Cognitive intellectual processes. Cognitive processes and emotions

Cognitive psychology is one of the most popular scientific areas of foreign psychology. The term “cognitive” translated into Russian means cognitive. This direction of research was mainly formed in the 1960s, and the results of the first stage of its development were summed up in the monograph “Cognitive Psychology” by U. Neisser, published in 1967. It gave the name to the new direction of psychological thought. R. Solso, in a later published book with the same title, writes that cognitive psychology studies how people receive information about the world, how this information is represented by a person, how it is stored in memory and converted into knowledge, and how this knowledge affects our attention and behavior. Thus, almost all cognitive processes are covered - from sensations to perception, pattern recognition, memory, concept formation, thinking, imagination. The main areas of cognitive psychology, which have become widespread in many countries over several decades, also usually include research on the problems of the psychology of the development of cognitive structures, the psychology of language and speech, and the development of cognitive theories of human and artificial intelligence.

The emergence of cognitive psychology is sometimes called a kind of revolution in foreign (primarily American) psychological science. Indeed, since the 1920s. the study of image-representations, attention, thinking, and perception slowed down sharply, and in American psychology these processes were actually ignored altogether. D. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, citing methodological difficulties, even suggested not using these “mystical” terms. In behaviorism, which dominated American psychology in the first half of the 20th century, this view was determined by the very interpretation of the subject of psychology. Representatives of psychoanalysis were equally little interested in cognitive processes, where completely different concepts became central: need, motivation, instinct, etc. That is why the emergence of cognitive psychology was greeted by many psychologists with great enthusiasm, the number of studies grew rapidly, and to date its successes are undeniable and impressive.

So, cognitive psychology is based on the idea of ​​a person as a system engaged in searching for information about objects and events in the surrounding world, as well as processing and storing incoming information. At the same time, individual cognitive processes ensure the implementation of different stages of information processing. Many consider the creation of computers to be one of the main reasons that led to the emergence of this approach, which is why they often talk about the use of a “computer metaphor” by cognitive scientists. Even the term “information processing” itself was borrowed from computer scientists. This implies a hidden or explicit statement about the similarity between computer operations and cognitive processes characteristic of humans. The computer metaphor largely determines the postulates accepted by most cognitive psychologists.

It is assumed that information is processed in stages, and at each stage, stage of processing, it remains for a certain time and is presented in a different form. It is processed using various regulatory processes (pattern recognition, attention, repetition of information, etc.). It is also believed that it is important to establish what are the limits of a person’s ability to process information at each stage, in each block. The “block” representation of information processing models proposed by cognitive scientists is quite common. Visual images of blocks in the form of rectangles with inscriptions inside them are usually connected by arrows that show the direction of the “flow” of information. These kinds of flowcharts were initially very simple and even primitive, but now, under the influence of ever new experimental results, they often become so complex and cumbersome that they force the authors of the models to abandon the representation of the information processing process in the form of “linear chains” of rigidly connected blocks with each other. Refinement and improvement of the proposed models is a process that occurs in cognitive psychology almost continuously, since research results constantly appear that “do not fit” into previous models. This is probably the fate of all “hypothetical constructions.”

As a criticism of the cognitive approach to the study of cognitive processes, its following features should be noted. Cognitivists, speaking about cognition, usually abstract from emotions, intentions, needs, i.e. from what a person knows and acts for. In addition, in most models the process of information processing is carried out “automatically”. At the same time, the conscious activity of the subject, his conscious choice of techniques, means, strategies for processing information, as well as their dependence on the activity that cognitive processes usually “serve” (or which they themselves sometimes are) are completely ignored.

Two more important remarks can be found in W. Neisser’s book “Cognition and Reality.” He notes that cognition, as a rule, begins not with the receipt of some information by analyzers, but with its anticipation, forecasting, with an active search for certain information, while in most models proposed by cognitive scientists this is not taken into account at all. W. Neisser also discusses in detail the problem of “ecological validity” of research results. He points out that laboratory research situations in cognitive psychology are extremely artificial; they almost never occur in life, in everyday activities. It is necessary to take into account the experience and cognitive skills of people, and not be limited to experiments where inexperienced subjects are forced to perform new and meaningless tasks.

In conclusion, it should be noted that, despite a number of limitations and shortcomings of cognitive psychology, its representatives have obtained a lot of important data that makes the process of cognition as a whole more understandable, and many patterns of individual cognitive processes have been established. Very interesting, for example, are the results of research into the representation of knowledge in human memory, the mechanisms that ensure selectivity of perception, etc. In addition, the interconnection of various cognitive processes, which was ignored within the framework of the “functional” approach, is convincingly shown. Finally, cognitive psychology has developed a large number of witty, original methods for experimental research of cognitive processes.

In the most general and schematized form, the structure of a subject’s mental and personal activity includes four groups of mental processes:

1. cognitive (sensation, perception, representation, attention, imagination, memory, thinking)
2. strong-willed
3. emotional
4. motivational.

It is necessary to supplement the four traditionally identified classes of mental processes (cognitive, volitional, emotional, motivational) with two more classes that are very important for management activities - regulatory and communicative. This is all the more necessary because in modern psychology a division of mental processes into three main subsystems has developed and is becoming increasingly widespread:

1. cognitive
2. regulatory
3. communicative.

The cognitive subsystem includes processes that ensure knowledge of the external environment and orientation in it (cognitive processes); the second – processes aimed at building, organizing and regulating activity and behavior (volitional, emotional, motivational processes); the third is processes that ensure communication and interaction between people.

Taking into account the specifics of management activities, in each of these three subsystems, special attention should be paid to those main, generalizing manifestations that are most significant for its organization. They will accordingly be: the intelligence of the leader (as an integrative cognitive education); progress of decision making (as the leading process of organizing activities) and managerial reflection (as the leading mechanism of communication).

Special attention should be given specifically to the processes of making management decisions, since modern management theory unanimously recognizes their key, “critically important” nature for all management activities as a whole.

If we classify mental processes according to the degree of their integration, then we can distinguish three levels:

1. cognitive, emotional, volitional and motivational processes
2. regulatory processes
3. reflective processes

Reflexivity acts as a meta-ability that is part of the cognitive substructure of the psyche, performing a regulatory function for the entire system, and reflexive processes as “third-order processes” (considering cognitive, emotional, volitional, motivational processes of the first order, and synthetic and regulatory processes of the second order ). Reflection is the highest degree of integration process; it is at the same time a way and a mechanism for the mental system to go beyond its own limits, which determines the plasticity and adaptability of the individual.

In this approach, reflection is synthetic psychic reality, which is simultaneously a process, a property and a state. Reflection is at the same time a property unique to humans, a state of awareness of something, and a process of representing one’s own content to the psyche.

As a human-specific ability, reflection is a fundamentally inherent ability to perceive not only the external, but also inner world. This is the ability to self-reflect one’s psyche, which is the basis of the property and phenomenon of consciousness. In addition, this is a kind of process of “thinking about thinking,” when the subject, the object of thinking, becomes itself. As a state, reflection is characterized by a person’s immersion in his thoughts and feelings, his detachment from surrounding events and phenomena.

In general, all psychologists who study the phenomenon of reflection note its great importance for the development of both the individual and the social community, depending on the content of life tasks: reflection leads to a holistic view, knowledge about the content, methods and means of one’s activities, allows one to be critical to himself and his activities, makes a person the subject of his activity.

Cognitive processes

The first, initial step in revealing the psychological characteristics of the subject of activity is to consider the patterns of cognitive processes in it. Cognitive mental processes are aimed at receiving, processing and storing information, cognition of the external environment, and orientation in it, therefore their role in human life in general and in any professional activity is extremely important. These are processes sensations, perception, representation, imagination, attention, memory, thinking. The end-to-end mental process that ensures the functioning of the psyche as a whole and any other mental process is attention.

Highlight next steps in the structure of information reception: R – OC – NI – GM – OSH – CV – (EP) – OP – (M) – OS – VN. The stimulus (auditory, visual) (R) affects the sense organs (OS), resulting in the appearance of nerve impulses (NI), which enter the brain (BM) along the nerve pathways, where the information is processed and individual sensations (OS) are formed. , a holistic image of perception (PI) of an object is formed, which is compared with memory standards (ES), as a result of which the object is identified (OP), and then, with a mental comparison of the current information and previous experience through mental activity (M), comprehension (OS), understanding of information occurs. Attention (AT) should be directed to receiving and understanding information.

Feel- this is the simplest form of mental reflection, characteristic of both animals and humans, providing knowledge of the individual properties of objects and phenomena. On the one hand, sensations are objective, since they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other hand, they are subjective, since they depend on the state of the nervous system and the individual characteristics of the individual. An anatomical and physiological apparatus specialized for receiving the effects of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations is called an analyzer. Each analyzer consists of three parts:

1. a receptor, or sensory organ, that converts the energy of external influence into nerve signals;
2. nerve pathways through which nerve signals are transmitted to the brain;
3. brain center in the cerebral cortex.

There are types of sensations: visual, auditory, skin, olfactory, tactile, gustatory, temperature, pain, kinesthetic (sensations of body movement), interoceptive (sensations internal state organism).

The minimum magnitude of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the lower absolute threshold of sensation. Signals whose intensity is less than the lower threshold are not felt by humans. The maximum magnitude of the stimulus that the analyzer is capable of adequately perceiving is called the upper absolute threshold of sensations. The interval between the lower and upper thresholds is called the sensitivity range. The smallest difference between stimuli, when they are still perceived as different, is called the differential, or difference, threshold.

The time threshold is the minimum duration of exposure to a stimulus required for sensations to occur. The spatial threshold is determined by the minimum size of a barely perceptible stimulus. Visual acuity is the ability of the eye to distinguish small details of objects.

The time interval from the moment the signal is given to the moment the sensation occurs is called the latent period of the reaction. After the end of exposure to the stimulus, visual sensations do not disappear immediately, but gradually (the inertia of vision is 0.1 - 0.2 s). Therefore, the duration of the signal and the interval between appearing signals must be no less than the retention time of sensations, equal to 0.2 - 0.5 s. Otherwise, the speed and accuracy of the response will slow down, since when a new signal arrives, the image of the previous signal will still remain in the human visual system.

There are two main forms of changes in sensitivity: adaptation - a change in sensitivity to adapt to external conditions (sensitivity can increase or decrease, for example adaptation to bright light, strong odor); sensitization – increased sensitivity under the influence of internal factors and the state of the body.

By sensing, a person receives information about the individual properties of objects, then, in the process of perception, these individual properties are formed into a holistic image of the object. Thus, perception(perceptual processes) are a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. Any perception includes an active motor component (feeling objects with the hand, eye movements when examining, etc.) and complex analytical-synthetic activity of the brain to synthesize a holistic image.

Perception is subjective: people perceive the same information differently, depending on their interests, needs, abilities, etc. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, on the characteristics of his personality is called apperception.

There are different properties of perception: integrity, constancy, structure, meaningfulness, selectivity.

With sudden physical or emotional fatigue in the process of activity, perception disturbances are possible, which must be taken into account when predicting labor results, especially in those types of activities that are characterized by high responsibility and the inadmissibility of mistakes. Sometimes, for example, there is an increase in susceptibility to ordinary external stimuli. Daylight suddenly blinds, the color of surrounding objects becomes unusually bright, sounds are deafening; odors are perceived acutely, causing severe irritation; Hallucinations may occur. Illusions should be distinguished from hallucinations, i.e. erroneous perceptions of real things or phenomena. The obligatory presence of a genuine object, although perceived erroneously, is main feature illusions.

We receive primary information about the world around us through sensation and perception. The excitement that arises in our senses does not disappear without a trace at the very moment when the effect of stimuli on them ceases. After this, so-called sequential images appear and persist for some time. However, the role of these images for a person’s mental life is relatively small. Much more important is the fact that even after a long time after we perceived an object, the image of this object can be again - accidentally or intentionally - evoked by us. This phenomenon is called "performance".

Performance- this is the mental process of reflecting objects or phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of our previous experience.

The basis of representation is the perception of objects that took place in the past. Several types of representations can be distinguished. Firstly, this memory representations, i.e. ideas that arose on the basis of our direct perception in the past of any object or phenomenon. Secondly, this imagination. At first glance, this type of representation does not correspond to the definition of the concept of “representation”, because in the imagination we display something that we have never seen, but this is only at first glance. Imagination does not arise out of nowhere, and if we, for example, have never been to the tundra, this does not mean that we have no idea about it. We have seen the tundra in photographs, in films, and also read its description in a geography or natural history textbook, and based on this material we can imagine the image of the tundra. Consequently, imagination representations are formed on the basis of information received in past perceptions and its more or less creative processing. The richer the past experience, the brighter and more complete the corresponding idea can be.

