Morality and religion. Moral standards and principles

Morality is a conditional concept of rules, principles, assessments, norms based on the paradigm of assessments of evil and good, which was formed in a certain period of time. This is a model of social consciousness, a method of regulating the behavior of a subject in society. It develops both in individual and social forms of subjective relations.

The concept of morality from the point of view considered by psychologists is a fragment of the human psyche, formed at a deep level, responsible for assessing events occurring in various planes with the meaning of good and bad. The word morality is often used as a synonym for the word morality.

What is morality

The word "morality" originates from the classical Latin language. It is derived from "mos" Latin word meaning - character, custom. Referring to Aristotle, Cicero, guided by this meaning, formed the words: “moralis” and “moralitas” - moral and ethics, which became equivalent to expressions from Greek language: ethics and ethical.

The term “morality” is mainly used to designate the type of behavior of society as a whole, but there are exceptions, for example, Christian or bourgeois morality. Thus, the term is used only in relation to a limited group of the population. Analyzing the attitude of society in different eras of existence to the same action, it should be noted that morality is a conditional value, variable in connection with the accepted social structure. Each nation has its own morality, based on experience and traditions.

Some scientists have also noted that different rules Morals apply not only to subjects of different nationalities, but also to subjects belonging to an “out-group.” The definition of a group of people in the vector “friend”, “stranger” occurs at the psychological level of the individual’s relationship with this group in various senses: cultural, ethnic, and others. By identifying himself with a specific group, the subject accepts those rules and norms (morality) that are accepted in it; consider this way of life more fair than following the morality of the whole society.

Man knows a large number of meanings of this concept, which is interpreted from various points of view in various sciences, but its basis remains constant - this is a person’s definition of his actions, the actions of society in the equivalent of “good or bad”.

Morality is created on the basis of the paradigm adopted in a particular society, since the designations of “good or bad” are relative, not absolute, and the explanation of the morality or immorality of various types of acts is conditional.

Morality, as a combination of rules and norms of society, is formed over a long period on the basis of traditions and laws adopted in a particular society. For comparison, you can use the example associated with the burning of witches - women who were suspected of using magic and witchcraft. In a period such as the Middle Ages, against the background of adopted laws, such an action was considered a highly moral act, that is, good. In the modern paradigm of adopted laws, such atrocity is considered an absolutely unacceptable and stupid crime against the subject. At the same time, you can put such incidents as holy wars, genocide or slavery. In their era, in a particular society with its own laws, such actions were accepted as the norm and were considered absolutely moral.

The formation of morality is directly related to the evolution of various ethnic groups of humanity in its social key. Scientists who study the social evolution of peoples consider morality to be the result of the influence of the forces of evolution on the group as a whole and on individuals individually. Based on their understanding, behavioral norms prescribed by morality change during the evolution of humanity, ensuring the survival of species and their reproduction, and guaranteeing the success of evolution. Along with this, the subject forms in himself a “pro-social” fundamental part of the psyche. As a result, a feeling of responsibility for what was done, a feeling of guilt, is formed.

Accordingly, morality is a certain set of behavioral norms that is formed over a long period of time, under the influence of environmental conditions at a certain moment it forms a set of established ideological norms that contribute to the development of human cooperation. It is also aimed at avoiding the individualism of the subject in society; formation of groups united by a common worldview. Sociobiologists consider this point of view in a number of species of social animals; there is a desire to change behavior aimed at survival and preservation of one’s own species during the period of evolution. Which corresponds to the formation of morality, even in animals. In humans, moral norms are more sophisticated and diverse, but they are also concentrated on preventing individualism in behavior, which contributes to the formation of nationalities and, accordingly, increases the chances of survival. It is believed that even such norms of behavior as parental love are consequences of the evolution of human morality - this type of behavior increases the level of survival of offspring.

Studies of the human brain conducted by sociobiologists determine that the parts of the subject's cerebral cortex that are involved when a person is preoccupied with moral issues do not form a separate cognitive subsystem. Often, during the period of solving moral problems, areas of the brain are activated that localize the neural network responsible for the subject’s ideas about the intentions of others. To the same extent it is involved neural network, responsible for the individual’s representation of the emotional experiences of other individuals. That is, when solving moral problems, a person uses those parts of his brain that correspond to empathy and compassion, this indicates that morality is aimed at developing mutual understanding between subjects (an individual’s ability to see things through the eyes of another subject, to understand his feelings and experiences). According to the theory of moral psychology, morality as such develops and changes as the personality develops. There are several approaches to understanding the formation of morality at the personal level:

– cognitive approach(Jean Piaget, Lorenz Kohlberg and Eliot Turiel) – morality in personal development goes through several constructive stages or areas;

– biological approach (Jonathan Haidt and Martin Hoffman) – morality is considered against the background of the development of the social or emotional component of the human psyche. Interesting for the development of the doctrine of morality as a psychological component of personality is the approach of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who suggested that morality is formed as a consequence of the desire of the “superego” to get out of a state of guilt.

