History and ethnology. Data

Polo Marco

(c. 1254 - 1324)

Venetian traveler. Born on the island of Korcula (Dalmatian Islands, now in Croatia). In 1271-1275 he traveled to China, where he lived for about 17 years. In 1292-1295 he returned to Italy by sea. The “Book” written in his words (1298) is one of the first sources of European knowledge about the countries of Central, East and South Asia.

The book of the Venetian traveler to China Marco Polo is mainly compiled from personal observations, as well as from the stories of his father Niccolo, uncle Maffeo and people he met.

The older Polos crossed Asia not once, like Marco himself, but three times, twice from west to east and once in the opposite direction, during their first trip. Niccolò and Maffeo left Venice around 1254 and, after a six-year stay in Constantinople, left there for trading purposes in the Southern Crimea, then moved to the Volga in 1261. From middle Volga The Polo brothers moved southeast through the lands of the Golden Horde, crossed the Trans-Caspian steppes, and then crossed the Ustyurt plateau to Khorezm, to the city of Urgench. Their further route ran in the same south-eastern direction, up the Amu Darya valley to the lower reaches of Zarafshan and up along it to Bukhara. There they met with the ambassador of the conqueror of Iran, Ilkhan Hulagu, who was heading to the Great Khan Kublai, and the ambassador invited the Venetians to join his caravan. They walked with him "to the north and northeast" whole year.

They ascended along the Zarafshan valley to Samarkand, crossed into the Syr Darya valley and descended along it to the city of Otrar. From here their path lay along the foothills of the Western Tien Shan to the Ili River. Further east they walked either up the Ili valley, or through the Dzhungar Gate, past Lake Alakol (east of Balkhash). Then they moved along the foothills of the Eastern Tien Shan and reached the Hami oasis, important stage on the northern branch of the Great Silk Road from China to Central Asia. From Hami they turned south into the valley of the Sulekhe River. And further east, to the court of the Great Khan, they followed the same path that they took later with Marco. Their return route is not clear. They returned to Venice in 1269.

Marco Polo talks sparingly about his childhood, about the first steps of his life until the day he left Venice and went on a journey that brought him immortal fame.

Marco Polo's mother died early, and the boy's uncle - also Marco Polo - probably traded in Constantinople all these years, and the future traveler lived in Venice with his aunt Flora (on his father's side). He had several cousins. It is likely that until Marco’s father returned from Asia, the boy was raised by relatives.

Marco's life proceeded as it did for all boys at that time. Marco acquired knowledge on the canals and embankments, bridges and squares of the city. Very few people received formal education back then; however, contrary to the opinion of many publishers and commentators, it is quite possible that Marco could read and write his native language. In the introductory chapter to his book, Polo reports that "he only wrote a few notes in his notebook", because he did not know whether he would ever return from China to his homeland. In another chapter of the book, Polo states that during his journey to the Great Khan, he tried to be as attentive as possible, noting and writing down everything new and unusual that he heard or saw." Therefore, we can conclude that the boy who, as is known, Subsequently, while in Asia, he learned four languages, could read and write at least a little in Italian.It is possible that he had some knowledge of French.

The arrival of Niccolò and Maffeo in Venice was a turning point in Marco's entire life. He listened greedily to his father and uncle's stories about mysterious countries, which they visited, about the many nations among which they lived, about their appearance and clothing, their morals and customs - how they are similar and how they are not similar to the Venetian ones. Marco even began to learn some words and expressions in Tatar, Turkic and other strange languages ​​- his father and uncle often explained themselves in them, and they often peppered their Venetian speech with foreign words. Marco learned what goods different tribes buy and sell, what kind of money they use, where which people are found along the great caravan routes, what they eat and drink where, what rituals they perform with newborns, how they get married, how they bury, what they believe in and what worship. Unconsciously, he accumulated practical knowledge, which in the future would serve him invaluable service.

Niccolo and his brother, after a fifteen-year journey, did not easily put up with a relatively monotonous existence in Venice. Fate persistently called them, and they obeyed its call.

In 1271, Nicollo, Maffeo and seventeen-year-old Marco set off on a journey.

Before this, they met with Pope Gregory X, who had just ascended the throne, who gave them two monks from the Order of Preachers as companions - Brother Piccolo of Vicenza and Brother William of Tripoli.

Three Venetians and two monks reached Layas and began to move east. But as soon as they reached Armenia, they learned that Baybars the Crossbowman, a former slave who had taken the throne of the Mamelukes, had invaded these places with his Saracen army, killing and destroying everything that came to hand. The travelers faced a very real danger, but they decided to move on. However, the frightened monks chose to return to Acre. They gave the Polo brothers papal letters and gifts intended for the Great Khan.

The desertion of the cowardly monks did not at all discourage the Venetians. They knew the road from their previous travels, they knew how to speak local languages, they carried letters and gifts from the highest spiritual shepherd of the West to the greatest monarch of the East, and - most importantly - they had a golden tablet with the personal seal of Kublai, which was a safe conduct and guarantee that they would be provided with food, shelter and hospitality throughout almost the entire territory through which they had to pass.

The first country they passed through was “Little Armenia” (Cilicia) with the port of Layas. There was a lively, widespread trade in cotton and spices here.

From Cilicia, travelers came to modern Anatolia, which Marco calls "Turkomania". He tells us that the Turkomans make the finest and most beautiful carpets in the world.

Having passed through Turkomania, the Venetians entered the borders of Greater Armenia. Here, Marco tells us, on the top of Mount Ararat, is Noah's Ark. The Armenian sovereign Hayton, who wrote the history of his homeland in 1307, when he was abbot of the monastery, says that " this mountain is higher than all the mountains in the world". Both Marco and Highton tell the same story - this mountain is inaccessible because of the snow that covers it in winter and summer, but something black appears in the snow (the ark), and this is visible at any time of the year.