Ideas do not arise on their own, but as a result of our practical activity. Moreover, ideas are of great importance not only for the processes of memory or imagination, but they are extremely important for all mental processes that ensure human cognitive activity. The processes of perception, thinking, and writing are always associated with ideas, as well as memory, which stores information and thanks to which ideas are formed.

Memory(mnemonic processes) - a form of mental reflection, consisting in consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness. Memory connects the subject’s past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development, learning and work activity.

Highlight the following types memory:

a) involuntary memory (information is remembered by itself without special memorization, in the course of performing an activity, working on information);
b) voluntary memory (information is remembered purposefully using special techniques). The effectiveness of voluntary memory depends on the goals of memorization and the methods of memorization.

There are also short-term, long-term and operational memory. These types of memory differ in the storage time of information: short-term memory ensures the storage of received information for a second or a minute, long-term memory - for a day, a month, a year or a lifetime. In the activities of a person who manages people, equipment, machines or devices, all basic types of memory are manifested to one degree or another. Short-term, operational and long-term memory are involved in any activity.

Short-term memory stores almost all the information received at some point in time by the senses, but it is stored in this form for a short time, only a few seconds. Subsequently, the information is transformed, analyzed, processed, encoded by the subject and transferred by him to long-term memory. Good short-term memory increases the efficiency of any activity; in this sense, medical activities, the work of rescuers, firefighters, and police officers should be especially noted. In particular, when surgery there are no minor details, the surgeon is obliged to instantly capture all the signs of the situation and take them into account (i.e. remember) in further actions. In other words, any activity under extreme conditions presupposes the presence of productive short-term memory.

Working memory is a person's ability to retain current information necessary to perform a particular action; The storage duration is determined by the time the action is performed. Forgetting depends to a large extent on the nature of the activity immediately preceding and occurring after memorization. To reduce forgetting it is necessary: ​​understanding, comprehension of information; repetition of information.

Thinking– the most generalized and mediated form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects.

Thinking is the highest cognitive mental process; it is associated with language and speech. Therefore, thinking is often considered not only within the framework of cognitive processes, but also as a separate independent process.

Thinking happens:

a) visually effective, i.e. based on the direct perception of objects, the real transformation of the situation in the process of actions with objects;
b) visually figurative, i.e. characterized by reliance on ideas and images; the functions of this type of thinking are associated with the presentation of situations and changes in them that a person wants to obtain as a result of his activities that transform the situation;
c) verbal-logical, i.e. carried out using logical operations with concepts.

There are theoretical and practical, productive and reproductive thinking. It is important for labor psychology to distinguish between productive and reproductive thinking, based on the degree of novelty of the product obtained in the process of mental activity in relation to the subject’s knowledge.

In any activity, a huge number of different changes in the situation occur, each of which potentially carries problems. If a professional who has discovered this or that change begins to analyze the current circumstances, consider options for continuing activities, and compare them with his capabilities, then this episode becomes a problematic situation for him, even if the process of its analysis and resolution proceeds so quickly that it is almost not recorded by consciousness individual. Otherwise, the activity continues on the basis of the resources available to the subject and the search for new options for its implementation is not required.

There are four stages of problem solving: preparation, maturation of the solution, insight, verification of the solution found.

Factors contributing to insight are identified:

1. high passion for the problem;
2. belief in success, in the possibility of solving the problem;
3. high awareness of the problem, accumulated experience;
4. high associative brain activity (during sleep, during high temperature, fever, with emotionally positive stimulation).

Mental activity is realized both at the level of consciousness and at the level of the unconscious; characterized by complex transitions and interactions of these levels. As a result of a successful (purposeful) action, a result is obtained that corresponds to a previously set goal, and a result that was not foreseen in the conscious goal and is a by-product in relation to it (a by-product of the action).

The following main mental operations are distinguished: analysis, comparison, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, etc. Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics. Comparison is a mental operation based on establishing similarities and differences between objects. Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to mentally move from parts to the whole in a single process. Generalization is the mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics. Abstraction, or distraction, is a mental operation based on isolating the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from other, unimportant ones.

Basic forms of logical thinking: concept, judgment, inference. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena, expressed in a word or group of words. Judgment is a form of thinking that reflects connections between objects and phenomena; affirmation or denial of something. Inference is a form of thinking in which a definite conclusion is drawn based on several judgments.

The process and result of work activity are significantly influenced by individual differences in the mental activity of people, which can manifest themselves in the following qualities of thinking: breadth, depth and independence of thinking, flexibility of thought, speed and criticality of the mind.

Breadth of thinking is the ability to embrace the entire issue, without at the same time missing out on the details necessary for the matter. Depth of thinking is expressed in the ability to penetrate into the essence of complex issues. The opposite quality to depth of thinking is superficiality of judgment, when a person pays attention to little things and does not see the main thing.

Independence of thinking is characterized by a person’s ability to put forward new problems and find ways to solve them without resorting to the help of other people. Flexibility of thought is expressed in its freedom from the constraining influence of techniques and methods of solving problems fixed in the past, in the ability to quickly change actions when the situation changes. Quickness of mind is a person’s ability to quickly understand a new situation, think about it and accept correct solution. Criticality of mind is a person’s ability to objectively evaluate his own and others’ thoughts, carefully and comprehensively check all put forward provisions and conclusions.

Along with perception, memory and thinking, imagination plays an important role in human activity. In the process of reflecting the surrounding world, a person, along with the perception of what is acting on him at the moment, or the visual representation of what influenced him before, creates new images.

Imagination is the mental process of creating something new in the form of an image, idea or idea.

The process of imagination is unique to man and is a necessary condition for his work activity. Imagination is always aimed at a person’s practical activity: before doing anything, a person imagines what needs to be done and how he will do it. Thus, he already creates in advance the image of a material thing that will be manufactured in the subsequent practical activity of man. This ability of a person to imagine in advance the final result of his work, as well as the process of creating a material thing, sharply distinguishes human activity from the “activity” of animals, sometimes very skillful.

In psychology, a distinction is made between voluntary and involuntary imagination. The first manifests itself, for example, in the course of purposefully solving scientific, technical and artistic problems in the presence of a conscious search dominant, the second - in dreams, so-called altered states of consciousness, etc.

A dream is a special form of imagination. It is addressed to the sphere of a more or less distant future and does not imply the immediate achievement of a real result, as well as its complete coincidence with the desired image. At the same time, a dream can become a strong motivating factor in creative search.

Attention- this is the orientation and concentration of consciousness on any real or ideal object, implying an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual.

Attention in human life and activity performs many different functions. It activates the necessary and inhibits currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes, promotes the organized and targeted selection of information entering the body in accordance with its current needs, and ensures selective and long-term concentration of mental activity on the same object or type of activity.

Based on human activity in organizing attention, three types of attention are distinguished: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary. Involuntary attention is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to its characteristics as a stimulus. Voluntary attention is a consciously regulated concentration on an object, directed by the requirements of activity. With voluntary attention, concentration occurs not only on what is emotionally pleasant, but more on what should be done. A person using this type of attention gets tired after about 20 minutes. Involuntary attention is not associated with the participation of the will, while voluntary attention necessarily includes volitional regulation. Finally, voluntary attention, in contrast to involuntary attention, is usually associated with a struggle of motives or impulses, the presence of strong, oppositely directed and competing interests, each of which in itself is capable of attracting and maintaining attention. In this case, a person makes a conscious choice of goal and, through an effort of will, suppresses one of the interests, directing all his attention to satisfying the other. But a case is also possible when voluntary attention is preserved, and willpower is no longer required to maintain it. This happens if a person is passionate about work. This kind of attention is called post-voluntary. It arises on the basis of interest, but this is not interest stimulated by the peculiarities of the subject, but a manifestation of the orientation of the individual. With post-voluntary attention, the activity itself is experienced as a need, and its result is significant for the individual. Post-voluntary attention can last for hours. The three types of attention considered in the practical, work activity of a person are closely intertwined with mutual transitions and rely on one another.

Attention has certain parameters and characteristics, which in many ways are a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. The main properties of attention usually include the following.

1. Concentration. This is an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a certain object, the intensity of connection with it. Concentration of attention means that a temporary center (focus) of all human psychological activity is formed.

2. Intensity. This is the quality of attention that determines the effectiveness of perception, thinking, memory and clarity of consciousness in general. The greater the interest in the activity (the greater the awareness of its significance) and the more difficult the activity (the less familiar it is to the person), the greater the influence of distracting stimuli, the more intense the attention will be.

3. Sustainability. This is the ability to maintain high levels of concentration and intensity of attention for a long time. Sustained attention is supported not only by the novelty of incoming stimuli, but also by their repetition. It is associated with the dynamic characteristics of attention: fluctuations and switchability. Fluctuations of attention are understood as periodic short-term involuntary changes in the degree of intensity of attention. Fluctuations in attention manifest themselves in temporary changes in the intensity of sensations.

4. Volume is an indicator of the number of homogeneous stimuli that are in the focus of attention. The amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and the capabilities of an individual’s short-term memory. The characteristics of the perceived objects (their homogeneity, interconnections) and the professional skills of the subject themselves are also important.

5. Switching attention is understood as the possibility of a more or less easy and fairly quick transition from one type of activity to another. Two multidirectional processes are also functionally connected with switching: turning on and turning off attention. Switching can be voluntary, then its speed is an indicator of the degree of volitional control of the subject over his perception, and involuntary, associated with distraction, which is either an indicator of the degree of mental instability, or indicates the appearance of strong unexpected stimuli.

The effectiveness of switching attention depends on the characteristics of the previous and subsequent activities (switching indicators decrease significantly when moving from easy to difficult activities, and in the reverse version they increase). The success of switching is related to a person’s attitude towards the previous activity: the more interesting the previous activity and the less interesting the subsequent one, the more difficult the switching occurs.

Stimuli that are sudden, intermittent, unexpected, or associated with emotions are very distracting. When performing monotonous work for a long time, the effect of side irritants increases as fatigue increases. The distracting influence of extraneous stimuli has a greater effect on mental activity that is not associated with external supports. It is stronger in auditory perception than in visual perception.

The ability to withstand distractions is called noise immunity. In the development of this ability in people, significant individual differences are observed, due both to differences in the nervous system (in particular, its strength) and to special training aimed at increasing noise immunity.

6. Distribution, i.e. the ability to focus attention on several objects at the same time. In this case, several focuses (centers) of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes simultaneously, without losing any of them from the field of attention.

In complex modern types of labor, activity can consist of several different but simultaneously occurring processes (actions), each of which meets different tasks. For example, a teacher explaining a new topic to students must focus attention on his speech, observe the reactions of students, indicating comprehension of the material, the dynamics of their performance, etc.

The level of attention distribution depends on a number of conditions: on the nature of the combined activities (they can be homogeneous or different), on their complexity (and, in connection with this, on the degree of required mental stress), on the degree of familiarity and familiarity (on the level of mastery of the basic techniques of activity ). The more complex the combined activities, the more difficult it is to distribute attention. When mental and motor activity are combined, the productivity of mental activity may decrease to a greater extent than motor activity.

It is difficult to combine two types of mental activity. Distribution of attention is possible if each of the activities performed is familiar to a person, and one is automated. The less automated one of the combined activities is, the weaker the distribution of attention. If one type of activity is completely automated and its successful implementation requires only periodic control of consciousness, a complex form of attention is noted - a combination of switching and distribution.

Attention as a mental process, expressed in the focus of consciousness on certain objects, often manifesting itself, gradually turns into a stable personality property - attentiveness. In this case, the range of objects can be limited to one or another type of activity (and then they talk about the attentiveness of the individual in this type of professional activity), or it can extend to all types of activity (in this case they talk about attentiveness as a general property of the individual). The other polarity is often called inattention. It is important for an occupational psychologist to know not only what level of attentiveness a worker has, but also the reasons behind his inattention, since attention is associated with all cognitive and regulatory processes in work activity.

To a greater extent than other functions, attention reacts to states of fatigue, stress, and monotony. In these conditions, there is a progressive decrease in attentional activity. At the same time, high motivation for activity has a powerful compensating effect on maintaining attention even under the most unfavorable conditions.

Proper training attention in work activity lies in the formation of optimal schemes for organizing this process in specific conditions. When conditions change, the system of organizing attention undergoes a restructuring. From this point of view, training and retraining of a particular activity involves the employee’s assimilation of a new system of organizing attention.