What are moral standards

Fulfillment of moral norms is the moral duty of the subject; violation of these measures of behavior represents a feeling of moral guilt.

Moral norms in society are generally accepted measures of subject behavior that arise from formed morality. The totality of these norms forms a certain system of rules, which in all respects differ from the normative systems of society such as customs, rights and ethics.

In the early stages of formation, moral norms were directly related to religion, which prescribes the meaning of divine revelation to moral norms. Each religion has a set of certain moral norms (commandments) that are mandatory for all believers. Failure to comply with prescribed moral standards in religion is considered a sin. In various world religions, there is a certain pattern in accordance with moral standards: theft, murder, adultery, and lies are undeniable rules of behavior for believers.

Researchers studying the formation of moral norms put forward several directions in understanding the meaning of these norms in society. Some believe that compliance with the rules prescribed in morality is a priority in the guise of other norms. Followers of this trend attribute certain properties to these moral norms: universality, categoricalness, immutability, cruelty. The second direction, which is being studied by scientists, suggests that the attribution of absolutism, generally accepted and obligatory moral norms acts as someone.

In terms of the form of manifestation, some moral norms in society are similar to legal norms. So the principle “thou shalt not steal” is common to both systems, but by asking the question why a subject follows this principle, one can determine the direction of his thinking. If a subject follows a principle because he is afraid of legal liability, then his act is legal. If the subject confidently follows this principle, because theft is a bad (evil) act, the vector of direction of his behavior follows the moral system. There are precedents in which compliance with moral standards is contrary to the law. The subject, considering it his duty, for example, to steal medicine in order to save his loved one from death does the morally right thing, while absolutely breaking the law.

Studying the formation of moral norms, scientists came to a certain classification:

– norms affecting questions about the existence of an individual as a biological being (murder);

– norms on the independence of the subject;

– norms of trust (loyalty, truthfulness);

– norms relating to the dignity of the subject (honesty, justice);

– norms about other moral norms.

Functions of morality

Man is a creature with freedom of choice and he has every right to choose the path of following moral standards or vice versa. This choice of a person who puts good or evil on the scales is called a moral choice. Having such freedom of choice in real life the subject is faced with a difficult task: to follow the personal or blindly follow the ought. Having made a choice for himself, the subject bears certain moral consequences, for which the subject himself is responsible, both to society and to himself.

Analyzing the features of morality, we can extract several of its functions:

– Regulation function. Following moral principles leaves a certain mark on the consciousness of the individual. The formation of certain views of behavior (what is allowed to be done and what is not allowed) occurs from an early age. This kind of action helps the subject to adjust his behavior in line with usefulness not only for himself, but also for society. Moral norms are capable of regulating the individual beliefs of the subject to the same extent as the interaction between groups of people, which favors the preservation of culture and stability.

– Evaluation function. Morality evaluates actions and situations occurring in a social society in terms of good and evil. The actions that have taken place are assessed for their usefulness or negativeness for further development; after this, each action is given an assessment from the moral side. Thanks to this function, the subject forms the concept of belonging to society and develops his own position in it.

– Function of education. Under the influence of this function, a person develops an awareness of the importance of not only his own needs, but also the needs of the people who surround him. A feeling of empathy and respect arises, which contributes to the harmonious development of relationships in society, understanding moral ideals another individual, contributes to a better understanding of each other.

– Control function. Determines control over the use of moral norms, as well as condemnation of their consequences at the societal and individual levels.

– Integration function. Following moral standards unites humanity into a single group, which supports the survival of man as a species. It also helps maintain the integrity of the spiritual world of the individual. The key functions of morality are: evaluative, educational and regulatory. They reflect the social significance of morality.

Morals and ethics

The term ethics has Greek origin from the word "ethos". The use of this word denoted actions or actions of a person that were powerful to him personally. Aristotle defined the meaning of the word "ethos" as the virtue of a subject's character. Subsequently, it was customary that the word “ethicos” is ethos, meaning something related to the temperament or disposition of the subject. The emergence of such a definition led to the formation of the science of ethics - the study of the virtues of the character of the subject. In the culture of the ancient Roman Empire there was a word “moralis” - defining a wide range of human phenomena. Later, a derivative of this term “moralitas” appeared - relating to customs or character. Analyzing the etymological content of these two terms (“moralitas” and “ethicos”), it should be noted that their meanings coincide.