The next city the Venetian traveler talks about was Mosul - “all silk and gold fabrics, which are called mosulins, are made here.” Mosul is located on the western bank of the Tigris, opposite ancient Nineveh, it was so famous for its wonderful woolen fabrics that a certain type of fine wool is still wool fabric we call it "muslin".

The travelers then stopped in Tabriz, the largest mall, where people came from all over the world, there was a thriving merchant colony of the Genoese.

In Tabriz, Marco first saw the world's greatest pearl market - pearls were brought here in large quantities from the shores of the Persian Gulf. In Tabriz it was cleaned, sorted, drilled and strung on threads, and from here it was distributed all over the world. Marco watched with curiosity as pearls were bought and sold. After the pearls were examined and assessed by experts, the seller and buyer squatted down opposite each other and carried on a silent conversation, shaking hands, covered with lowered sleeves, so that none of the witnesses knew on what terms they had bargained.

Leaving Tabriz, the travelers crossed Iran in a southeast direction and visited the city of Kerman.

After seven days of travel from Kerman, the travelers reached the top of a high mountain. It took two days to cross the mountain, and the travelers suffered from severe cold. Then they came out into a vast flowering valley: here Marco saw and described bulls with white humps and sheep with fat tails - “Their tails are thick and large; some weigh about thirty pounds.”

Now the Venetians entered into dangerous places, since in this part of Persia there were many robbers called Karaunas. Marco writes that they descended from Indian women, and their fathers were Tatars. Acquaintance with the Karaunas almost cost Polo his life and almost deprived the world of one of the most interesting books. Nogodar, the leader of the robbers, attacked the caravan with his gang, taking advantage of the fog that was frequent in this area (Marco attributes the fog to the witchcraft of the Karaunas). The robbers took the travelers by surprise, and they rushed in all directions. Marco, his father and uncle and some of their guides, seven people in all, escaped to a nearby village. All the rest were captured and killed by the robbers or sold into slavery.

Having re-formed the caravan, the undaunted Venetians moved towards their goal - to the Persian Gulf, to Hormuz. Here they were going to board a ship and sail to China - Hormuz was then the final point of maritime trade between Far East and Persia. The transition lasted seven days. At first, the road went along a steep descent from the Iranian plateau - a mountain path where many robbers ran amok. Then, closer to Hormuz, a beautiful, well-watered valley opened up - here they grew date palms, pomegranates, oranges and others fruit trees, countless flocks of birds were flying.

At the time of Polo, Hormuz was on the mainland. Later, as a result of raids by hostile tribes, it was destroyed, and "The inhabitants moved their city to an island five miles from the mainland."

Obviously, the Venetians came to the conclusion that a long voyage on the local unreliable ships, especially with horses, usually loaded on top of goods covered with leather, was too risky - they turned to the northeast, inland, towards the Pamirs.

For more than a week they rode through deserted places where the water is green like grass and very bitter, they reached Cobian, and then made a multi-day journey through the desert and arrived in Tonokain. Marco liked the people of these countries very much. Here he makes his conclusions about women - the first of many. The Tonokain women made a very strong impression on him, for when twenty-five years later, having already visited many countries, seen many women and, no doubt, experienced many hobbies, he wrote his book, he could still say that Muslim girls in Tonokaine are the most beautiful in the world.

For many days the Venetians traveled through hot deserts and fertile plains and ended up in the city of Sapurgan (Shibargan), where, to Marco’s pleasure, game was abundant and hunting was excellent. From Sapurgan the caravan headed towards Balkh, in northern Afghanistan. Balkh is one of the oldest cities in Asia, once the capital of Bactriana. Although the city surrendered to the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan without resistance, the conqueror sold all the youth into slavery and killed the rest of the city's population with incredible cruelty. Balkh was swept off the face of the earth. The Venetians saw sad ruins before them, although some of the inhabitants of the city who had survived the Tatar sword were already returning to their old place.

It was in this city, as legend says, that Alexander the Great married Roxana, the daughter of the Persian king Darius.

Leaving Balkh, the travelers spent many days moving through lands abounding in game, fruits, nuts, grapes, salt, and wheat. Having left these beautiful places, the Venetians again found themselves in the desert for several days and finally arrived in Badakhshan (Balashan), a Muslim region along the Oka River (Amu Darya). There they saw large mines of rubies, called "balashs", deposits of sapphires, lapis lazuli - Badakhshan was famous for all this for centuries.

The caravan stayed here for a whole year, either due to Marco’s illness, or because the Polo brothers decided to live in the wonderful climate of Badakhshan to ensure the young man’s complete recovery.

From Badakhshan, travelers, rising higher and higher, went towards the Pamirs - upstream of the Oka River; They also passed through the Kashmir Valley. Marco, who was undoubtedly deeply impressed by these places, claims that the local residents practice witchcraft and black magic. According to Marco, they can make idols speak, change the weather at will, turn darkness into sunlight and vice versa. Despite the popular perception of the people of Kashmir as swindlers and deceivers, Marco found that the women there "even though they are black, they are good". Indeed, Kashmiri women have been famous for their beauty throughout India for centuries; people everywhere sought to take them as wives and concubines.

From Kashmir, the caravan went northeast and climbed to the Pamirs: Marco’s guides assured that this was the highest place in the world. Marco notes that during his stay there the air was so cold that not a single bird was visible anywhere. The stories of many ancient Chinese pilgrims who crossed the Pamirs confirm Marco’s message, and the latest researchers say the same. The Venetian had a keen eye, and the ascent to the roof of the world was so engraved in his memory that when, almost thirty years later, he dictated his book in distant Genoa, he recalled how dimly the fire laid by the travelers burned at this height, how it glowed with others , unusual color, how much more difficult than usual it was to cook food there.