Regulatory processes

Cognitive mental processes are directly given to a person in his introspection; their role in ensuring any activity is self-evident. For the holistic organization of activity, cognitive processes alone are not enough, since any such process is a certain abstraction, and in such complex activities as management, they are carried out comprehensively. Therefore, there must be special processes that regulate the functioning of the cognitive system.

All cognitive processes are connected with each other, but they also interact with other mental processes: emotional, motivational, volitional. According to their initial orientation, they are aimed at cognition, orientation in the environment, and processing of information.

However, these processes are only one of the classes of processes that support management activities. Another class is a set of mental processes, designated by the concept of “regulatory processes of activity.” In connection with this, psychology has developed ideas about another subsystem of mental processes - regulatory. Regulatory processes are aimed directly at building and regulating activities. Any activity is impossible without the processes of goal setting, planning, forecasting, decision making, self-control, and correction. They are all complex and synthetic in their structure, including basic cognitive processes, emotional, volitional, and motivational. Regulatory processes are those synthetic formations in which the integrity of the work of basic mental processes is achieved, therefore they are designated by the concept of “integral processes” of mental regulation of activity. Along with cognitive processes, they form the second main class of mental processes - regulatory, or integral.

The following regulatory processes are distinguished: goal setting, planning, forecasting, anticipation, decision making, self-control, self-programming, correction.

Any activity is aimed at achieving a specific goal, but this is only possible if the goal itself is formulated by a person, i.e. a special and very complex goal setting process will be implemented. In addition, any activity is unthinkable without a plan, which requires the implementation of another, also very complex, special process - planning.

The construction of activities presupposes the need to forecast changes in the environment and, therefore, requires the implementation of the forecasting process. The process of forecasting is in many ways similar to the process of anticipation - anticipation of future events. In the course of activity, problematic situations, tasks, and conditions of uncertainty constantly arise that require a person to make a decision—a choice. Thus, there is a need for another activity process - the decision-making process. In addition, there is a constant need to monitor the intermediate and final results of activity, as well as its progress itself, which implies the need to involve another activity process - self-control. The construction of activity also requires processes of self-programming of one’s actions and processes of making adjustments to the course of activity - correction processes.

The processes of goal formation, anticipation, decision making, planning, programming, self-control, and correction are formed under the influence of specific activity tasks and are aimed at organizing activities. At the same time, they are a product of the synthesis of all cognitive processes, as well as emotional, volitional and motivational ones, which are considered processes of “first order” complexity. Therefore, regulatory processes are considered as “second order” processes. They are more complex, since more than all other processes they are associated with basic personal qualities. The individual measure of development of each of the integral processes itself acts as a personal quality. These processes have been little studied; only recently they began to be considered as a special class of mental processes with specific psychological characteristics. It is most typical for management activities, which require the implementation of an invariant set of main management functions. They were already described in the “administrative” (classical) school and are preserved in all, including modern, approaches. Their implementation is the essence of management as such. The main management functions are the integral processes of its organization. The manager must organize and implement these processes.

The most general feature of integral processes is that, according to the mechanisms of their implementation, they are actually psychological formations; they have all the basic properties that characterize other classes of mental processes (ideality, objectivity, subjectivity, purposefulness).

Another common feature of integral processes is the existence for each of them of a specific operational composition of the means through which they are carried out. The most important feature of any mental process is the presence of its own and specific operational composition. For example, the operations of the thinking process are analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, etc. The operations of the decision-making process are recognition of initial uncertainty, formulation of the choice problem, generation and selection of alternatives, etc.

Features of integral processes are the synthetic nature of their composition and regulatory focus. The synthetic nature of any integral process lies in its complexity, since it is formed through the synthesis of other classes of mental processes - cognitive, emotional, volitional, motivational. The regulatory focus consists in the focus of integral processes on organizing activities and solving related problems (developing a goal, drawing up a plan, etc.).

Integral processes are the link between cognitive processes and executive actions, which is also their feature. They unfold not only on the basis of cognitive processes, but also after them, and therefore are designated as metacognitive.

Each integral process is confined to a specific stage of the organization of activity. The combination of these processes constitutes a complete cycle of organizing activities - from goal formation to correction of results.

Large differences in complexity characterize the tasks associated with the organization of activities, therefore the differences in the measure of complexity of integral processes are also very large. IN simple tasks they are realized in a reduced (abbreviated) form, unconsciously, automatically. In this case, they are in the nature of psychological operations. As tasks become more complex, these processes acquire an independent goal and are subject to awareness, taking on the form of action; in extremely complex cases they turn into completely independent activities. This transformation is most typical for management tasks and functions.

Integral processes have the property of polymorphism, appearing in three main forms known in psychology: operations, actions, activities.

There is one more feature that sharply distinguishes integral processes from cognitive ones. Cognitive processes form a kind of hierarchy, at the “top” of which is the thinking process, which subordinates all other processes and includes them. Therefore, in psychology, in relation to cognitive processes, the concept of their hierarchy is used. The system of integral processes presents a completely different picture. Any integral process can become leading; it depends on changes in situations, tasks, and the stage of organization of activities. These processes are based on something else known in science and more general principle– heterarchical. It assumes the presence of several “control centers” at the same time and the possibility of their dynamic redistribution depending on the situation. Its effectiveness depends on how fully all these processes are represented and coordinated in the activity. Parity in the importance of integral processes reflects the specifics of management activities and is constantly noted in management theory.

Let's look at the general psychological characteristics and features that make it possible to combine regulatory processes into a special, qualitatively specific class of processes.

1. Regulatory processes have all the basic properties that characterize other classes of mental processes: ideality, purposefulness, subjectivity, objectivity. Another feature of regulatory processes: they are synthetic, i.e. are complex and are formed on the basis of a synthesis of other types of mental processes: cognitive, emotional, volitional, motivational. For example, the decision-making process requires a person to implement all his cognitive processes: perception of information, updating information from past experience (memory), mentally processing it, connecting thinking. However, it is not limited only to cognitive processes, only to rational mechanisms. The role that emotional and volitional factors and personal motivation play in decision-making processes, especially in difficult or critically important life situations, is well known. The synthetic nature of the composition of regulatory processes is their most characteristic feature, due to which these processes are designated by the concept of integral processes of mental regulation of activity.

2. Another characteristic feature of regulatory processes is that integral regulatory processes are metacognitive. They are a connecting link, a bridge from cognitive processes to executive actions. In other words, regulatory, or integral, processes unfold not only on the basis of cognitive ones, but mainly after them, combining the information received in them into special generalized metasystem knowledge, i.e. act as metacognitive.

3. Each regulatory process is correlated with a certain stage of the organization of activities. The initial stage involves the implementation of the goal setting process, then it is replaced by the forecasting process; then the processes of decision-making, planning, and self-control become most developed, and the final stages require maximum involvement of the processes of evaluating results and their correction. Consequently, one or another integral process is at the same time a certain stage in the organization of activity. Therefore, their combination forms a complete cycle of organizing activities: from goal formation to correction of the results obtained.

4. Any integral process has an operational composition specific to it. For example, in the decision-making process, operations such as recognition of initial uncertainty, formulation of the choice problem, generation of alternatives, selection of alternatives, formulation of criteria, selection of alternatives, choice correction, etc. are distinguished.

5. Regulatory processes are closely related to some of the most important personal qualities. This connection is manifested in the fact that the individual measure of development of each of them itself acts as a personal quality. This is evidenced by the totality psychological concepts, denoting personal qualities, derived from each of the integral processes: purposefulness and purposefulness of the individual, its predictiveness (foresightedness), determination, ability to plan, self-discipline (self-control), etc. On the contrary, the insufficient development of these processes is indicated by other, negative, but also properties derived from integral processes personality: scatteredness, “myopia”, indecisiveness, spontaneity, lack of internal discipline, etc.

Along with the general properties, there are specific features inherent in a separate regulatory integral process, which determine the uniqueness of each of them. Yes, the process goal setting represents the formation of the goal of an activity and its specification (division) into subgoals of individual actions. The goal is the ideal form of future results and is considered as a system-forming factor of activity. Based on the correlation of the purpose of the activity and the motivational sphere, the most important psychological formation is formed - the personal meaning of the activity.

There are three main forms of subjective goals: goal-image, goal-result and goal-level of achievement. A goal-image is an ideal representation of the future result of an activity, an image of this result that develops before the start of an activity; it is a kind of mental picture of the product that should be obtained at the end of the activity. However, the goal cannot always be formulated in this form. More common is the goal-result form. For example, a typical goal for a manager is to fulfill planned target. This goal cannot be represented in the form of any visual or mental image; it appears as a set of certain, including quantitatively expressed and verbally presented, requirements for activity parameters (“to ensure the production of such and such quantity of products in such and such terms and with such and such parameters and costs”).

The goal is formed before the start of the activity, and then is retained by memory during the activity, regulates and directs it. The ideal image - the representation of the future result - is the most important regulator of activity. As a rule, in its activities the subject pursues not one, but many different goals. In this regard, there is a need to co-organize various goals. Goals are sorted according to their objective and subjective significance – priority. General and specific goals are arranged in a certain hierarchy, forming a system of goals in which they are connected and mutually agreed upon. The hierarchy of the system of goals is an important condition for imparting integrity and organization to all activities and behavior.

The key point of goal formation is the mechanism of emergence - the generation of goals. It is referred to as a mechanism for generating subjective goals. There are two main ways to set goals:

1. normative setting of goals, when they are already “brought” to the subject in finished form; this method is designated as a mechanism of forced goal formation;
2. goals may not be generated normatively, but rather be the product of the active initiative of the person himself; these are voluntary goals.

Processes forecasting and anticipation They allow you to look into the future, reflect in your consciousness what does not yet really exist, but what is likely to happen. Such predictive information is taken into account when organizing activities, allows you to foresee possible events in advance and thereby significantly reduce environmental uncertainty. Because of this, the phenomenon of advanced reflection and the process of anticipation have universal significance for all aspects of human life and activity. The processes of forecasting and anticipation can be implemented in the form of current forecasting included in the implementation of any other actions and tasks; in the form of special, conscious and arbitrarily regulated actions by the subject to implement the forecast; finally, it can be an independent activity related to the performance of strategic planning and forecasting functions in management.

Regulatory processes such as planning and related programming. A plan is a kind of bridge from making a decision on the general goals of an activity and its basic requirements to a specific program for their implementation. Planning can be short-term and long-term; can act either in a relatively hard (algorithmic) or in a “soft” form - flexible or variable planning. It can be either detailed and specific, or deliberately general; may vary in its object: in the activities of a manager, it can involve either a planned distribution of tasks among subordinates, or be aimed at streamlining the production process. Finally, it can be individual or collective. In any case, the plan, like the goal, is formulated before the start of the activity or its individual stages, and therefore at first it appears in ideal form. However, unlike a goal, which reflects ideas about the future result of an activity, the plan reflects the strategy and tactics of the process of its implementation. Consequently, the main function of planning is the spatio-temporal ordering of activities, the development of general guidelines for activities and specific means implementation of its goals and subgoals.

The main contradiction in the planning process and therefore its main difficulty is the antagonism between the two main parameters of the plans. On the one hand, the more detailed the planning as a process and the plan as its product, the higher the efficiency of the activities unfolding on its basis will be. This requires maximum detail and specificity of plans. On the other hand, prognostic information on the basis of which plans are formulated is fundamentally uncertain, and therefore incomplete, inaccurate, and unreliable. Consequently, the plan must be sufficiently free, flexible, and allow for the possibility of its transformation if necessary.

A distinctive feature of plans in complex types activities is their hierarchy. This property distinguishes planning processes from very similar but more specific programming processes. At the beginning of its development, the plan determines not so much a specific rigid sequence of actions as their general structure, i.e. what and how should be implemented. The hierarchy of these activities then determines the sequence of performance actions. An activity program is a specific chain of actions, their algorithm, already built along the time axis. A program differs from a plan in that it has a one-dimensional rather than hierarchical structure, therefore there is a position according to which the programming process is nothing more than the final stage of the planning process. The program itself is the final result, the product of the planning process.

The process is of particular importance for the organization of any activity. decision making. If all other processes have a more or less strong influence on activity, then it is the decision-making processes - in the very meaning of this concept - that have a decisive, determining influence on it. The decision-making process in professional activity is defined as any choice of one of alternative ways exit from situations of uncertainty and its implementation in the performing actions of the subject.

The need for decision-making processes arises under the influence of numerous factors, both external and internal. The most important among them are the factors of uncertainty, complexity and dynamism of the decision-making environment. Uncertainty refers to the insufficiency of necessary information to select alternatives. The complexity of the decision-making environment refers to a very large number of factors that must be taken into account in the decision-making process, as well as their close interrelation and mutual influence on each other. The dynamism of the decision-making environment is a constant and high degree of variability in the external and internal conditions of activity.

