.

An important achievement was the invention of the telescope, with the help of which humanity was able to look much further into outer space and get to know the space objects that surround our planet more closely. Nowadays, space exploration is much easier than in those years. Our portal site offers you a lot of interesting and fascinating facts about Space and its mysteries.

The first spacecraft and technology

Active exploration of outer space began with the launch of the first artificially created satellite of our planet. This event dates back to 1957, when it was launched into Earth orbit. As for the first device that appeared in orbit, it was extremely simple in its design. This device was equipped with a fairly simple radio transmitter. When creating it, the designers decided to make do with the bare minimum technical set. Nevertheless, the first simple satellite served as the start for the development of a new era of space technology and equipment. Today we can say that this device has become a huge achievement for humanity and the development of many scientific branches of research. In addition, putting a satellite into orbit was an achievement for the whole world, and not just for the USSR. This became possible due to the hard work of designers to create intercontinental ballistic missiles.

It was the high achievements in rocket science that made it possible for designers to realize that by reducing the payload of the launch vehicle, very high flight speeds could be achieved, which would exceed the escape velocity of ~7.9 km/s. All this made it possible to launch the first satellite into Earth orbit. Spacecraft and technology are interesting due to the fact that many have been proposed various designs and concepts.

In a broad concept, a spacecraft is a device that transports equipment or people to the border where it ends top part earth's atmosphere. But this is an exit only to near space. When solving various space problems, spacecraft are divided into the following categories:

Suborbital;

Orbital or near-Earth, which move in geocentric orbits;

Interplanetary;

On-planetary.

The creation of the first rocket to launch a satellite into space was carried out by USSR designers, and its creation itself took less time than the fine-tuning and debugging of all systems. Also, the time factor influenced the primitive configuration of the satellite, since it was the USSR that sought to achieve the first cosmic speed of its creation. Moreover, the very fact of launching a rocket beyond the planet was a more significant achievement at that time than the quantity and quality of equipment installed on the satellite. All the work done was crowned with triumph for all humanity.

As you know, the conquest of outer space had just begun, which is why designers achieved more and more in rocket science, which made it possible to create more advanced spacecraft and technology that helped make a huge leap in space exploration. Also, further development and modernization of rockets and their components made it possible to achieve a second escape velocity and increase the mass of payload on board. Due to all this, the first launch of a rocket with a person on board became possible in 1961.

The portal site can tell you a lot of interesting things about the development of spacecraft and technology over all years and in all countries of the world. Few people know that space research was actually started by scientists before 1957. The first scientific equipment for study was sent into outer space back in the late 40s. The first domestic rockets were able to lift scientific equipment to a height of 100 kilometers. In addition, this was not a single launch, they were carried out quite often, and the maximum height of their rise reached 500 kilometers, which means that the first ideas about outer space were already there before the launch space age. Nowadays, using the latest technologies, those achievements may seem primitive, but they are what made it possible to achieve what we have at the moment.

The created spacecraft and technology required a solution huge amount various tasks. The most important issues were:

1. Selection of the correct flight trajectory of the spacecraft and further analysis of its movement. To solve this problem, it was necessary to more actively develop celestial mechanics, which became an applied science.
2. The vacuum of space and weightlessness have posed their own challenges for scientists. And this is not only the creation of a reliable sealed case that could withstand fairly harsh space conditions, but also the development of equipment that could perform its tasks in Space as effectively as on Earth. Since not all mechanisms could work perfectly in weightlessness and vacuum as well as in terrestrial conditions. The main problem was the exclusion of thermal convection in sealed volumes; all this disrupted the normal course of many processes.

1. The operation of the equipment was also disrupted by thermal radiation from the Sun. To eliminate this influence, it was necessary to think through new calculation methods for devices. A lot of devices were also thought out to maintain normal temperature conditions inside the spacecraft itself.
2. Power supply for space devices has become a big problem. The most optimal solution designers focused on converting solar radiation into electricity.
3. It took quite a long time to solve the problem of radio communications and control of spacecraft, since ground-based radar devices could only operate at a distance of up to 20 thousand kilometers, and this is not enough for outer space. The evolution of ultra-long-range radio communications in our time makes it possible to maintain communication with probes and other devices at a distance of millions of kilometers.
4. Still, the biggest problem remained the fine-tuning of the equipment that equipped the space devices. First of all, the equipment must be reliable, since repairs in space, as a rule, were impossible. New ways of duplicating and recording information were also thought out.