Descending from the Pamirs along the gorge of the Gyoz River (Gyozdarya is a southern tributary of the Kashgar River), the Polos entered the wide plains of Eastern Turkestan, now called Xinjiang. Here deserts alternated between rich oases, watered by many rivers flowing from the south and west.

Polo, first of all, visited Kashgar - the local climate seemed moderate to Marco, nature, in his opinion, gave here "everything you need for life". From Kashgar the caravan's route continued to the northeast. Although Niccolo and Maffeo probably lived in Samarkand during their first journey, we have no evidence that Marco visited here.

During his journey, Polo described ancient city Khotan, where emeralds have been mined for centuries. But much more important here was the trade in jade, which from century to century went from here to the Chinese market. Travelers could observe how workers dug up pieces of precious stone in the beds of dried up rivers - this is how it is done there to this day. From Khotan, jade was transported through the deserts to Beijing and Shazhou, where it was used for polished products of a sacred and non-sacred nature. The Chinese's thirst for jade is insatiable; there is nothing more valuable to them than jade; they consider it the quintessence, the material embodiment of the power of yang - the bright masculine principle of the universe.

Having left Khotan, Polo, stopping to rest at rare oases and wells, drove through a monotonous desert covered with dunes.

The caravan moved through vast desert spaces, occasionally bumping into oases - Tatar tribes and Muslims lived here. The transition from one oasis to another took several days; it was necessary to take with you more water and food. In Lon (modern Charklyk), travelers stood for a whole week to gain strength to overcome the Gobi Desert (“gobi” in Mongolian means “desert”). A large supply of food was loaded onto camels and donkeys.

On the thirtieth day of the journey, the caravan arrived in Shazhou (“Sand District”), located on the border of the desert. It was here that Marco first observed purely Chinese morals and customs. He was especially struck by the funeral rites in Shazhou - he describes in detail how coffins were made, how the deceased was kept in the house in the coffin, how offerings were made to the spirit of the deceased, how paper images were burned, and so on.

From Ganzhou our travelers headed to the city that is now called Lanzhou. On the way, Marco saw yaks: the size of these animals and their role in the economy made a vivid impression on him. The valuable small musk deer (musk deer) - this animal is found in large numbers there to this day - interested Marco Polo so much that, returning to his homeland, he took it with him thousands of miles to Venice "the dried head and feet of this beast."

And now the long journey through the plains, mountains and deserts of Asia is coming to an end. It took three and a half years: during this time, Marco saw and experienced a lot, and learned a lot. But this endless journey, one must think, got tired of both Marco and his senior companions. One can imagine their joy when they saw on the horizon the cavalry detachment sent by the Great Khan to accompany the Venetians to the Khan's court. The squad leader told Polo that they needed to do more "forty day's march"- he meant the path to Shandu, the summer residence of the khan, - and that the convoy was sent so that the travelers would arrive in complete safety and come straight to Kublai. "Isn't it- said the head of the detachment, - "Are not the noble Messers Piccolo and Maffeo the plenipotentiary ambassadors of the Khan to the Apostle and should not be received according to their rank and position?"

The rest of the journey flew by unnoticed: at every stop there was a man waiting for them. best welcome, they had everything they needed at their service. On the fortieth day, Shandu appeared on the horizon, and soon the exhausted caravan of Venetians entered its high gates.

Surprisingly, Marco described the reception given to the travelers by Kublai Khan very simply and restrainedly. Usually, he does not hesitate to describe at length the pomp and splendor of the khan’s receptions and feasts, processions and celebrations. Venetians upon arrival in Xandu "we went to the main palace, where the great khan was, and with him a large gathering of barons". The Venetians knelt before the khan and bowed to the ground. Kublai mercifully ordered them to stand up and "received them with honor, with fun and feasts."

After the official reception, the Great Khan talked for a long time with the Polo brothers; he wanted to find out about all their adventures, starting from the day they left the Khan’s court many years ago. Then the Venetians presented him with gifts and letters entrusted to them by Pope Gregory (and two timid monks who turned back), and also handed over a vessel with holy oil, taken at the request of the khan from the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and carefully preserved through all the vicissitudes and dangers of the long journey with shores Mediterranean Sea. Marco was included in the list of courtiers.

The young Venetian very soon attracted the attention of Kublai Kublai - this happened thanks to Marco’s intelligence and ingenuity. He noticed how greedily Khubilai accepted all kinds of information about the lands under his control, about their population, customs, and wealth; the Venetian also saw that the khan did not tolerate it when the ambassador, having completed all the assigned tasks, returned without any additional information and observations obtained beyond the instructions. Cunningly deciding to take advantage of this, Marco began to collect information, making notes about every place he went to, and always sharing his observations with the khan.

According to Marco himself, the Great Khan decided to test him as an ambassador and sent him to the remote city of Karajan (in Yunnan province) - this city was so far from Khanbalik that Marco "barely turned around in six months". The young man coped with the task brilliantly and brought his master many very interesting information. Marco's stories fascinated the Great Khan: “In the eyes of the sovereign, this noble young man possessed a divine mind rather than a human one, and the sovereign’s love increased,<...>until the sovereign and the whole court spoke of nothing with such surprise as the wisdom of the noble young man.”

The Venetian remained in the service of the Great Khan for seventeen years. Marco never reveals to the reader exactly what kind of cases he was sent on as a confidant of Kublai Khan during for long years. It is impossible to accurately trace his travels in China.

Marco reports about the peoples and tribes of China and its neighboring countries, about the amazing views of the Tibetans on morality; he described indigenous people Yunnan and other provinces.