All types of decision-making processes are characterized by the presence of an invariant (formal) structure of the main components, which includes an information basis, rules, criteria, alternatives, methods and hypotheses. The information basis is a set of data on the basis of which decisions are made and made. Decision rules represent various requirements, regulatory requirements, conditions and restrictions that must be taken into account in the process of its development and which therefore act as the main regulators of this process. The criterion is a unique form of specification in solving the general goal of an activity and the most important factor that must be ensured as a result of the decision. Methods are specific procedures, tactics for preparing and making decisions. Alternatives denote any subjectively distinguishable options for exiting a problem situation, regardless of whether they are formulated by the subject himself or given to him from the outside.

The decision-making process is characterized as complex, consisting of several stages. Its first stage is the definition of a problem situation, which involves diagnostics (i.e. identifying the situation as such, defining its zone); establishing relationships with other parties to the activity; characterizing the features of its content, identifying its key contradictions and setting the goals of the proposed solution in it.

1. information analysis of the situation in order to reduce (reduce) its uncertainty and bring it to a form more accessible to control over it; What is important in this case is the search and detection of hidden (implicit) parameters of the situation;
2. identification of the main limiting factors that usually give rise to a problem requiring a decision;
3. formulation of the basic requirements for the solution - its criteria, which will form the basis for choosing one of several alternative options.

The second stage of the decision-making process - the formulation of alternatives - includes the search, identification, and generation of new ones, i.e. not specified normatively, possible exits from a problematic situation. The final quality of decisions is a direct function of the number of alternatives formulated at this stage. Often (especially in simple, stereotypical situations) this stage is not expressed and is not recognized by the subject as independent and important, since the necessary alternative seems quite obvious to him.

At the third stage of evaluating alternatives according to a system of formulated criteria and in accordance with the main goals of the activity, a multidimensional consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative option is carried out. This stage is also called the weighing of alternatives phase.

The fourth stage - the choice of an alternative - is the main one in the entire structure of the decision-making process, since it is where the actual decision-making is carried out. The main normative principle of this stage is the postulate of maximization: one should choose the alternative that has the greatest integral utility, i.e. one that maximizes possible gains and at the same time minimizes expected losses.

After choosing an alternative, it is necessary to develop certain methods aimed at its implementation. Usually, at the stage of implementing the decision, the alternative adopted as a result of the decision is subject to additional specification and is brought into a form that allows for the most effective implementation.

Any decision requires feedback from its results. Only in this case can the activity be effective and efficient, and it becomes possible to extract and accumulate experience in professional decisions. Only under the condition of monitoring decisions and obtaining information about their results is it possible to correct the decisions made and (or) make new decisions if the previous ones turned out to be incorrect. Assessment and correction are carried out by comparing the results obtained with those that were formulated as expected at the first stage - the stage of assessing the initial problem situation. As a result of this, the general structure of the decision-making process takes on the form of a closed loop, denoted by the concept of a “decision ring.”

Any solution, even the best, justified, timely and possessing all conceivable advantages, will be useless without the property of feasibility. In practice, the key role of the property of feasibility comes down to the fact that professional decisions almost always act as the product of a compromise between the abstractly best and actually feasible options. A good solution not only provides a general fundamental solution to a problem situation, but also includes specific methods for its implementation and their sequence. This is at the same time an important prerequisite for the effective implementation of subsequent monitoring of the results of the decision.

Characteristic feature decision-making processes in professional activities is a huge variety, their multiplicity specific types, types, shapes, etc. This feature is referred to as “polymorphism of decision-making processes.”

The process plays a significant and specific role in the structure of activity. self-control. Thanks to this regulatory process, activity acquires the properties of self-regulation and adaptability in relation to changes in the external and internal conditions of its implementation. Forms and types of self-control are usually classified according to four basic principles: temporary, modal, structural and the principle of arbitrariness. In accordance with the time principle, preliminary (anticipating), current (intermediate) and resulting (final) types of self-control are distinguished. In accordance with the modality principle, visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and also combined types self-control. They differ in the channel that provides information about the results of actions. This information is then compared with reference standards. The leading role in activity as a whole belongs to visual and auditory types of self-control. In accordance with the structural principle, types of self-control differ depending on the level at which it is implemented. In this regard, we can talk about the biological level of self-control, physiological self-regulation of the main systems of life, psychophysiological regulation of states, psychological self-control of activities, social control and self-control of behavior.

In accordance with the principle of arbitrariness, a distinction is made between arbitrary and involuntary species self-control. Involuntary self-control is realized automatically, without its awareness, and is included in the performance of almost all actions. Voluntary self-control, on the contrary, is characterized by setting a conscious goal - to control, test oneself, therefore it acts as completely independent actions and their systems.

Correction as a process of organizing activity, it is the most specific among regulatory processes. It completes and closes the overall cycle of construction and implementation of activities, as well as each of its individual stages. The result of an activity as such does not indicate whether the goal of the activity has been achieved or not. Once the result is obtained, additional and complex processes take place. Thus, the result must first be perceived and information about it must be received through the feedback process. This information must be compared with the ideal goal (the “goal-result” comparison process). Finally, it must be determined how well the actual result matches the goal. As a rule, there is no complete correspondence between them. Because of this, an obligatory component in the organization of activity is to determine the degree of mismatch between the ideal goal and the real result, after which correction occurs - bringing the real result to the ideal goal or to an acceptable approximation to it. The correction unfolds with varying degrees of severity depending on the magnitude of the detected discrepancies between the goal and the result.

Correction, being the final stage of one activity cycle, allows you to move on to the beginning of another cycle or shows the direction of change in the first cycle and requires a return to its repeated implementation. Thanks to correction processes, activity takes on a closed ring-like character.

Based on the correction processes and through them, the subject self-learns, expands and enriches his professional experience, and increases the overall level of competence. From a psychological point of view, the mechanism of self-learning is the entire system of phenomena associated with the correction process: perception of the result, feedback from it; interpretation of feedback information; its comparison with the ideal goal; detection of discrepancies, determination and implementation of corrective actions; their assessment, as well as recording in memory effective ways corrections, and subsequently – error prevention.

Emotional-volitional regulation

It is necessary to point out one of the most general features of the psyche as an object of knowledge and study. In general, it is so complex and multidimensional that it requires not just one, but several methods of description at the same time for its disclosure. Therefore, the identification of the three considered classes of mental processes - cognitive, regulatory and communicative - is, although important, but only one of these methods. Along with him and even much earlier than him, a different method developed, dividing the psyche into “mind, feeling and will.” Thus, he also points to the need to address the emotional and volitional processes of organizing activities.

In addition, an even more generalized way of dividing the psyche into its three main components is equally traditional - mental processes in general, mental states and personality properties. Finally, one should take into account the very close connection between emotional and volitional processes with the second of these components – states. In them, emotions and will manifest themselves most fully and clearly. In this regard, it is necessary to refer to their special consideration.

The close relationship between emotional and volitional processes, their determining influence on a person’s control over their states in the course of activity, is captured in the concept of emotional-volitional regulation of states. Disclosure of the content of this generalized concept requires the definition of the other three concepts included in it - emotions, will, states, as well as the characteristics of their manifestation in activity.

Emotions(from Latin emovere - excite, excite) are defined as one of the forms of mental reflection, consisting in a direct, biased experience of phenomena and situations, determined by the relationship between their objective properties and the needs of the subject. Emotions are relatively more simple form evaluative, subjective attitude to reality compared to feelings. Emotions can unfold in both conscious and unconscious forms. Feelings are one of the main forms of a person’s experience of his relationship to objects and phenomena of reality; they are characterized by fairly high stability, complexity and, as a rule, awareness. In contrast to the situational properties of emotions, which reflect the subjective meanings of objects and events in specific conditions, feelings correlate with phenomena that have a stable motivation. Feelings are therefore less “attached” to the situation, but to a greater extent characterize the personality and its motives. Thus, differing in the degree of complexity, awareness, stability, subject relevance, emotions and feelings are at the same time similar in that they act as two forms of a person’s personal relationship to the surrounding reality and to himself.

Experts distinguish between the concept of “emotion” and the concepts of “feeling”, “affect”, “mood” and “experience”.

Unlike feelings, emotions do not have an object connection: they arise not in relation to someone or something, but in relation to the situation as a whole. “I'm scared” is an emotion, and “I'm afraid of this person” is a feeling. In this regard, emotions, unlike feelings, cannot be ambivalent: as soon as an attitude towards something becomes both bad and good at the same time, this something can be called an object, and emotional processes in relation to it - feelings.

Unlike affects, emotions can have virtually no external manifestations, are much longer in time and weaker in strength. In addition, affects are perceived by the subject as states of his “I”, and emotions – as states occurring “in him”. This is especially noticeable when the emotion is a reaction to affect, for example when a person feels fear for his future, as a reaction to a recent outburst of anger (affect).

Unlike moods, emotions can change quite quickly and be quite intense.

Experiences are usually understood as exclusively the subjective mental side of emotional processes, not including physiological components.

Emotions and feelings perform two main functions – signaling and regulatory. Firstly, they are a kind of signals about what is happening that is most important for the individual. Secondly, they to a certain extent determine and regulate the content of human behavior, influencing the features of this process - tension, duration, methods, etc. Depending on the color, tones there are two main groups - positive and negative. The first ones are designated as sthenic, i.e. enhancing a person’s mental capabilities; the second - as asthenic, negatively affecting activity, behavior, condition. Along with positive and negative, there is a wide range of so-called ambivalent (dual) emotions and feelings. They are characterized by a combination of positive and negative attitudes towards the same object, phenomenon, person.

Further, the course of emotional processes is characterized by a certain phase, when the first phase - the increase in emotional tension - is replaced by a phase of resolution, relieving tension. The phase parameter, on the contrary, is not typical for feelings, since they are stable forms of relationships. However, feelings are specific in that they include several main categories of this kind of stable relationship. At the same time, intellectual, moral, aesthetic and practical feelings are distinguished (the latter are associated with the course of activity; from the Greek praxis - business, occupation).

Emotions are usually classified according to the degree of their intensity and severity. With minimal expression, they appear in the form of a peculiar emotional background - as a coloring of one or another mental process, behavioral action. Acquiring greater intensity and standing out as an independent process, they take on the form of an actual emotional experience. In extremely pronounced forms, they can take the form of affects - emotional processes that quickly take possession of a person, characterized by significant changes in consciousness, a violation of volitional control over actions. In addition, stress and mood are considered the main forms of emotional relationships. Mood is a general emotional state that colors a person’s mental processes and behavior for a long time. Emotions and feelings, having a deep similarity in their psychological mechanisms, are therefore characterized by the similarity of the patterns by which they influence activity. One of them is that both emotions and feelings determine one or another state, which in turn directly affects the process and results of activity. However, although this connection is strong, it is still indirect, since it can be regulated by another important category of mental processes - volitional processes.

Will as a mental process is defined as the conscious self-regulation by the subject of his activities and behavior, ensuring overcoming difficulties in achieving goals. When characterizing it, the following three concepts are of key importance: the volitional act (and its structure), volitional effort and volitional properties of the individual.

Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome internal and external difficulties when performing purposeful actions and deeds. Main function will consists in the conscious regulation of activity in difficult living conditions. This regulation is based on the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition of the nervous system. In accordance with this, it is customary to single out two others as a specification of the above general function - activating and inhibiting.

Voluntary or volitional actions develop on the basis of involuntary movements and actions. The simplest of involuntary movements are reflex ones: constriction and dilation of the pupil, blinking, swallowing, sneezing, etc. The same class of movements includes withdrawing a hand when touching a hot object, involuntarily turning the head towards a sound, etc. Our expressive movements are usually involuntary: when angry, we involuntarily clench our teeth; when surprised, we raise our eyebrows or open our mouth; when we are happy about something, we begin to smile, etc.

Behavior, like actions, can be involuntary or voluntary. The involuntary type of behavior mainly includes impulsive actions and unconscious reactions that are not subordinate to a common goal, for example, to noise outside the window, to an object that can satisfy a need, etc. Involuntary behavior also includes human behavioral reactions observed in situations of affect, when a person is under the influence of an emotional state uncontrolled by consciousness.

In contrast to involuntary actions, conscious actions, which are more characteristic of human behavior, are aimed at achieving a set goal. It is the consciousness of actions that characterizes volitional behavior. However, volitional actions can include as separate links such movements that, during the formation of the skill, became automated and lost their initially conscious character.