The problems that arose aroused the interest of researchers and scientists from various fields of knowledge. Joint cooperation made it possible to obtain positive results in solving the assigned tasks. Due to all this, it began to emerge new area knowledge, namely space technology. The emergence of this type of design was separated from aviation and other industries due to its uniqueness, special knowledge and work skills.

Immediately after the creation and successful launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, the development of space technology took place in three main directions, namely:

1. Design and manufacture of Earth satellites to perform various tasks. In addition, the industry is modernizing and improving these devices, making it possible to use them more widely.
2. Creation of devices for exploring interplanetary space and the surfaces of other planets. Typically, these devices carry out programmed tasks and can also be controlled remotely.
3. Space technology is being worked on various models creating space stations where scientists can conduct research activities. This industry also designs and manufactures manned spacecraft.

Many areas of space technology and the achievement of escape velocity have allowed scientists to gain access to more distant space objects. That is why at the end of the 50s it was possible to launch a satellite towards the Moon; in addition, the technology of that time already made it possible to send research satellites to the nearest planets near the Earth. Thus, the first devices that were sent to study the Moon allowed humanity to learn for the first time about the parameters of outer space and see the far side of the Moon. Still, the space technology of the beginning of the space era was still imperfect and uncontrollable, and after separation from the launch vehicle, the main part rotated quite chaotically around the center of its mass. Uncontrolled rotation did not allow scientists to carry out much research, which, in turn, stimulated designers to create more advanced spacecraft and technology.

It was the development of controlled vehicles that allowed scientists to conduct even more research and learn more about outer space and its properties. Also, the controlled and stable flight of satellites and other automatic devices launched into space allows for more accurate and high-quality transmission of information to Earth due to the orientation of antennas. Due to controlled control, the necessary maneuvers can be carried out.

In the early 60s, satellite launches to the closest planets were actively carried out. These launches made it possible to become more familiar with the conditions on neighboring planets. But still, the greatest success of this time for all humanity on our planet is the flight of Yu.A. Gagarin. After the achievements of the USSR in the construction of space equipment, most countries of the world also turned to Special attention for rocket science and the creation of our own space technology. Nevertheless, the USSR was a leader in this industry, since it was the first to create a device that carried out a soft landing on the Moon. After the first successful landings on the Moon and other planets, the task was set for a more detailed study of the surfaces of cosmic bodies using automatic devices for studying surfaces and transmitting photos and videos to Earth.

The first spacecraft, as mentioned above, were uncontrollable and could not return to Earth. When creating controlled devices, designers were faced with the problem of safe landing of devices and crew. Since a very rapid entry of the device into the Earth’s atmosphere could simply burn it out from high temperature during friction. In addition, upon return, the devices had to land and splash down safely in a wide variety of conditions.

Further development of space technology made it possible to produce orbital stations, which can be used for many years, while changing the composition of the researchers on board. The first orbital vehicle of this type became the Soviet station "Salyut". Its creation was another huge leap for humanity in the knowledge of outer space and phenomena.

Above is a very small part of all the events and achievements in the creation and use of spacecraft and technology that was created in the world for the study of Space. But still, the most significant year was 1957, from which the era of active rocketry and space exploration began. It was the launch of the first probe that gave rise to the explosive development of space technology throughout the world. And this became possible due to the creation in the USSR of a new generation launch vehicle, which was able to lift the probe to the height of the Earth’s orbit.

To learn about all this and much more, our portal website offers you a lot of fascinating articles, videos and photographs of space technology and objects.

The first rocket in space was a significant breakthrough in the study and development of astronautics. Sputnik was launched in 1957 on October 4. He was involved in the design and development of the first satellite, and it was he who became the main observer and researcher of the first step towards conquering extraterrestrial peaks. The next one was the Vostok spacecraft, which sent the Luna-1 station into lunar orbit. It was launched into space on January 2, 1959, but control problems did not allow the carrier to land on the surface celestial body.

First launches: animals and people in space exploration

The study of outer space and the capabilities of aircraft also took place with the help of animals. The first dogs in space - Belka and Strelka. They were the ones who went into orbit and returned safe and sound. Next, launches were carried out with monkeys, dogs, and rats. The main objective of such flights was to study biological changes after spending a certain time in space and the possibilities of adaptation to weightlessness. Such preparation was able to ensure the successful first-ever human space flight.