Many people know that such concepts as “morality” and “ethics” are close in meaning, and they are also often considered interchangeable. Many people use these concepts as extensions of each other. Ethics, first of all, is a philosophical direction that studies moral issues. Often the expression “ethics” is used to designate specific moral principles, traditions, and customs that exist among subjects of a limited group of society. The Kantian system views the word morality, using it to denote the concept of duty, principles of behavior and obligations. The word "ethics" uses Aristotle's system of reasoning to denote virtue, the inseparability of moral and practical considerations.

The concept of morality, as a system of principles, forms a set of rules that are based on many years of practice, and allows a person to determine the style of behavior in society. Ethics is a section of philosophy and theoretical justification of these principles. IN modern world the concept of ethics has retained its original designation as a science in the ranks of philosophy that studies human properties, real phenomena, rules and norms, which are moral norms in society.

The word “morality” (from the Latin mos, mores - disposition, mores, customs) means in modern language approximately the same thing as the word “morality”. Therefore, most experts do not make a strict distinction between morality and morality and consider these words to be synonyms.

Morality is embodied in the norms and rules governing people's behavior and their relationships. Every social action, that is, every human action, has its own moral depth, its own measure of morality; along with the objective result specific to each individual case, it produces and reproduces certain moral values. Moral values ​​do not exist separately from technology, material content and the result of actions, although, of course, they cannot be reduced to them. The entire diverse range of bodily and objective manifestations of human activity can serve as a way of fixing morality: facial expressions, gestures, speech, silence, clothing, housing, etc. - behind all this can and in fact, as a rule, hides a certain moral position.

Morality as a social attitude in its, so to speak, pure form is revealed (reflected) in moral consciousness, in moral feelings and concepts. Feelings (guilt, remorse, etc.), requirements (personal virtues, norms, codes, etc.), other manifestations of moral consciousness are specific forms of description moral relations, they, in fact, are their immediate reality Zelenkova I.L. Basics of ethics. M., 1998. P. 157.

The opposition of good and evil is specific to morality, but it, of course, does not exhaust its content. Good and evil, like other moral concepts (duty, honesty, etc.), are fundamentally specific forms of social relations between individuals, the objective properties of their actions. In this sense, moral consciousness is a reflection and expression of moral relations, a way of fixing them. Therefore, it is not surprising that definitions of morality very often contain a logical circle, namely a reference to themselves moral concepts, first of all, on the concepts of good and evil, which are fundamental in ethics. Without recourse to the data of moral consciousness, it is impossible to identify morality. We can say that morality is such a quality of social relations between individuals that allows them to be characterized within the framework of the opposition of good and evil Lossky N.O. Conditions of absolute goodness. Basics of ethics. M., 1991. P. 203..

To show the uniqueness of morality, we will try to briefly compare it with science. They differ from each other in subject matter, goals, and methods of functioning. The subject of science is the world in itself, in its objective, internally lawful connections; Science deals with the question of what certain things and processes are. The subject area of ​​morality is different; it can be indicated by the question: how should we relate to things, to the world? Moreover, we mean only such an attitude of the individual to the world, which is realized in free choice. Morality deals with human behavior; it expresses the internal, indissoluble connection between social individuals, which is a way of their self-creation. For example, the laws of planetary motion fall within the purview of science; they are completely alien to morality and are not subject to moral qualification. On the other hand, the question of whether parents should use physical punishment on their children is primarily a moral one and has no direct relationship to science. It is possible, of course, to subject it to a rationally reasoned analysis, which is partly what is done in pedagogy and ethics, but the conclusions obtained do not change the essence of the matter, for parents do not beat their children because they are ignorant, and they stop doing this not because they have become enlightened.

The main goal of science can be defined as the production of knowledge, science moves within the framework of the alternative of truth and error. Morality produces values, reveals the degree of humanity of the processes of the external world and moves within the framework of the alternative of good and evil. For example, the statement about the existence of Atlantis can be true or false, it is outside the opposition of good and evil, while, say, the question of the admissibility of adultery is by its nature a value-based one and can only be understood on the basis of the concepts of good and evil, it has little connection with the alternative of truth and error.

Science and morality also differ in the ways they function in the living individual. The psychological driving force of science is the mind. The psychological foundations of morality are much broader; they are also rooted in the emotional-unconscious sphere. Thus, whether a person can grasp the theory of relativity or not depends on the power of his intellect, but the reasons why he is stingy or generous are not reducible to the state of his mind.

Knowledge is acquired through the learning process, while moral values ​​are acquired through living experience of communication, largely being the result of skill and habit. A person, for example, cannot become a man of honor and duty only through the assimilation of books, even if he reads “Nicomachean Ethics” or “Critique of Practical Reason”: for this he needs to practice appropriate actions every day. On the other hand, he will not be able to assimilate the philosophy of Aristotle and Kant by developing certain habits, even if it is the habit of reading Bondarenko Yu.Ya. At the origins of modern morality. M., 1991. P. 64.