There are three main links (stages) in the structure of a volitional act. The first is a person’s awareness of a goal and the emergence of a desire to achieve it. As a rule, such personality goals are multiple; The motives that prompt a person to strive for them are also different. Therefore, the second stage of the volitional act takes place - the phase of “struggle of motives”, associated with the choice between one goal or another. It ends with a decision to choose a specific goal, as well as a generalized method for achieving it. Finally, after this, it is necessary to implement the decision made and the associated new, also volitional in nature, effort associated with overcoming the difficulties that arise in this case.

All stages of a volitional act require specific tension - a person overcoming himself, i.e. what is usually denoted by the concept of volitional effort. This is an effort associated with overcoming impulsive, albeit very strong desires and needs (“I want”) and the conscious orientation of behavior towards achieving goals (“need”). Volitional effort can take different forms:

1) form of motivation - initiation of activity (effort to force oneself to do something);
2) a form of prohibition - inhibition (an effort to refrain from doing something);
3) form of maintaining performance (effort to overcome fatigue);
4) form of control;
5) form of resistance external influences(interference).

Depending on the degree of development of volitional processes and the role they play in the personal organization, one or another level of volitional properties of the individual is distinguished. The most significant among them usually include independence, determination, determination, perseverance, endurance, and self-control. Derived from them, but having a more general nature, are also the properties of discipline, courage, and perseverance. Emotional and volitional processes are thus closely interrelated. Will acts as a means of regulation, adjustment negative influence emotions on activity. Emotions, in turn, give a subjective tone to volitional effort and can help increase its potential. Such a close relationship leads to the fact that in real behavior they are practically inseparable and are experienced by the subject in the form of mental states. The concept of state denotes the most integrative form of organization of all components of the psyche in a given period of time. This is the entire psyche, all its content, but at one or another interval of its functioning. The content, intensity, tone, and direction of such functioning can, of course, change greatly; at the same time, the very nature of mental states will change. A special branch of psychology deals with the study of mental states - the psychology of functional states.

In the study of managerial activity, the most significant thing is that all the main types of states and the patterns discovered during their study are not only preserved in the activities of the manager, but often appear in the most distinct form. In the psychology of functional states there are different ways classifications. For example, by degree of intensity (high, medium, low activity); by content (in particular, states of fatigue, monotony, mental satiety, frustration, inspiration, anxiety, discomfort, etc.); by type of activity in which they arise (game, educational, work); by tone (positive, negative, ambivalent); by the nature of the impact on activities (positive and negative).

In the structure of any state, two components are distinguished, its two sides - content and dynamic (“energy”). It has been proven that the effectiveness of an activity is significantly influenced by both the content of states (for example, a state of depression can not only worsen, but also block activity, and a state of inspiration - on the contrary), and its intensity, “energy saturation”. In this regard, it is necessary to introduce another important concept - the level of activation. It denotes the energy background, the degree of tension that accompanies the performance of an activity. The activation level can vary over a wide range of values. To designate this range in psychology, the concept of “activation continuum”, or “scale of wakefulness levels” is used. The following states are considered as such levels (in increasing order of their energy background): coma, deep sleep, " REM sleep", shallow sleep, quiet wakefulness, active wakefulness, intense wakefulness, stress, emotional abortion of behavior.

In connection with the dynamic characteristics of states, there are two fundamental patterns of their influence on the effectiveness of behavior in general, on the success of professional activity in particular. First, the most general dependence of the effectiveness of activity on the level of activation: effectiveness decreases both at low and at excessively high levels of activation (i.e., the intensity of mental states). This dependence was first discovered by American scientists R. Yerkes and D. Dodson and bears their name - the “Yerkes-Dodson law”, or the law of “optimum activation”.

Secondly, it has been proven that there is a direct connection between the degree of negative (destructive) influence of mental states and the complexity of those mental processes and formations in relation to which this influence takes place. Negative states have a stronger effect on more complex processes, formations, and activities than on simple ones. For example, under the influence of stress or fatigue, intellectual functions (as more complex) decrease first and to a greater extent, and then, to a relatively lesser extent, motor and executive functions (as simpler ones). These two patterns are most important for understanding the specifics of emotional-volitional regulation of states in general, and for its features in management activities.

The main and most general feature of the emotional-volitional regulation of states in management activities is the combination of the following two features. Firstly, it is managerial activity that is characterized by extremely high emotionality and stress, and contains a huge number of reasons for the occurrence of negative emotions and difficult conditions. Secondly, it is she who makes the highest demands on the effectiveness and rigidity of the emotional-volitional regulation of states, which is associated with her responsibility. Apparently, no other activity contains such a wide range of causes and factors that give rise to emotional reactions as management.

In addition to factors associated with the process of activity itself, with its organization, there is an additional and very powerful group of emotional factors associated with interpersonal relationships. The complexity of the content of this activity, the presence of difficult and often extreme conditions for its implementation, combined with high responsibility for its results, form a constant symptom complex of characteristics of management activity. It acts as a source of development of unfavorable mental states, chronic “managerial stress”. At the same time, it is the leader who must “be able to restrain emotions,” “not give in to mood,” and control himself. Moreover, this is necessary not only to reduce the negative impact of emotions and states on his own activities. The point is also that the leader is “constantly in sight,” and any of his undesirable emotional manifestations and states (uncertainty, depression, nervousness, and even panic) are perceived by his subordinates and affect their activities.

Finally, it is management activity that requires the maximum inclusion of volitional processes, and the very concepts of “good leader” and “strong-willed leader” are often used synonymously. All of the above means that both the “world of emotions” and the “world of states”, and the entire spectrum of volitional processes and qualities are manifested in this activity in their maximum expression, most fully and brightly. At the same time, in the psychology of managerial activity, a circle of the most typical aspects of emotional-volitional regulation, which are of greatest importance for its organization, is usually distinguished. These include: the problem of stress in management activities, the problem of the state of frustration, the phenomenon of “readiness for emergency action”, the concept of emotional resistance of a manager, features of the cognitive regulation of dysfunctional states, patterns of expressive processes in management activities.

Motivation

There are two functionally interconnected sides in human behavior: incentive and regulatory. The regulatory side of behavior is responsible for how behavior develops in a specific situation. Incentives provide activation and direction of behavior. The incentive side of behavior associated with the concept of motivation. This concept includes an idea of ​​the needs, interests, goals, intentions, aspirations, motivations that a person has, and the external factors that force him to behave in a certain way.

Determinants of behavior. Any form of behavior can be explained by both internal and external reasons.

In the first case, the psychological properties of the individual (subject of behavior) act as an explanation, this includes, needs, goals, intentions, desires, interests. All psychological factors that, as it were, from within a person, determine his behavior are called personal motives (dispositions). The internal determination of behavior is called dispositional motivation.

In the second case, behavior is determined by external conditions and circumstances of activity. In this case consider incentives based on the current situation. External determination of behavior is called situational motivation.

Almost any human action should therefore be considered as doubly determined: dispositionally and situationally. Dispositional and situational motivations are not independent. Dispositions can be activated under the influence of a certain situation, and, on the contrary, the activation of certain dispositions (motives, needs) leads to a change in the situation, or rather, its perception by the subject. In this case, his attention becomes selective, and the subject himself biasedly perceives and evaluates the situation based on current interests and needs.

In the psychological dictionary, the concept of “motive” has a fairly general interpretation.

Motive (lat. moveo - I move) - 1) a material or ideal “object” that encourages and directs an activity or action, the meaning of which is that with the help of the motive certain needs of the subject are satisfied; 2) the mental image of a given object.

In English-language literature (see, for example, Webster's dictionary) a broader interpretation of the motive is accepted. (motive): something within the subject (need, idea, organic state or emotion) that prompts him to action. Therefore, in order to avoid semantic errors, the word motive should be translated as “impulse”, “state of motivation”, “desire”, “impulse”, “motivation” (and sometimes as “motivation”).

Motivation is a set of motivating factors that cause the activity of an individual and determine the direction of his activities.

The term “motivation” is used in a broad sense in all areas of psychology that study the causes and mechanisms of human and animal behavior. Incentive factors can be divided into two relatively independent classes:

1. needs and instincts as sources of activity;
2. motives as reasons that determine the direction of behavior or activity.

Motive is one of key concepts psychological theory of activity, developed by leading Soviet psychologists A. N. Leontyev and S. L. Rubinstein. The simplest definition of motive within the framework of this theory is: “Motive is a materialized need.” Motive is often confused with need and goal, but need is, in essence, an unconscious desire to eliminate discomfort, and goal is the result of conscious goal setting. For example: thirst is a need, the desire to quench thirst is a motive, and a bottle of water that a person reaches for is a goal.

However, along with this definition, there are several dozen more definitions, which indicates great interest in the phenomenon of motivation, as well as ambiguity in its understanding.

Types of personal motives (dispositions). A motive in a generalized form represents a variety of dispositions.

Of all possible dispositions, the most important is needs. This is the name given to the state of a person’s need for certain conditions necessary for normal existence and development.

The quantity and quality of needs that living beings have depends on the level of their organization, on the way and conditions of life, on the place occupied by the corresponding organism on the evolutionary ladder. Plants that have the least needs mainly need only certain biochemical and physical conditions existence. A person has the most diverse needs, who, in addition to physical and organic needs, also have material, spiritual, social (the latter are specific needs associated with communication and interaction of people with each other).

The main characteristics of human needs are strength, frequency of occurrence and method of satisfaction. An additional characteristic is the substantive content of the need - the totality of those objects of material and spiritual culture with the help of which this need can be satisfied.

The concept second only to need in its motivational significance is target. The goal is the directly conscious result towards which an action is currently directed, satisfying an actualized need. The goal is perceived by a person as the immediate and immediate expected result of his activity. The goal is the main object of attention and occupies the volume of short-term and operative memory; the thought process unfolding at a given moment in time and most of all kinds of emotional experiences are associated with it. Unlike the goal associated with short-term memory, needs are likely to be stored in long-term memory.

In addition to needs and goals, interests, goals, desires and intentions are also considered as drivers of human behavior.

Interest are called a motivational state of a cognitive nature, which is not directly related to any one need that is relevant at a given moment in time. Interest in oneself can be caused by any unexpected event that involuntarily attracts attention to itself, any new object that appears in the field of vision, any auditory or other stimulus that arises.

Task as a motivational factor arises when, in the course of performing an action aimed at achieving a certain goal, the body encounters an obstacle.

Desires and intentions– these are momentarily arising and quite often replacing each other motivational subjective states that meet the changing conditions of the action.

Interests, tasks, desires and intentions, although they participate in the motivation of behavior, however, play not so much an incentive role as an instrumental one. They are more responsible for the style rather than the direction of behavior.

The relevance of the study of the motivational sphere is due to the growing interest in personality psychology, and the motivational sphere is, of course, its core. The increasing complexity of people's activities, their actions, and the changing social situation make the study of the motivation of human behavior an urgent problem in psychology.

The complexity and inconsistency of studying the process of motivation is explained by the fact that each author has his own view of this problem, each interprets the content of this process and the structure of the motive in his own way.

In modern psychology, the term “motive” is used to designate various phenomena and conditions that cause active activity of the subject. The study of the causes of human and animal activity began with the Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers such as Aristotle, Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato and others. But along with significant successes in the field of studying the causes of human behavior, the philosophical movement had a number of shortcomings; philosophers saw man as a unique being, completely different from animals, possessing thinking, consciousness, and freedom of choice. And accordingly, motivation was associated only with reason and will, and the animal’s behavior was determined by biological forces, which made it neither free nor intelligent. Because of this point of view on motivation, the instincts and reflexes in a person that influence his behavior were not taken into account. Subsequently, forms of rational behavior in animals and the struggle of their motives began to be studied. Researchers of that time tried to find common features of animal and human behavior, which sometimes led to the identification of their psyches. At that time, motivation was understood as any reason that causes any reaction in a person or animal. Since the 20s of the 20th century, theories of motivation that relate only to humans have appeared.

Both before and now, the views of psychologists on the essence of motive diverge significantly, but one specific phenomenon, different from different authors, is most often accepted as a motive.

The lack of unity in the understanding of motive leads to the fact that in psychology textbooks it is given a different place: in the sections “Personal Orientation”, or “Will”, or “Activity”. Instead of motives, various manifestations of personality orientation are analyzed. Since motives are closely related to the problem of decision-making, they could be considered in the corresponding chapter of the textbook.