A very interesting chapter of Marco’s book, in which he talks about ancient custom the use of cowrie shells as money, about crocodiles (Marco considered them snakes with two legs) and methods of catching them. He also talks about the custom of the Yunnanese: if a handsome or noble stranger or any person stayed in their house "with good fame, influence and weight", at night he was poisoned or killed in some other way. "They didn't kill him to rob him of his money, or out of hatred for him.", but so that his soul would remain in the house where he was killed and bring happiness. The more beautiful and noble the murdered person, the Yunnanese believed, the happier the house in which his soul remained.

As a reward for his loyalty and in recognition of his administrative abilities and knowledge of the country, Khubilai appointed Marco ruler of the city of Yangzhou, in the province of Jiangsu, on the Grand Canal, near its junction with the Yangtze.

Considering the commercial importance of Yangzhou and the fact that Marco lived there long term, one cannot help but be surprised that the traveler devoted one short chapter to him. Stating that "Mr. Marco Polo, the same one mentioned in this book, ruled this city for three years"(from approximately 1284 to 1287), the author sparingly notes that "The people here are commercial and industrial" that they make a lot of weapons and armor here.

The Venetians enjoyed the patronage and great favors of Kublai, and in his service they acquired wealth and power. But the khan's favor aroused envy and hatred towards them. The Venetians became more and more enemies at the court of Kublai Kublai. They feared the day when the khan would die. It cost their powerful patron "to ascend upward" on the dragon, as they would find themselves unarmed in the face of their enemies, and their wealth would almost inevitably doom them to death.

And they got ready to go. However, the khan at first did not want to let the Venetians go.

Kublai called Marco to him along with his father and uncle, told them about his great love to them and asked them to promise, after visiting a Christian country and at home, to return to him. He ordered to give them a golden tablet with commands so that throughout his land there would be no delays and food would be given everywhere, he ordered them to be provided with guides for safety, and also authorized them to be his ambassadors to the pope, the French and Spanish kings and other Christian rulers .

The Great Khan ordered fourteen ships to be equipped for the voyage. The ships were probably stationed in Zaitong (Quanzhou), they had four masts and so many sails that Marco was amazed, as were all the medieval travelers who found themselves in the Far East.

After spending many years in the service of Kublai Kublai, the Venetians returned to their homeland by sea - around South Asia and through Iran. They accompanied, on behalf of the Great Khan, two princesses - a Chinese and a Mongolian, who were married to the Ilkhan (the Mongol ruler of Iran) and his heir, to the capital of the Ilkhans, Tabriz. In 1292, the Chinese flotilla moved from Zeitun to the southwest, through the Chip (South China) Sea. During this passage, Marco heard about Indonesia - about "7448 islands" scattered in the Chin Sea, but he only visited Sumatra, where the travelers lived for five months. From Sumatra the flotilla moved to the island of Sri Lanka past the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Marco incorrectly classifies Sri Lanka (as well as Java) among "the biggest in the world" islands, but truthfully describes the life of Sri Lankans, deposits precious stones and the famous pearl fishing in Palk Strait. From Sri Lanka, ships passed along Western India and Southern Iran, through the Strait of Hormuz into the Persian Gulf.

Marco also talks about African countries adjacent to Indian Ocean which he apparently did not visit: o great country Abasia (Abyssinia, i.e. Ethiopia), about the islands “Zangibar” and “Madeigascar” located near the equator and in the southern hemisphere. But he confuses Zanzibar with Madagascar, and both islands with the coastal region of East Africa, and therefore gives a lot of incorrect information about them. Yet Marco was the first European to report on Madagascar. After a three-year voyage, the Venetians brought the princesses to Iran (around 1294), and in 1295 they arrived home. According to some sources, Marco took part in the war with Genoa and around 1297 during sea ​​battle was captured by the Genoese. In prison in 1298, he dictated the Book, and in 1299 he was released and returned to his homeland. Almost all the information given by biographers about his subsequent life in Venice is based on later sources, some of which even refer to XVI century. Very few documents from the 14th century about Marco himself and his family have survived to our time. It has been proven, however, that he lived out his life as a wealthy, but far from wealthy, Venetian citizen. He died in 1324.

The vast majority of biographers and commentators believe that Marco Polo actually made the journeys that he talks about in his Book. However, many mysteries still remain.

How could he, during his travels, “not notice” the most grandiose defensive structure in the world - the Great Chinese wall? Why did Polo, who lived for so many years in the northern capital of China and visited many Chinese cities, and therefore saw many Chinese women, not say a word about the custom that was already widespread among Chinese women to disfigure their feet? Why doesn't Polo mention anywhere such an important and characteristic Chinese consumer product as tea? But precisely in connection with such gaps in the “Book” and with the fact that Marco, undoubtedly, did not know either Chinese language, nor Chinese geographical nomenclature (with few exceptions), some of the more skeptical historians in the first half of the 19th century suggested that Marco Polo had never been to China.

In the XIV-XV centuries, the “Book” of Marco Polo served as one of the guides for cartographers. The “Book” of Marco Polo played a very important role in the history of great discoveries. Not only did the organizers and leaders of the Portuguese and first Spanish expeditions of the 15th-16th centuries use maps compiled under the strong influence of Polo, but his work itself was a reference book for outstanding cosmographers and seafarers, including Columbus. "The Book" of Marco Polo is one of the rare medieval works - literary works And scientific works, which are being read and re-read at the present time. It has entered the golden fund of world literature, translated into many languages, published and republished in many countries around the world.

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(1254 – 1324)

Hereditary Venetian merchant was among the first travelers to travel along the Great Silk Road.