Vostok-1

The first cosmonaut flew into space on April 12, 1961. And the first ship in space that could be piloted by an astronaut was Vostok-1. The device was initially equipped with automatic control, but if necessary, the pilot can switch to manual coordination mode. The first flight around the earth ended after 1 hour and 48 minutes. And the news of the first man's flight into space instantly spread throughout the globe.

Development of the field: man outside the apparatus

The first manned space flight was the main impetus for active development and technology improvements. A new stage was the desire for the pilot himself to exit the ship. Another 4 years were spent on research and development. As a result, 1965 was marked important event in the world of astronautics.

The first person to go into space, Alexey Arkhipovich Leonov, left the ship on March 18. He stayed outside the aircraft for 12 minutes and 9 seconds. This allowed the researchers to draw new conclusions and begin to improve projects and improve spacesuits. And the first photo in space graced the pages of both Soviet and foreign newspapers.

Subsequent development of astronautics

Svetlana Savitskaya

Research in the area continued long years, and on July 25, 1984, the first spacewalk was carried out by a woman. Svetlana Savitskaya went into space at the Salyut-7 station, but after that she did not take part in such flights. They, together with Valentina Tereshkova (who flew in 1963), became the first women in space.

After lengthy research, more frequent flights and longer stays in extraterrestrial space became possible. The first cosmonaut to go into space, who became the record holder for the time spent outside the spacecraft, is Anatoly Solovyov. Over the entire period of his work in the field of astronautics, he carried out 16 spacewalks, and their total duration of stay was 82 hours and 21 minutes.

Despite further progress in the conquest of extraterrestrial spaces, the date of the first flight into space became a holiday on the territory of the USSR. In addition, April 12 became the international day of the first flight. The descent module from the Vostok-1 spacecraft is stored in the museum of the Energia Corporation named after S.P. Queen. Also preserved are newspapers of that time, and even stuffed Belka and Strelka. The memory of achievements is stored and studied by new generations. Therefore, the answer to the question: “Who was the first to fly into space?” every adult and every schoolchild knows.

Most of them are concentrated in the gap between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, known as the asteroid belt. To date, more than 600,000 asteroids have been discovered, but in fact they number in the millions. True, for the most part they are small - there are only two hundred asteroids with diameters greater than 100 kilometers.

Dynamics of the discovery of new asteroids in the period from 1980 to 2012.

But the asteroid belt is not the only place where such objects can be found. There are many "families" scattered throughout different parts of the solar system. For example, Centaurs, whose orbits lie between Jupiter and Neptune, or the so-called. Trojan asteroids located in the vicinity of the L4 and L5 Lagrange points of various planets. Jupiter, for example, has about 5,000 Trojan asteroids discovered.

Pink - Jupiter Trojan asteroids, orange - Centaurs, green - Kuiper belt objects

The first spacecraft to cross the main asteroid belt was Pioneer 10. But since at that time there was not enough data about its properties and the density of objects in it, engineers preferred to play it safe and developed a trajectory that kept the device at the greatest possible distance from all asteroids known at that time. Pioneer 11, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flew through the asteroid belt using the same principle.

As knowledge accumulated, it became clear that the asteroid belt does not pose a great danger to space technology. Yes, there are millions of celestial bodies, which seems like a big number - but only until you estimate the amount of space per each such object. Unfortunately, or rather fortunately, pictures in the style of “The Empire Strikes Back” where you can see thousands of asteroids colliding in a spectacular manner in one frame are not very similar to reality.

So after some time, the paradigm changed - if earlier spacecraft avoided asteroids, now, on the contrary, small planets began to be considered additional targets for study. The trajectories of the devices began to be developed in such a way that, if possible, it would be possible to fly close to an asteroid.

Flyby missions

The first spacecraft to fly near an asteroid was Galileo: on the way to Jupiter, it visited 18-kilometer Gaspra (1991) and 54-kilometer Ida (1993).

The latter discovered a 1.5-kilometer satellite, called Dactyl.

In 1999, "Deep space 1" flew near the two-kilometer Braille asteroid.

The device was supposed to photograph Braille almost point-blank, but due to a software glitch, the camera turned on when he was already 14,000 kilometers away from him.

On the way to Comet Wild, the Stardust spacecraft photographed the six-kilometer asteroid Annafranc, named after Anne Frank.