Motive as an incentive. Since the last century, motive has been interpreted as an incentive (driving) force, a reason. This point of view is supported by many authors even now. Moreover, unlike biologists, physiologists, and behavioral psychologists, these psychologists distinguish between the concepts of “stimulus” and “motive”. The motivators (reasons, determinants) of an action, deed, activity can be not only the desires and aspirations of a person, but also external factors(stimuli) that determine certain physiological and mental reactions, including involuntary ones. Consequently, not only and not so much a physiological reaction must be determined, but a mental one, affecting higher levels mental regulation associated with the awareness of a stimulus, with the possibility of giving it a certain significance for the subject, after which only the desire or need to respond to the stimulus appears. Therefore, more and more psychologists are inclined to believe that a motive is not any impulse that arises in the body (understood as a state), but an internal conscious impulse that reflects a person’s readiness for activity (action, deed). From here it is obvious that a stimulus causes (encourages) an action and deed not directly, but indirectly, through a motive: the stimulator of a motive is a stimulus, and the stimulator of an action and deed is a motive (internal conscious urge).

An incentive is not a motive, and not every impulse becomes a motive for human behavior. To accept only an internal conscious impulse as a motive means not to receive an answer to the questions that a motive should answer: why, why (for what purpose), why in this particular way? Inspiration, while fulfilling an energetic role, does not reveal the content side of the motive. What prevents us from accepting only an impulse as a motive is the fact that a person has actions associated with a motivated (justified) refusal to do something. The reason for the refusal is obvious, but the motivation is not.

Motive as a need. The most common opinion is that a person is motivated to activity by a conscious need.

Accepting a need as a motive occurs primarily because it explains, to some extent, why a person began to show or wants to show activity.

Those who oppose this point of view claim that a person’s social activity cannot be explained based only on needs, since his actions and activities are also determined by an awareness of necessity, a sense of duty, etc. Of course, this remark is very significant. However, it is also unlawful to consider needs only as biological. There are also social needs (material, spiritual, for example). It is obvious that for most people, living in accordance with moral standards is not just a necessity, but also a need for self-esteem, and the desire to acquire knowledge is one of the types of spiritual needs of the individual.

The fact that the category of need as understood by psychologists is personal, and not just biological, is clear from considering the relationship between the concepts of “stimulus”, “need” and “demand”. Many psychologists, separating the stimulus from the motive, often identify the stimulus (which can also be a need) with a need. Obviously, we can and should talk about the needs of the body, organic needs, but we must also understand that they are not equivalent to the needs of the individual. So, the body needs oxygen, and a person needs inhalation, a breath of air. Therefore, it is hardly possible to completely agree with the statement that the need exists regardless of whether the subject reflects the corresponding objective deviations mentally. If we are talking about the needs of the body, then yes. If we are talking about a person’s needs, then the following point of view is more correct: a need is a reflection of a need in a person’s consciousness (its awareness and experience). A need that is not reflected in a corresponding experience does not become a stimulus for behavior. The relationship between a person’s need and a need is a relationship between the reflected and the reflected. Need is a mental image of need, transformed into a desire to eliminate this need.

Recognizing that need is related to motive, one cannot ignore a number of points that make it difficult to identify need with motive.

Firstly, the need does not fully explain a specific action or behavior, for example, why it was done this way, for what purpose. After all, the same need can be satisfied by different means and methods.

Secondly, mistaking a need for a motive leads to the fact that they begin to talk about satisfying the motive, not the need. But how can a reason be satisfied? It can only be eliminated.

Thirdly, and this is perhaps the most important thing - taking a need as a motive separates it from the ideal (imagined) goal; consequently, human activity becomes unfocused. In this case, the goal becomes a means of satisfying the motive, and not the need.

Fourthly, if a need is taken as a motive, the questions remain unanswered: why, for what, for what does a person intend to show this activity? That is, the meaning of activity disappears.

Fifthly, taking as a motive, in particular, biological needs (drives, hunger, thirst, etc.) leads to the fact that motives begin to be divided into hereditary and acquired, which is difficult to agree with.

Motive as a subject of need satisfaction. This point of view was put forward by A. N. Leontyev. He writes that a motive is not the experience of a need, but something towards which activity is directed, i.e. item. And an object encourages activity because it has a certain meaning for a person. According to the ideas of Leontyev, who separates the motive not only from the need, but also from the goal (the action of mastering an object), the latter can become a motive if this action acquires its own independent meaning for a person (for example, when some work is performed for the sake of the process itself, because a person gets pleasure from it). In these cases, he argues, there is a shift in motive (and essentially meaning) to the goal. True, he also spoke about incentive motives that lack a meaning-forming function.

The “objectification of need” that occurs according to Leontiev gives the emerging impulse not only meaning, but also direction, which can also be attributed to the asset of his ideas about motive.

However, a number of Leontyev’s statements about the motive provided grounds for both criticism of these provisions and for various interpretations. In particular, it is noted: in order to cause an impulse, the object must actualize the need to which it meets; The motivator is not the object itself, but its meaning for the subject. The subject of need satisfaction is not a motive, but a stimulus that actualizes the need (however, Leontyev himself speaks about this; let us remember his motives-stimuli).

In general, accepting Leontiev’s point of view about the presence of incentive motives can lead to far-reaching consequences. It turns out that it is not needs that lead to the formation of a goal (the object of satisfying a need can be considered precisely as a goal according to the interpretation of the need), but a goal that leads to the formation of not only a need, but also a motive. Of course, such cases are not excluded, but this does not happen as straightforwardly as in Leontyev’s case. The goal must be accepted by the person, otherwise it turns out that as soon as a goal is set in front of him, he becomes motivated.

Agreeing with A. N. Leontyev that the motivation must have a direction, and the motive must have meaning, and that both are connected with the presence of an object for satisfying a need, it is impossible to accept the object even as a goal for the entire motive, since this will again still a one-sided and incomplete explanation of the basis of human voluntary activity. We will not be able to get an answer to the question of why a person committed a given action or deed. After all, the same goal can satisfy different needs, i.e. relate to many reasons.

Motive as intention. Some talk about intentions as motivators of behavior in cases where the latter are decisions made. At the same time, they note that intentions arise on the basis of needs that cannot be satisfied directly and require the implementation of intermediate links that do not have their own motivating force. In this case, intention is the motivator of actions aimed at achieving intermediate goals.

The given definitions of intention emphasize the conscious, volitional nature of the impulse to activity and behavior, which, persisting for a long time, is a vector of human activity aimed at satisfying a given need. Therefore, with this understanding, intention plays the role of a motivational attitude. It is no coincidence that they talk about actions based on intention.

However, knowing a person’s intention, one can only answer the questions of what and how (planning) a person wants to do, what he strives to achieve (setting goals), but one cannot get a direct answer to the question why. Thus, the problem is again only partially solved.

In a number of works, personality traits and character traits are considered as motives. This can be seen as a continuation of the current trend in Western psychology, which distinguishes dispositional, personal, stable and variable factors of motivation. The meaning of this direction is to show that stable personality characteristics (personal dispositions: inclinations, preferences, attitudes, values, worldview, etc.) determine behavior and activity to the same extent as external stimuli. But, as in previous cases, it is wrong to identify them with the motive, although, undoubtedly, they may be most directly related to it.

So, at present, a variety of psychological phenomena are taken as motives and incentives for activity: sometimes motivation as a state, sometimes a goal, sometimes a need, sometimes an intention. At the same time, taking one phenomenon as a motive, they deny the involvement of others in the motive. In some cases, the goal is separated from the motive, in others – the need, in others – both. As a result, it becomes unclear what the motive actually is.

The vagueness of ideas about need, need, purpose, motivation also leads to unclear presentation by the authors of their thoughts. Therefore, along with objective difficulties in resolving the issue of motives, there are also subjective ones that come from the authors themselves.

The disadvantage of many works concerning the problem of motive is that it is considered only as a stable conservative formation, and not a dynamic structure that encourages activity “here and now.” This is especially true for authors who take stable personality characteristics as a motive. Even the following point of view has been put forward: situational motivation is a special psychological formation, different from motive (understood as an objectified need). And the very understanding of need among different authors is very different.

Insufficient attention is paid to taking into account the assessment of the situation when searching for and choosing an item to satisfy a need. And it is no coincidence that when considering the issue of motivation and motive, more attention is paid to their incentive function, i.e. on the energy side (although this has not been sufficiently developed), and much less on the substantive side of the motive, i.e. on motive as the basis of action and deed. And this despite the fact that the concept of “motive” is needed rather not to replace the word “motivation”, but to indicate the content side of the impulse that has arisen, i.e. its foundations.

There is also a lot of uncertainty about where the motivating force comes from. Some believe that from a need, others - from the object of satisfying the need, others - from the personal meaning of the object and action, and fourth - from the emotional experience of the need.

It is obvious that the solution to the dead-end question, which is the question of motive, is possible only with a different approach to it, in which the contradictions that still exist would be removed.

Motive as a complex integral psychological formation. Despite all the differences in views on motive in last years The idea is becoming increasingly clear that the initiation of behavior and activity is determined by a combination of many factors that have their own functions and play their roles in the holistic process of motivation. The way out of this situation is not to convince each other of what exactly is the motive - need, goal, motivation, intention, but to combine existing points of view, since each of them is legitimate to some extent. It is not for nothing that V.S. Merlin gave several definitions of motive, each of which includes one of the named phenomena. And unification is possible if the motive is presented as a complex psychological formation, including a need, an ideal goal, motivation, and intention. The motif is a multidimensional functional formation, but it does not reveal its structure.

The boundaries of the motive are determined, on the one hand, by the need, and on the other, by the motivation to achieve a real goal. Between them are psychological formations that ensure a person’s conscious choice of an object and a method of satisfying a need. We take these psychological formations as motivational determinants (motivators), and the process of motive formation as motivation. Hence motive is a product of motivation, i.e. mental activity, ultimate goal which is the formation of the basis for human activity and motivation to achieve the chosen goal.

Stages of motive formation. The stages of motive formation and their content obviously largely depend on the type of stimuli under the influence of which the formation of a motive begins: physical (external - stimuli, signals; internal - a deficiency of something in the body) and social (request, demand, order).

Let's consider three stages of motive formation, when the stimulus is need.

First stage – a person’s acceptance of a stimulus, the formation of a need and a primary (abstract) motive. For the transition of a need (organic need) into a personal need, it is important that a person accepts this stimulus and makes it significant for himself. And for this it is necessary that 1) the stimulus is understood by the person, i.e. a feeling of hunger, thirst, etc. appeared; 2) this feeling has reached a certain threshold in intensity, beyond which a person begins to worry about the discomfort that has arisen, and experiences this feeling (more often as unpleasant); 3) the person wanted to get rid of this unpleasant experience. Only then does the urge arise to eliminate need as an objective phenomenon. The emergence of this impulse means that a personal need has been formed, which, like a battery, charges with energy all further search activity of a person.

However, in the very needy state of the subject, an object that is capable of satisfying the need is not rigidly written down. Before its first satisfaction, the need “does not know” its object; it must still be discovered. But discovering a specific object (target) is a matter for the future. At this moment, the subject still only understands that he needs to get food, liquid, etc. As a result, an abstract goal first appears (to eat, drink, get food, water, etc.) without specifying it (what to eat, drink) and without thinking through the way to find it.

The psychological formation formed at the first stage can be called a primary (abstract) motive, a raw motive. Leontyev called such motives, when a specific goal is not set, ineffective. It seems, however, that this is not so. The primary motive is effective, since under its influence there arises a desire (impulse) to search for a specific goal, which occurs already at the second stage of motive formation.

Second stage – search activity (internal and external) associated with the selection of possible means of satisfying a need in given circumstances. The significance of this for the formation of a motive was already obvious to Aristotle: “It moves what one wants, and thanks to this it sets the mind in motion, since what is desired represents the starting point for the practical mind.”

Internal search activity is associated with the mental enumeration of specific objects and the conditions for their achievement. It is carried out taking into account many factors (motivators): specific external conditions (the location of the person, the funds available at hand, etc.), the capabilities of the person (the presence of certain knowledge, skills, qualities, financial resources, etc.), moral standards and values ​​(the presence of certain beliefs, ideals, attitudes, attitudes towards something), preferences (inclinations, interests, level of aspirations). This sometimes complex intellectual activity of a person is close in meaning to afferent synthesis in the scheme of the functional system of P.K. Anokhin.

The presence of the second stage of motive formation shows that several reasons and motives accumulate in it: some lead to the emergence of search activity, others lead to the choice of a goal and ways to achieve it. Therefore, it is more correct to consider a motive not as one reason and motivation, but as a combination of several reasons and motivations. The latter, as in a relay race, transfer energy from one stage of the motivational process to another.