His father Nicolo, who conducted extensive trade with the countries of the Middle East and Central Asia, and his uncle Maffeo in the middle of the 13th century had already traveled to the court of the Mongol Khan Kublai Khan, which in those days when normal people tried not to leave the fortress walls of their hometown unnecessarily, was Great Adventure. Unfortunately, the merchants, busy with trade and lacking literary abilities, did not keep records of the trip, and the only evidence of their stay at the court of the khan was a letter from Kublai Kublai to the Pope, which they brought with them.

By luck, when they went on their second trip, they took Nicolo’s son, Marco, with them. By that time, the young man born according to different versions either in the Venetian Republic or on the island of Korcula (Dalmatian Islands, now in Croatia), he turned seventeen years old, and he was eager to see the world.

The expedition set off in 1271. From Venice, travelers proceeded to Laiazzo (now Ceyhan) in Turkey, and from there overland to the Christian kingdom of Armenia, located at the source of the Euphrates (not to be confused with Greater Armenia in the Caucasus!). Then, going down to the mouth of the Euphrates, they boarded a ship and headed to the Persian port of Hormuz, which, like all of Persia, was under the rule of the Mongols.

From Hormuz, brave travelers on oxen and horses set off into the depths of Asia through Khorasan, located between present-day Iran and Afghanistan. At an altitude of 3000 meters, the travelers crossed the Pamirs and reached the city of Kashgar in Turkestan (now Western China).

The next part of the journey was extremely difficult: we had to cross the Taklamakan desert, the Nyanshan years and pass the edge of the Gobi desert. From there, along the Yellow River, the expedition reached Beijing.

The smart and dexterous Marco Polo immediately introduced himself to the khan and, having met with a favorable attitude on his part, offered his services to the ruler. Khubilai, given the need to maintain relations with Europe, accepted the offer young man, and the cunning Venetian became a Mongol official. This allowed him to make many trips around China and get to know the country closely. Marco Polo spent seventeen years at the court of the khan, and for three years, according to him, he served as governor of Yangzhou.

Leaving Beijing, Marco Polo and his comrades received rich gifts and a letter to the Pope from the khan. This document eloquently demonstrates the author's lack of sense of political realism. Khubilai invited the Pope to submit and recognize him as the ruler of the world!

Marco Polo left for Europe from the port of Zaisun (now Xiamen or Amoy in Hujian Province). Travelers by ship went around the Malacca Peninsula, visiting the island of Sumatra along the way, along the Bay of Bengal around the Hindustan Peninsula from the south and, walking along the coast of India, they reached the port of Hormuz. From here, through Hamadan and Tabriz, they made the last land crossing to Trebizond (Trabzon) on the Black Sea coast, from where, without any hindrance, they returned to Venice through Constantinople.

The Marco Polo family, in addition to fame, brought large capital from this trip. In his homeland, the great compatriot was nicknamed “Il millione,” although, of course, this amount is somewhat exaggerated.

In 1298, Marco Polo undertook a short voyage on his own ship. At that time, there was a war between Genoa and Venice, and Marco Polo was captured by the Genoese, however, given the fame that the famous traveler enjoyed, they treated him very gently.

While in captivity, Marco Polo dictated a story about his travels to a resident of the city of Pisa - a certain Rusticano, who published these notes on French under the title "Description of the World".

After his release from captivity, Marco Polo returned to Venice and never left for long. hometown. In 1324 Marco died and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo, now destroyed.

It is believed that Marco Polo was the first European to travel the South East Asia and gave a description of the places he saw, although it is known that the ancient Romans were engaged in trade with China. But, be that as it may, his messages are a very valuable source of knowledge about medieval Asia, although Polo, along with accurate and reliable data, cited - however, without malicious intent - various guesses and even legends. However, in describing his own observations, Marco Polo tried to be accurate.

Based on materials from the book “Great Travelers” by Ian Miller

  • Marco Polo was born around 1254, in Venice or on the island of Korcula (the territory of modern Croatia).
  • Supporters of the version of the Croatian origin of the family consider Marco Polo's father, Nicolo, and uncle Maffeo to come from Eastern Slavs. Nicolo and Maffeo were merchants who traded with the countries of the East for many years and visited the Volga and Bukhara. In 1269 they returned to Venice from another journey, from the possessions of Kublai Khan (Khubilai Khan).
  • 1271 - Father and uncle take seventeen-year-old Marco Polo on his next journey. Pope Gregory X sent Polo to Asia. The final destination of their route was China - the city of Kambala (Beijing), the starting point was Venice. Descriptions of the path vary. Some researchers claim that the Polo moved through Akka, Erzerum, Hormuz and Pamir to Kashgar and from there to Beijing. Others believe that the main points of the route were Akka, the southern coast of Asia, the Armenian Highlands, Basra, Kerman, the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush, the Pamirs, the Taklamakan desert, the city of Zhangye (this is already China, and the travelers spent about a year here), Karakorum.
  • 1275 - one way or another, merchants arrived in Beijing. For many years they traded in China, and Marco Polo was in the service of the Great Khan Kublai and enjoyed the great favor of the ruler.
  • While occupying his position, Marco Polo traveled almost all of China. He was later appointed ruler of Jiangnan Province. In total, Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo Polo stayed in China for about seventeen years.
  • 1292 - The Polos leave China. Now they are heading to Persia, as they are entrusted with escorting a Mongol princess married to a Persian ruler.
  • 1294 - In Persia, the Polos receive news of the death of the Great Khan Kublai, after which they leave for their homeland.
  • 1295 - The Polos return to Venice.
  • 1297 - Marco Polo takes part in a naval battle between Venice and Genoa. He is captured.
  • September 1298 - July 1299 - Marco Polo is captured. In prison, he dictates to another prisoner, the Pisan Rustician, “The Book” - his memories of a distant journey.
  • This work at that time was hardly the only source of Western knowledge about Central, South and East Asia. Marco Polo was not a geographer, so the distances in his description turned out to be much overestimated, as a result of which cartographers made not entirely accurate maps. But the descriptions of the life of the eastern peoples, skillfully presented observations turned out to be priceless. Thanks to Polo, Europe learned not only about paper money and cities with a million people (however, not everyone believed in this), but also about the islands of Java and Sumatra, the country of Chipingu (Japan), Ceylon and Madagascar, and Indonesia. It was from Marco Polo that Europe learned about spices, which were later valued as much as gold.
  • Little is known about Marco Polo's family - he was married and had three daughters, as well as several immediate relatives. Not everything was smooth in the Polo family, sometimes leading to litigation.
  • January 8, 1324 - Marco Polo dies in Venice. According to researchers, during the last period of his life he was a very rich man. It is also known that before his death, Polo freed one of his slaves and left him a large sum.