The picture was taken from a distance of 3000 kilometers

The Rosetta probe, which is now approaching comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko, flew at a distance of 800 kilometers from the 6.5-kilometer asteroid Steins in 2008.

In 2009, he passed at a distance of 3000 kilometers from 121 kilometer Lutetia.

Chinese comrades also noted their presence in the study of asteroids. Shortly before the end of the world in 2012, their Chang'e-2 probe flew near the asteroid Tautatis.

Direct missions to study asteroids

However, all of these were flyby missions, in each of which the study of asteroids was only a bonus to the main task. As for direct missions to study asteroids, there are currently exactly three of them.

The first was “NEAR Shoemacker”, launched in 1996. In 1997, this device flew near the Matilda asteroid.

Three years later, he reached his main goal - the 34-kilometer asteroid Eros.

NEAR Shoemacker studied it from orbit for a year. When the fuel ran out, NASA decided to experiment with it and try to land it on an asteroid, although without much hope of success, since the device was not designed for such tasks.
To the surprise of the engineers, they managed to carry out their plans. “NEAR Shoemacker” landed on Eros without any damage, after which it transmitted signals from the surface of the asteroid for another two weeks.

The next mission was the highly ambitious Japanese Hayabusa, launched in 2003. Its goal was the asteroid Itokawa: the device was supposed to reach it in mid-2005, land several times, and then take off from its surface, landing the microrobot Minerva. And the most important thing is to take samples of the asteroid and deliver them to Earth in 2007.

Itokawa

From the very beginning, everything went wrong: a solar flare damaged the solar panels of the device. The ion engine began to malfunction. During the first landing, the Minerva was lost. During the second, the connection with the devices was completely interrupted. When it was restored, no one at the control center could say whether the device was even able to take a soil sample.

Due to another engine failure, it began to seem that the device would never be able to return to Earth. Nevertheless, albeit with great effort, and for three years too late, but the Hayabusa descent capsule still returned home. The main intrigue was whether the device was able to take at least some samples or whether the seven-year mission was in vain. Fortunately for scientists, Hayabusa still delivered some Itokawa particles to Earth. Less than planned, but still enough for some tests.

And finally, the mission “Dawn”. This device was also equipped with an ion engine, which fortunately worked much better than the Japanese one. Thanks to the ionizer, Dawn was able to achieve something that no other similar spacecraft had ever managed before - enter the orbit of a celestial body, study it, and then leave it and head to another target.

And his goals were very ambitious: the two most massive objects in the asteroid belt - the 530-kilometer Vesta and the almost 1000-kilometer Ceres. True, after the reclassification, Ceres is now officially considered not an asteroid, but, like Pluto, a dwarf planet - but I don’t think that the change of name changes anything in practical terms. "Dawn" was launched in 2007 and reached Vesta in 2011, playing for a full year.

It is believed that Vesta and Ceres may be the last surviving protoplanets. At the stage of formation of the Solar system there were several hundred such formations throughout solar system-they gradually collided with each other, forming larger bodies. Vesta may be one of the relics of that early era.

Dawn then headed towards Ceres, which it would reach in next year. So, it’s time to call 2015 the year of the dwarf planets: for the first time we will see what Ceres and Pluto look like, and it remains to be seen which of these bodies will present more surprises.

Future missions

As for future missions, NASA is currently planning the OSIRIS-REx mission, which should launch in 2016, rendezvous with the asteroid Bennu in 2020, take a sample of its soil and return it to Earth by 2023. In the near future, the Japanese space agency also has plans, which is planning the Hayabusa-2 mission, which in theory should take into account the numerous mistakes of its predecessor.

And finally, for several years now there has been talk about a manned mission to an asteroid. In particular, NASA's plan is to capture a small asteroid with a diameter of no more than 10 meters (or as alternative option- a fragment of a large asteroid) and delivering it to lunar orbit, where it will be studied by astronauts of the Orion spacecraft.

Of course, the success of such an undertaking depends on a number of factors. First, you need to find a suitable object. Secondly, to create and develop technology for capturing and transporting an asteroid. Third, the Orion spacecraft, whose first test flight is scheduled for later this year, must demonstrate its reliability. Currently, a search is underway for near-Earth asteroids suitable for such a mission.

One of the possible candidates for study is the six-meter asteroid 2011 MD

If these conditions are met, then such a manned mission could approximately take place after 2021. Time will tell how feasible all these ambitious plans will be.