In this regard, the existing contradictions in views on the place and role of motivation in the process of motivation, when some believe that the emergence of motivation is the initial link in the formation of a motive, and others that motivation arises after the formation of a motive, become not so significant, since It is obvious that the authors are talking about different motives involved in motivation: in one case, coming from a need, and in the other, from the intention to achieve a goal.

External search activity manifests itself in a person when he finds himself in an unfamiliar environment or does not have the necessary information to make a decision and, under the influence of a primary motive, is forced to search for a real object that could satisfy the need that has arisen (according to the “whatever turns up” principle).

Third stage - choosing a specific goal and forming an intention to achieve it. After considering various options for satisfying a need, a person must settle on something, choose a specific goal and a path to achieve it.

The purpose in everyday life and scientific publications is understood ambiguously. In everyday life, it is most often an object to satisfy a need. It can be understood as the result of activity (“the conscious goal is to assimilate the content of literature”). And this is no coincidence. Naturally, for a person who wants to eat, the goal is food, i.e. item. But getting food is only the first necessary stage of achieving the goal (or the first subgoal). So, when I am hungry, I want not just to find food, but to absorb it, to eat it. The latter is the ultimate goal. Therefore, the mental setting of a specific goal is associated with anticipation of not only the means (object) of satisfying a need, but also the process of satisfying it, as well as the result of this process, including the anticipation of pleasure. In this regard, it is advisable to talk about the goal as a structural formation.

The choice of a specific item and method of satisfying a need is associated with making a decision, which can be justified by a person’s moral and ideological attitudes. In some situations, the decision made is probabilistic in nature, so backup options for satisfying the need are also possible.

Thus, at the third stage, the formation of a specific motive ends, i.e. transformation of a stimulus into a conscious, deliberate urge to action, deed, etc., into an urge of will and intention to achieve a goal. At the same time, the goal is characterized not only by content, but also by level (what result do I need - high or low, what quality of performance will satisfy me). Therefore, decision-making often involves planning the level of the result. Hence the different mobilization of a person, his diligence, perseverance, the different stimulating role of the motive. Hence the connection between motive and self-esteem of capabilities and level of aspirations.

All of the above gives reason to believe that the motive contains a conscious reflection of the future (a model of the required future) based on the use of the experience of the past.

Forming an intention gives a person the motivation to achieve a real and specific goal. At the same time, motivation as an accumulator of motive energy is realized only in the presence of initiation, i.e. self-order and volitional effort. In this regard, the idea of ​​​​the need to separate motivation and initiation deserves attention, since the first acts as internal tension, and the second - as starting a mechanism to discharge it.

The formation of a motive cannot always be imagined as a linear process, in which one stage is consistently and irreversibly replaced by another (without returning to any previous stage). Motivation can be represented as the solution of individual problems, each of which has its own more specific tasks. Moreover, their solution proceeds not only linearly, but most often with cyclical returns to the original subtasks (due to the identification of a low probability of success, high energy costs, or unacceptability of the consequences).

If the intention remains unfulfilled for a number of reasons (the result obtained is not always identical to the ideal goal, obstacles that are insurmountable at the moment have been encountered on the way to achieving the goal, the object of satisfaction of the need has not been found during external search activity), the person experiences a return of the motive to the previous stage of its formation, i.e. .e. it again becomes simply a conscious impulse. It seems logical to speak in such cases about the formation of a dominant latent state, or motivational attitude as potential readiness for voluntary activity in the event of the appearance of an object capable of satisfying the need. This activity can manifest itself either in the search for an object (in the case of delaying the satisfaction of a need, for example, when making a promise to another person to get something), or in the emergence of a new impulse to achieve a previously formulated specific goal. Thus, depending on its stability, a motivational attitude may have the property of its repeated use without the previous formation of the entire structure of the motive, i.e. without going through all the stages described above.

So, the motive formation scheme is presented as follows:

Input: Internal stimulus (organic need, need)
I. Acceptance of the stimulus (emergence of the primary abstract motive):

• Awareness of need (appearance of feelings of hunger, thirst, etc.
• The emergence of a personal need (desire) to eliminate the feeling that has arisen
• The appearance of an abstract goal (ideas or thoughts about food, liquid, etc.
• Drive (motivation to seek a specific goal)

II. Search activity:

• Internal search activity (search for item A, B, C...)
• External search activity
• Taking into account the conditions for achieving the goal
• Preference (inclinations, interests, level of aspirations)
• Moral control (ideals, beliefs, values, attitudes, attitudes)
• Taking into account your capabilities (knowledge, skills, qualities

III. Choosing a specific goal and setting intentions:

• Selecting an item to satisfy a need
• Anticipating the outcome
• Choosing a way to achieve a goal
• Target control
• The emergence of intention (motivation to achieve a specific goal)
• Actions

This scheme for the formation of a motive is to deal with the “motivational bag” that Leontiev spoke about. Firstly, it becomes futile to argue about what is a motive: need, goal, motivation or intention. Secondly, it is obvious that the various psychological phenomena that made up the “motivational bag” were attracted by the authors not by chance, but because of the need to explain the origins of actions and deeds, and almost all find their place in the structure of the motive. Such psychological phenomena as desire, desire, attraction, passion, necessity can be attributed to the need block of motivators formed at the first stage. The selection of certain goals and ways to achieve them (the second stage of motive formation) is associated with inclinations, interests, level of aspirations, taking into account knowledge, skills and qualities, ideals, beliefs, attitudes, values. And the motivation to achieve a goal, desire, intention are associated with the third stage of motive formation.

Emotions also take part in the formation of a motive. At the first stage, this is the experience of need, at the second, emotional memory, which determines the preference for means and ways of satisfying needs, depending on what experiences a person had in connection with a particular goal and the method of achieving it in the past. Emotions fill the need with energy, giving it greater strength and stability. Anticipation of the result of an action or deed is also emotionally colored. Often the purpose of an action is precisely an emotional experience (for example, receiving pleasure from a gift given to someone).

So, all the psychological phenomena listed at the beginning of the article can influence the formation of a motive, determining its structure, but none of them can replace the motive as a whole. Only if they are present in most cases can a motive carry out its functions: incentive, guiding, meaning-forming, stimulating. Removing a need from a motive (or any other motivator from a need block) does not answer the question of where the motivation to find a goal and achieve it came from. Excluding the goal does not clarify the question of why the impulse is directed specifically at a given object. And the conclusion of the phenomena through which the means and ways to achieve the goal are filtered at the second stage leaves open the following questions: why preference is given to this particular goal and this path; what meaning (meaning) this or that action or action has for a person.

Let us now consider the second option - when the formation of a motive is determined by external stimuli: signals, requests, demands, orders.

The formation of a motive begins with the perception of an external stimulus. Then there is an awareness of the meaning and significance of the stimulus for a given person at a certain moment (acceptance of external requirements and the emergence of a desire or drive to respond to it (fulfill a request or order, take possession of an attractive object). Thus, in this case, the motive begins with the formation of a need formation. Even when a person finds himself in a situation of undesirable necessity, his acceptance of a request or order (i.e., understanding that their implementation is mandatory) is associated with some kind of need. Indeed, students attend an unloved lesson not because they want to avoid trouble and not spoil their report card, but but for the sake of satisfying the need for self-esteem; workers perform unpleasant work to satisfy material and spiritual needs, etc. Thus, the understanding of the need to do something is based on some kind of need, which is actualized precisely by this understanding. It is not for nothing that such cases are classified as “quasi-needs” "

But a person’s refusal to fulfill a request or order is also motivated. Only in this case the motive is formed not for the action, but for the deed. However, they are often inseparable from each other.

The peculiarity of the formation of a motive in the case under consideration is that a person perceives an external stimulus as a specific goal. In this regard, the second and third stages of motive formation turn out to be unnecessary in expanded form. The exception is when a person is given a non-specific goal (get something, do something, etc.) or he has no experience in achieving it. Then the formation of the motive unfolds according to the scheme, excluding the formulation of an abstract goal:

Entrance. The specified goal in the form of: requests, demands, orders, instructions, orders
I. Acceptance of the stimulus and actualization of the need:

• Awareness of the given goal and its significance for others
• Actualization of the needs for self-esteem, self-preservation (avoidance of punishment.

II. Search activity:

• Awareness of the significance of the goal for oneself, taking into account:
• the need for action in connection with the role performed, a sense of duty
• consequences in case of consent or refusal
• own interests
• Accounting for opportunities
• Taking into account the situation

III. Formation of intention:

• Decision-making
• Intention (motivation to action)
• Action
• Real goal

The third option for forming a motive is if a person has a motivational attitude. If the stimulus is a signal to begin some action, then the motivational attitude is expressed in the expectation of this signal (the starter's shot at sports competitions, the teacher's permission, etc.) and the readiness to respond to it in the presence of a predetermined goal and action plan. When the “motivating power of things” acts as a stimulus, then the desire to possess this thing manifests itself as a motivational attitude. For example, a person, seeing in a store the necessary thing that he had been looking for for a long time, without hesitation, buys it, since the intention to purchase it is already embedded in the motivational setting.
Thus, with actions and actions performed with the help of a motivational attitude, the formation of motivation at the moment turns out to be curtailed, since all internal search activity was carried out earlier.

The structure of the motive. Consideration of the stages of motive formation, i.e. motivation process, made it possible to determine those components that may be included in the structure of the motive. These components, in accordance with the stages, can be classified into three blocks: need, “internal filter” and target.

The first block includes such components as social and biological needs, obligation and motivational attitude; in the second - moral control, assessment of the external situation and one’s capabilities, preferences, interests, inclinations, level of aspirations; in the third - the need goal (satisfy hunger, thirst, etc.), an objectified action (pour water, solve a problem, etc.) and the process of satisfying the need (drink, eat, move, etc.).

The components of the need block must explain why a person had the urge to do something; “internal filter” - why this impulse began to be realized in this particular way (or why the subject refused to satisfy the need); purpose - why this action or deed is performed, what is its meaning.

In each specific case, the motive is built from a combination of these components, acting as building blocks. Moreover, the motive for a given act or activity may include one or two components from each block or only from the first and third (if the task of satisfying the need is simple). Consequently, the set of components in each specific motif may be different. But the similarity of the structure of motives between two persons does not mean their identity in semantic content. After all, each person has his own inclinations, interests, values, self-esteem, etc.

A struggle of motives or a struggle within a motive? It is common to talk about a struggle of motives. In essence, the struggle occurs between various psychological phenomena included in the structure of the motive. This mental state of a person, which is characterized by a clash of several desires or several different motivations for activity, is usually called a struggle of motives. The struggle of motives includes a broad mental discussion by a person of those reasons that speak “for” and “against” the need to act in a certain direction, a discussion of exactly how to act. The final moment of the struggle of motives is making a decision, choosing a goal and method of action: a person decides to act in a certain direction, giving preference to some goals and motives and rejecting others. Thus, in essence, the struggle takes place within the motive, and not between motives.

Awareness of motives. There are different points of view regarding the awareness of motives. Some argue that motives can be both unconscious (drives) and clearly conscious. Other authors argue that only goals, not motives, are realized. In connection with the stated point of view on the structure of a motive, the question arises: is it possible for a person to not be aware of anything in a motive and can he be aware of everything in it equally clearly?

Of course, if only an attitude or drive is taken as a motive, then it can be considered unconscious or poorly understood. But if attitude and drive are considered components of a motive, then only its individual components can be unconscious or poorly realized, and not the entire motive. And the need, and the goal, and the reasons for choosing goals, and the ways to achieve them are conscious. Human actions are determined mainly by conscious goals. Therefore, a motive is a consciously, deliberately formed and, as a rule, verbalized stimulator of human activity. Motive can be defined as the verbalization of a goal and program.

At the same time, there may be cases when awareness of all components of the motive is not required, for example, when performing habitual stereotypical actions. In this case, many of its components - especially from the "internal filter" block - are implied rather than realized. For example, answering the question: “Why did you help your friend?” – on the surface of consciousness there is often a component of the motive that reflects the assessment of the situation: “He feels bad,” “It’s difficult for one,” “There is no one else,” “No one else wanted to do this.” Of course, in these cases, the assessment of the situation became the reason for the manifestation of undeclared morality.

In general, the statement “what we call a conscious motive includes moments of unconscious and not fully conscious” can be considered fair, but such a point of view should lead to the recognition of motive as a multicomponent formation. Otherwise, it is not clear what unconscious moments we are talking about.

Some talk about realizing the motive after the fact. But if the motive is realized only after the commission of an action or deed, then where could a consciously set goal or a method of achieving it come from? Obviously, this understanding of the awareness of the motive was a consequence of the fact that instead of it, individual components are accepted: inclinations, drives, attitudes.