Marco Polo- Italian merchant and traveler who presented the story of his travels through Asia in the famous “Book of the Diversity of the World.” Despite doubts about the reliability of the facts presented in this book, expressed from the moment of its appearance to the present time, it serves as a valuable source on geography, ethnography, history of Iran, China, Mongolia, India, Indonesia and other countries in the Middle Ages. This book had a significant influence on sailors, cartographers, and writers of the 14th-16th centuries. In particular, she was on the ship of Christopher Columbus during his search for a route to India.

Origin

Marco Polo was born into the family of a Venetian merchant, Nicolo Polo, whose family was involved in the jewelry and spice trade. Since there is no surviving birth certificate for Marco Polo, the traditional version of his birth in Venice was challenged in the 19th century by Croatian researchers who claim that the first evidence of the Polo family in Venice dates back to the second half of the 13th century, where they are referred to as Poli di Dalmazia , while until 1430 the Polo family owned a house in Korcula, now in Croatia.

The Journey of Marco Polo

Road to China

A new journey to China passed through Mesopotamia, Pamir and Kashgaria.

Travels 1271-1295

Life in China

The first Chinese city to which the Polo family reached in 1275 was Shazha (modern Dunhuang). That same year they reached Kublai Kublai's summer residence in Shangdu (in modern Gansu province of China). According to Polo, the khan admired him, gave him various instructions, did not allow him to return to Venice, and even kept him governor of the city of Yangzhou for three years (Chapter CXLIV, Book 2). In addition, the Polo family (according to the book) participated in the development of the khan's army and taught him to use catapults in the siege of fortresses.

Descriptions of Polo's life in China rarely follow chronological order, making it difficult to determine the exact route of his travels. But its description is quite accurate geographically; it gives orientation by cardinal directions and distances in terms of days of the route: “To the south of Panshin, one day’s journey away, is the large and noble city of Kaiu”. In addition, Polo describes the daily life of the Chinese, mentioning the use of paper money, typical crafts and culinary traditions of various areas. He stayed in China for fifteen years.

Return to Venice

Despite numerous requests from the Polo family, Khan did not want to let them go, but in 1291 he married one of the Mongol princesses to the Persian Ilkhan Arghun. To organize her safe journey, he equipped a detachment of fourteen ships, allowed the Polo family to join as official representatives of the khan, and sent a flotilla to Hormuz. During the voyage, the Polos visited Sumatra and Ceylon and returned to Venice in 1295 through Iran and the Black Sea.

Life after returning

Very little is known about his life after returning from China. According to some reports, he took part in the war with Genoa. Around 1298, Polo was captured by the Genoese and remained there until May 1299. His travel stories were recorded by another prisoner, Rustichello (Rusticiano), who also wrote chivalric romances. According to some sources, the text was dictated in the Venetian dialect, according to others, it was written in Old French with inserts in Italian. Due to the fact that the original manuscript has not survived, it is not possible to establish the truth.

After his release from Genoese captivity, he returned to Venice, got married and from this marriage he had three daughters (two were married to merchants from Dalmatia, which, according to some researchers, confirms the hypothesis of his Croatian origin, but the wife herself was from the famous Venetian family, which rather speaks of the well-established connections of the Polo family in Venice). He also had a house on the corner of Rio di San Giovanni Crisostomo and Rio di San Lio. There are documents showing that he was involved in two minor trials.

In 1324, already an ill man, Polo wrote his will, which mentioned the golden paiza received from Tatar Khan(he received it from his uncle Maffeo, who in turn bequeathed it to Marco in 1310). Also in 1324, Marco died and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo. In 1596, his house (where, according to legend, the things he brought from the Chinese campaign were kept) burned down. The church in which he was buried was demolished in the 19th century.

Researchers about the book

Cover of the English edition Books by Marco Polo, 1874

The book of Marco Polo is one of the most popular objects of historical research. The bibliography, compiled in 1986, contains more than 2,300 scientific works in European languages ​​alone.

From the moment he returned to the city, stories from the trip were viewed with disbelief. Peter Jackson mentions as one of the reasons for mistrust reluctance to accept his description of a well-ordered and hospitable Mongol Empire, which contradicted the traditional Western view of barbarians. In turn, in 1995, Frances Wood, curator of the Chinese collection of the British Museum, published a popular book in which she questioned the very fact of Polo's travel to China, suggesting that the Venetian did not travel beyond Asia Minor and the Black Sea, but simply used the ones known to him. descriptions of the travels of Persian merchants. For example, in his book, Marco Polo writes that he helped the Mongols during the siege of the Song base in Sanyang, but the siege of this base ended in 1273, that is, two years before his arrival in China. There are other shortcomings in his book that raise questions among researchers.

Previous contacts with China

One of the myths surrounding this book is the idea of ​​Polo as the first contact between Europe and China. Even without the assumption of contact between the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty, the Mongol conquests of the 13th century eased the route between Europe and Asia (since it now passed through the territory of almost one state).

In Khubilai's archives from 1261 there is a reference to European merchants from Lands of the Midnight Sun, probably Scandinavian or Novgorod. On their first journey, Nicolo and Maffeo Polo followed the same route as Guillaume de Rubruck, indeed sent by Pope Innocent IV, who reached the then Mongol capital of Karakorum and returned in 1255. The description of his route was known in medieval Europe and could have been known to the Polo brothers on their first journey.

During Polo's stay in China, Rabban Sauma, a native of Beijing, came to Europe, and missionary Giovanni Montecorvino, on the contrary, went to China. Published in 1997 by David Selbourne, the text of the Italian Jew Jacob of Ancona, who allegedly visited China in 1270-1271, shortly before Polo, is, according to most Hebraists and Sinologists, a hoax.

Unlike previous travelers, Marco Polo created a book that gained great popularity and throughout the Middle Ages competed in public success with the fantastic journey of John Mandeville (the prototype of which was Odorico Pordenone).

Book versions

Little is known about Marco Polo's literacy rate. Most likely he could keep commercial records, but it is unknown whether he could write text. The text of the book was dictated by him to Rustichello, probably in his native language, Venetian, or in Latin, but Rustichello could also write it in French, in which he wrote novels. The process of writing a book could significantly affect the reliability and completeness of its content: Marco excluded from his description those memories that were not of interest to him as a merchant (or were obvious to him), and Rustichello could omit or interpret at his own discretion memories that were not of interest to him. interest or already incomprehensible to him. It can also be assumed that Rustichello was related to only some of the four books, and Polo could have other “co-authors”.

Soon after its appearance, the book was translated into Venetian, Latin (different translations from the Venetian and French versions), and back into French from the Latin version. During the process of translation and rewriting, the books were changed, text fragments were added or deleted. The oldest surviving manuscript (Manuscript F) is significantly shorter than the others, but textual evidence suggests that the other surviving manuscripts are based on more complete original texts.

Fragments that raise doubts

Significant omissions

Francis Wood notes that neither hieroglyphs, nor printing, nor tea, nor porcelain, nor the practice of binding women's feet, nor the Great Wall of China are mentioned in Polo's book. The arguments put forward by proponents of travel authenticity are based on the specific process of the book's creation and Polo's purpose in conveying his memories.

Polo knew Persian (the language of international communication at that time), while living in China, he learned Mongolian (the language of the Chinese administration during this period), but did not need to learn Chinese. As a member of the Mongol administration, he lived at a distance from Chinese society (which, according to him, had a negative view of European barbarians), had little interaction with his daily life, and was unable to observe many of the traditions evident only in the household.

To a man who had not received a formal education and was a stranger to literature, local books represented “Chinese literacy,” but Polo describes in detail the production of paper money, which differs little from the printing of books.

Tea was by that time widely known in Persia, so it was of no interest to the author; similarly, it is not mentioned in Arabic and Persian descriptions of that time.

Porcelain was mentioned briefly in the book.

Regarding foot binding, one of the manuscripts (Z) mentions that Chinese women walk in very small steps, but this is not explained more fully.

The Great Wall as we know it today was built during the Ming Dynasty. In the time of Marco Polo, these were mostly earthworks, which did not form a continuous wall, but were limited to the most militarily vulnerable areas. For the Venetian, fortifications of this kind may not have been of significant interest.

Inaccurate descriptions

Descriptions of Marco Polo are full of inaccuracies. This applies to the names of individual cities and provinces, their relative locations, as well as descriptions of objects in these cities. A famous example is the description of the bridge near Beijing (now named after Marco Polo), which actually has half as many arches as described in the book.

In Marco Polo's defense, it can be said that his description was from memory, he was familiar with Persian and used Persian names, which were often also inconsistent in their rendering of Chinese names. Some inaccuracies were introduced when translating or rewriting the book, so some surviving manuscripts are more accurate than others. In addition, in many cases Polo did use second-hand information (especially when describing historical or fantastic events that happened before his journey). Many other contemporary descriptions also suffer from this kind of inaccuracy, which cannot be blamed on the fact that their authors were not in that place at that time.

Role at court

Kublai's honor to the young Polo and his appointment as governor of Yangzhou do not seem reliable, and the absence of Chinese or Mongolian official records of the presence of merchants in China for almost twenty years, according to Frances Wood, looks particularly suspicious. Most authors mention only a reference from 1271 in which Pagba Lama, a close adviser to Kublai Kublai, mentions a foreigner on friendly terms with the khan, but it does not indicate the name, nationality, or length of stay of this foreigner in China.

It is possible that Polo's role in China is greatly exaggerated in his book, but this error may be attributed to the author's boasting, the embellishment of the copyists, or problems of the translators, as a result of which the role of adviser may have been transformed into the post of governor.

In the book, Polo shows awareness of relationships at the khan's court, information about which would not have been available without proximity to the court. Thus, in Chapter LXXXV (On the treacherous plan to revolt the city of Kambala), he, emphasizing his personal presence at the events, describes in detail the various abuses of Minister Ahmad and the circumstances of his murder, naming the name of the killer (Wanzhu), which exactly corresponds to Chinese sources. This episode is significant because the Chinese dynastic chronicle Yuan-shi mentions the name of Po-Lo as a person who was part of the commission investigating the murder and stood out for sincerely telling the emperor about Ahmad's abuses. It was common practice to use Chinese nicknames for foreigners, making it difficult to find mention of Polo's name in other Chinese sources. Many Europeans who officially visited China during this period, such as de Rubruck, received no mention at all in Chinese chronicles.