A number of circumstances prevent the awareness of all components of the motive: the subject’s refusal for a number of reasons, including moral ones, to engage in introspection of his behavior (unwillingness to look bad in his own eyes); “serving” several needs at once with the same goal or achieving several goals simultaneously while satisfying one need, etc. Therefore, when answering questions about the reasons for actions and actions, subjects most often limit themselves to designating only one of the components included in the structure of the motive. In some cases, instead of a motive, external circumstances and incentives are indicated.

It is necessary to distinguish between determination (more general concept) from motivation, which is one of its varieties. “The inclusion of consciousness in the determination of human activity gives rise to a specific type of determination. Determination through motivation is determination through the significance of phenomena for a person,” wrote S. L. Rubinstein. Motivation is the conscious formation of a motive as the first stage of a deliberate (volitional) act. Motive is a complex psychological integral formation that encourages a person to conscious actions and actions and serves as the basis for them. This idea of ​​motive allows us to recognize the majority psychological phenomena, considered by different authors as motives, only its components and thereby dismantle the “motivational bag” that Leontiev spoke about. The staged formation of a motive makes it possible to distinguish primary (abstract) and concrete motives, differing in the presence of an abstract or concrete goal. All this allows us to substantiate Rubinstein’s point of view on motive as the core of the subject, since it is closely connected with the orientation of the individual, activity and behavior, with decision-making, moral choice, With arbitrary regulation actions and deeds.

There is reason to talk not about the struggle of motives, but about the struggle within the motive, about the full or partial awareness of its structure, which includes components from three blocks: the need, the “internal filter” and the target.

Motivation. Motivation appears as a process of motive formation.

However, along with this understanding, another thing is possible - motivation is a set of motives for behavior and activity. Motivation is a system of factors that determine behavior. Motivation can be defined as a set of psychological reasons that explain human behavior. In this case, to assess motivation, the same parameters are used - strength and stability - as when assessing motive. Along with them, others are used - plurality, structure, hierarchy.

Plurality characterizes the development of content, i.e. a sufficient number of motives. The structure of motivation is assessed by how these motives are related to each other within one level. Hierarchy is determined on the basis of dominance different groups motives.

Cognitive processes

Aspects of mental "behavior" that relate to abstract manipulation of material. The term is usually used in relation to concepts such as thinking, memory and perception.

Psychology. AND I. Dictionary reference / Transl. from English K. S. Tkachenko. - M.: FAIR PRESS. Mike Cordwell. 2000.

See what “Cognitive processes” are in other dictionaries:

Cognitive processes- Mental processes are processes conditionally identified in the holistic structure of the psyche. The identification of mental processes is a purely conditional division of the psyche into constituent elements, which appeared due to the significant influence of mechanistic concepts on ... ... Wikipedia

COGNITIVE PROCESSES- human cognitive processes, including his sensations, perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking, speech... Glossary of terms for psychological counseling

Cognitive processes- a set of processes that ensure the transformation of sensory information from the moment a stimulus hits the receptor surfaces to the receipt of a response in the form of knowledge... Human psychology: dictionary of terms

Cognitive processes- (Cognitive processes). The mental processes that give us the ability to both explain and predict... Personality Theories: Glossary

Cognitive therapies- Computational theory is a group of loosely related approaches that emphasize cognitive processes as determinants of behavior. They are based on the assertion that behavior and emotions are ch. arr. a consequence of the individual’s assessment of the situation, and... ... Psychological Encyclopedia

COGNITIVE STRATEGIES- COGNITIVE STRATEGIES. Mental processes aimed at processing information for learning purposes. Focused on assimilation, storage and retrieval of information from memory. Lexical strategies that are part of communicative competence... ... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)

Cognitive abilities- K. s. can also be considered as properties inherent in all people as a biologist. mind, for example the ability to master the native language, and as properties that vary from individual to individual or from one group of people to others, for example. verbal or... Psychological Encyclopedia

3.1 General model of perception

3.4 Mechanism and patterns of the perception process

Conclusion. Significance of Cognitive Psychology Research

Bibliography

1. Introduction. Cognitive psychology. Short story

In recent years, interest in the study of cognitive processes has been steadily growing. Until the early 50s, issues related to the theory of knowledge were considered in works on philosophy and logic. In the early 50s, specialists in the field of psychology began to intensively study the mechanisms of cognition. The first studies were devoted to studying the mechanisms of perception.

Currently, more complex cognitive mechanisms are being studied, such as decision-making, learning, memory, etc.

The term “cognition” began to be used not only to designate the process of formation of scientific knowledge, but also to designate psychological process formation of everyday ideas.

A natural approach to studying the phenomenon of cognition, based on data from psychological and neurophysiological studies of the mechanisms of cognition, is called cognitive science.

Currently, cognitive science is becoming an important object of research, necessary to solve one of the strategic tasks of civilization, the goal of which is to develop methods for conscious control of personality and the creation of humanoid robots.

2. Modeling of cognitive processes in psychology

Modern research on cognitive functions proves that cognition can be known, i.e. the object of research can be studied using the same object. Research tools can be:

the ability to sense perception,

introspection of the mental and intellectual life of the subject.

There are 2 methodological approaches to the study of cognitive processes: phenomenological and neurophysiological.

The phenomenological approach describes the observable manifestations of the cognitive process (the field of cognitive psychology).

The neurophysiological approach explains the process of cognition based on the action of physiological mechanisms.

2.1 Types of cognitive processes

The basic basis of cognitive research is that an individual has two realities: mental and “real” (objective). “Real” reality is given to a person through the senses. It does not change as a result of the cognitive process.

The mental model is constructed by the individual in the process of cognition and is given to him from birth as a product of evolutionary development. The mental model allows the individual to navigate the “real” reality and ensures his survival. This is one of the goals of the cognitive process.

Traditionally, psychology recognizes two types of cognitive processes: explicit and automatic (hidden, subconscious). They are interdependent.

Explicit mechanisms of cognition are observable through introspection, i.e. are recognized by the individual. An important feature of the explicit mechanism is the purposeful nature of its activity, regulated by volitional effort. With the help of explicit mechanisms, a conscious problem is solved.

Hidden processes are studied using psychological experiments. As a result of experiments, it was shown that latent cognitive abilities are acquired, and some of them are innate. The current mainstream view is that unconscious categorization occurs at the level of hidden cognitive mechanisms that can be trained.

2.2 Purpose of cognitive modeling

The purpose of cognitive modeling is to build a model of human intellectual behavior, where consciousness is represented as an information machine.

2.3 Functional diagram of the cognitive process

Functional diagrams are used to specify the cognitive process as an information process. Block diagrams are built from functional blocks interconnected by information flows. A rough functional diagram of the cognitive process describes cognitive activity as a process of interaction of functional blocks. The scheme includes both automatic functioning cognitive functions and intellectual functions.

The circuit consists of functional blocks:

receptor area - primary information analysis

perception systems: visual, auditory, skin-kinesthetic, gustatory, olfactory. They provide multi-level operation of information and complex reflex processes.

memory is considered as a complex repository of knowledge and sensory information. The most important issue that memory researchers are trying to solve is the study of the mechanism of knowledge representation in memory and the functions performed by memory in various cognitive processes.

representation, where the synthesis of perception, conceptual knowledge and figurative code is carried out. Representation is built in the process of shaping behavior “here” and “now”. They are built automatically, unconsciously. The construction process uses frames contained in memory or knowledge systems. Constructing a frame-based representation consists of finding a suitable representation and updating it according to the perceived information. The ability to generate representations is innate and can be improved over the course of life.

Cognitive research studies the actual mental mechanisms of reasoning. In cognitive research, there are two types of inferences: normative and heuristic.

By normative inference we mean a conclusion in which the subject can justify the choice of a model of relevant initial information and justify each step of reasoning.

A heuristic conclusion is reasoning that may not have a strict justification, but by following it an individual often achieves success in his activities.

3. The problem of perception in cognitive science

Research in cognitive science studies the processes of perception. Perception is studied using instrumental methods as a natural phenomenon, and introspection is given the role of a heuristic technique.

IN Lately Computer modeling is becoming an important technique in cognitive research. For example, Goldstone considered the possibility of neural networks modeling human classification abilities. It was concluded that neural networks do not fully model human classification processes.

The general trend of modern research corresponds to an engineering approach, the goal of which is to link a number of known models of individual aspects of perception into a single system:

formation of a code (image) of a perceived object

comparison of information received from the senses with codes

the formation of a representation in which both conceptual knowledge and information perceived “here” and “now” are presented.

All these functions have high degree automaticity, do not depend on the volitional message and are not amenable to introspective observations.

3.1 General model of perception

It has now been proven that human perception has a creative power, the actions of which are subject to certain objective laws.

The perception system is divided into subsystems: visual, olfactory, auditory, skin-kinesthetic and gustatory. They are adaptive systems capable of learning and anticipating situations. The goal of these systems is to provide high accuracy and speed of perception.

The general model of perception is as follows:

receptors carry out primary encoding of external information and analyze it according to physical qualities (intensity, duration).

further, information travels along nerve fibers to parts of the brain located in the back cerebral hemisphere. These departments are responsible for deep multi-stage processing of information. There, a plan of perceptual actions is formed and images are formed.

The process is controlled by innate and acquired skills, as well as with the help of attention, which in turn depends on the tasks solved by the individual and his volitional efforts. By studying innate and acquired skills, it is possible to reconstruct the algorithm of their work.

3.2 Structure of the perception model

The subject's perceptual experience is formed in the process of perceptual activity. Zinchenko identified the following types of perceptual actions:

detection of adequate task information features

examination of selected signs

As a result of perceptual action, various cognitive structures are formed.

3.3 Problems of visual code in the works of psychologists

In cognitive psychology, a large number of hypotheses have been formulated regarding cognitive structures automatically formed in the process of perception.

The hypothesis that figurative schemes are associated with visual codes requires careful consideration. In codes, information is presented in a compressed and generalized form. The mechanisms of code formation are developed in the process of evolution and depend on the biological species of the perceiver and his genetically determined abilities.

To understand the visual code, psychologists distinguish between the code of a part of an object and the general code of an object.

An object part code occurs if it is part of a stimulus:

important for solving the problem

has some independence from other parts of the stimulus

occurs quite often when training on such stimuli. Part code cannot exist in isolation without being part of something.

Cognitive processes are mental processes that perform the function of rational cognition (from the Latin cognitio - knowledge, cognition, study, awareness).

The concept of “cognitive”: cognitive processes, cognitive psychology and cognitive psychotherapy - became widespread in the 60s of the 20th century, during the fascination with cybernetics and electronic modeling of intellectual processes, which grew into the habit of representing a person as a complex biocomputer. Researchers have tried to model all mental processes occurring in humans. What we managed to model was called cognitive processes. What didn’t work out was affective.

Thus, in fact, the concept of “cognitive processes” received a similar, but slightly different meaning. In practice, “cognitive” refers to mental processes that can be represented as a logical and meaningful sequence of actions for processing information.

Or: which can be reasonably modeled in terms of information processing, where logic and rationality can be discerned in information processing.

Cognitive processes usually include memory, attention, perception, understanding, thinking, decision-making, action and influence - to the extent or to the extent that they are occupied by cognitive processes and not by something else (drives, entertainment...). To greatly simplify, we can say that this is competence and knowledge, abilities and skills.

Affective processes are mental processes that cannot be reasonably modeled. First of all, these are the processes of an emotional and sensory attitude to life and interaction with the world, oneself and people. Also, to simplify, these are usually feelings and premonitions, desires and impulses, impressions and experiences.

For example

Rational perception is an analytical, critical perception, different from intuition and living impression. “The ice cream is delicious, but it’s not the right time for a sore throat. Let’s put it off!”

Rational understanding is understanding through concepts and logic, as opposed to empathy, empathy and feeling, that is, emotional, bodily and experiential ways of understanding.

Rational influence is explanation and persuasion that appeals to a person's reason. Suggestion, emotional contagion, anchoring and other means that influence a person in an unreasonable way are classified as irrational means of influence.

Rational thinking is logical and conceptual thinking, or at least directed in this direction. People in the process of life and communication do not always think, quite successfully making do with feelings, habits and automatisms, but when a person turns on his head, he thinks (at least tries to think) rationally. See Rational and irrational thinking

Cognitive processes and emotions

Emotions are classified primarily as affective processes, since they are difficult to model rationally.

No one knows what emotion a woman will sometimes express, including herself...

On the other hand, some emotions arise quite naturally, as a result of understandable programs, established habits or certain benefits. In this case, such emotions can be attributed to cognitive processes, or, in another language, the cognitive component of such emotions can be studied.

Rational and emotional

About the complex relationships between the rational and the emotional, see>