Evaluation of the book by modern researchers

Most modern researchers reject Frances Wood's opinion about the complete fabrication of the entire trip, considering it an unsubstantiated attempt to make money on a sensation.

A more productive (and generally accepted) point of view is to look at this book as a source of merchant records about places to buy goods, routes for their movement and the circumstances of life in these countries.

MARCO POLO(Marco Polo) (1254–1324), Venetian traveler. Born into the family of the Venetian merchant Niccolo Polo. In 1260 Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, Marco's father and uncle, went to Beijing (Khanbalay, or Tatu), which Kublai Khan, grandson Genghis Khan, made it the capital of his possessions. Kublai made them promise to return to China and bring with him several Christian monks. In 1271 the brothers set off on a long journey to the east, taking Marco with them. The expedition reached Beijing in 1275 and was warmly received by Kublai Kublai. Marco was a diligent young man and had a talent for languages. While his father and uncle were engaged in trade, he studied the Mongolian language. Khubilai, who usually brought talented foreigners to his court, hired Marco into the civil service. Soon Marco became a member of the privy council, and the emperor gave him several assignments. One of them was to compile a report on the situation in Yunnan and Burma after the latter was conquered by the Mongols in 1287, the other was to purchase a Buddha tooth from Ceylon. Marco subsequently became prefect of Yangzhou.

During his 15 years of service, Marco studied China and collected a lot of information about India and Japan. In 1290 he asked to be allowed to go home, but Kublai refused. Marco managed to get out of China only in 1292, when he was appointed to accompany the Mongol princess Kokachin, who was going to Persia, where she was supposed to marry the local viceroy Arghun, Kublai's grandnephew. Having reached Persia, Marco received news of the death of Kublai. This freed him from the obligation to return to China, and he went to Venice.

The following year, after returning to Venice, Marco found himself aboard a Venetian merchant ship and was captured by the Genoese in the eastern Mediterranean. From 1296 to 1299 he was in prison in Genoa, where he dictated the Book of Marco Polo (or the Book of Wonders of the World) to a certain Rustichello from Pisa. The book contains descriptions not only of China and mainland Asia, but also of the vast world of islands - from Japan to Zanzibar.

In 1299 Marco was released. In the eyes of his fellow citizens, he remained an eccentric; no one believed his stories.

Marco Polo was born on September 15, 1254. There are two versions about the place where this happened. According to the first version, this is Venice. However, Croatian historians claim that his birthplace is the island of Korcula, now part of Croatian territory.

Biography of Marco Polo

Marco's father was Nicolo Polo, who was engaged in the merchant business. He traded in jewelry and also spices. Together with Uncle Maffeo, they traded with eastern countries.

Marco Polo set off on his first journey in 1271. This happened after his father and uncle returned from their travels in Central Asia. It is worth noting that during their journey, the Mongol Khan Kublai Khan asked to deliver a letter to Pope Clement IV, as well as to send oil from the tomb of Christ, which was located in Jerusalem. When they arrived in Italy, the Pope had already died, and they were in no hurry to choose a new one. However, they wanted to fulfill the Khan’s instructions and after 2 years they went to Jerusalem themselves. And so this long journey began.

Marco Polo spent about 17 years in the countries of the East. During this time, he got the opportunity to travel not only all over China, but also others no less interesting places. During his travels, he wrote down everything, which eventually resulted in the “Book of Miracles.” This book was the main source of information for Westerners about Asia. It described in detail the daily life of Eastern people.

It was thanks to this book that the West learned about paper money and hugely populated cities. The islands of Java and Sumatra, Madagascar and Ceylon, Indonesia and Chipingu were also mentioned there. Previously, nothing was known about them. As a result of writing this book, the traveler Marco Polo made a significant contribution to the development of relations between the West and the East.

The return to Venice after long wanderings occurred only in 1295. 2 years after his return, Marco was captured during a naval battle. It was during his captivity that his “Book of Miracles” was written.

As for the family life of the traveler Marco Polo, very little is known about it. He had a wife and 3 daughters. As historians note, family life things didn't always go well for him. Sometimes we even had to resort to legal proceedings. It is worth noting that in last years In his life he was a very wealthy man. Enough interesting fact His life is that before his death he gave freedom to his slave, and also provided him with money.

Death overtook the traveler in Venice in 1324. This is how the biography of Marco Polo ended. A lot of interesting events happened in his life.

Travel in Asia

In 1271, the journey of Marco Polo, his father and uncle from Venice to China began. The journey was quite long and took about 4 years.

There are two versions about how they got to China:

  • According to the first version, Marco Polo's route ran through Akka - Erzurum - Hormuz - Pamir - Kashgar, and only after that they reached Beijing.
  • Experts who adhere to the second version claim that Marco Polo’s route ran through Akka - the southern part of Asia - the Armenian Highlands - Basra - Kerman - the southern part of the Hindu Kush mountains - the Pamirs - the Taklamakan desert.

But, be that as it may, by 1275 they safely reached Beijing, where they spent a long period of time. His uncle and father were engaged in trade in China, while Marco served the Great Khan Kublai Khan. Khan treated him very well.

While in the service of Kublai Kublai, the traveler had the opportunity to travel throughout almost the entire territory of China. During these 17 years, he was even appointed to the post of ruler of Jiangnan Province.

During his stay in China, Marco, his father and uncle received very good location on the part of the khan, as a result of which he did not want to let them go. However, in 1292 this still happened. Kublai ordered them to escort the Mongol princess to Persia, where she was to be married.

They successfully delivered the princess to Persia, where in 1294 they received news that Kublai Khan had died. After this, the final stage of Marco Polo’s journey began. In 1295 he returned to his homeland - Venice.

It is worth noting that thanks to his travels and the book he wrote after his return, Marco Polo opened the way for Europeans to the still unexplored East Asia!