Morality is not the result of human arbitrariness; it is objectively determined and acts as a necessary form of self-realization for social individuals. To think that a person can change suddenly, in any direction, that he can develop in himself any moral qualities and follow any principle, and that the task is, in fact, to come up with the most faithful, true principle, to think so is to best case scenario indulge in romantic illusion. Social and moral behavior has its own strict logic and, perhaps, no less strict than the causality of nature.

Moral theory inevitably takes on a philosophical character. Morality, as already mentioned, permeates all the diversity of connections public person, all types and specific manifestations of its socially significant activities. This “everywhere”, “omnipresence” of morality makes it extremely difficult, and in addition to the unusual individualization of moral manifestations, simply excludes the possibility of its holistic description by accurate, empirical methods. Even the father of ethical science, Aristotle, noted that in it we are dealing with truth on a large scale and with consequences that are more likely than necessary, and that the degree of accuracy allowed in ethics differs from the degree of accuracy inherent, for example, in mathematics and astronomy. Due to the nature of morality, there is no other means of penetrating into its essence and identifying its specificity as an integral phenomenon other than abstraction. A number of considerations show that abstraction itself in this case inevitably acquires a philosophical character. Real moral life is divided into two levels: on the one hand, the relatively independent realm of moral consciousness, and on the other, the world of moral relations, the actual value values ​​of real forms of social relations between people. Moral theorists are faced with questions about how these two levels relate to each other, the relationship of moral principles to the living practice of moral behavior, to the moral foundations of the way of life itself. The answer to them turns out to be a specification of the main question of philosophy and depends on the initial philosophical position of the researcher. The fundamental historical flaw of idealistic ethics is that it takes subjective manifestations of morality for morality itself and interprets it as a set of abstract norms and virtues.

Further, one of the central problems over which all moral theorists struggled was to comprehend morality in its relationship with other factors of human existence. It was formulated as the relationship between virtue and happiness, virtue and benefit, moral perfection and success in life, duty and inclinations, categorical and conditional imperatives, etc. The problem was not always posed in an adequate form, but it was always about clarifying the relationship of morality to the economic, political and other objective goals of man and society. There is no need to prove that the solution to this problem directly depends on the general socio-philosophical theory and objectively leads to a certain general philosophical view of society Frank S.L. Essays. M., 1990. P. 314..

Idealistic ethics tends to absolutize morality. She views it as an end in itself, as a kind of independent kingdom located on the other side of causality. It turns a moral man into a moral man. In it, morality is alienated from specific individuals and confronts them in the form of eternal and unconditional laws, requirements, and rules. Morality is interpreted as a force designed to dominate individuals. It is assumed that being moral is already happiness.

From the point of view of materialist ethics, morality is one of the moments in the chain of causes and effects, a property of a social person; being necessary for the completeness of human existence, it does not exhaust it. Morality reveals its humanistic possibilities only to the extent that it is not alienated from living individuals, but is continued in their empirical interests and goals Zelenkova I.L. Basics of ethics. M., 1998. P. 160..

Origin, essence, historical types and forms of morality

In any society, there are certain norms that regulate the relationships between its members, a certain organization of their behavior. Compliance with the norms of public life is inevitable, because they contain indications of what type of behavior the corresponding actions can be attributed to - is it good or evil, honest, fair or shameful, in a word, they evaluate what is “good” and what is “bad”. All kinds of violations, even serious ones, relate only to particulars, only to individual norms. What is morality? What is its essence? What role does it play in the life of society and people?

The essence of morality cannot be understood without finding out how it arose and what its origins are. Morality is the most ancient form human consciousness, its beginnings can be seen already in primitive society. Moreover, in accordance with a number of scientific theories, in particular with Charles Darwin’s theory about the origin of moral feeling in humans, the source of all ethical concepts and all subsequent development of morality is the social instinct inherent in both man and all social animals, that is the source and basis of the moral principle is nature itself.

The corresponding point of view is supported by the outstanding representative of Russian ethical thought P.A. Kropotkin, who noted that “Darwin, who knew nature, had the courage to say that of the two instincts - social and personal - the social one is stronger, more persistent and more permanently inherent than the second. And he was certainly right. All naturalists who studied the life of animals in nature, especially on continents still poorly inhabited by humans, would certainly be on his side. The instinct of mutual assistance is truly developed throughout the animal kingdom, because natural selection supports it and mercilessly exterminates those species in which it weakens for some reason. In the great struggle for existence waged by every animal species against hostile climatic conditions, external conditions of life and natural enemies, great and small, those species have the greatest chance of survival which consistently maintain mutual support, while those species which do not, are dying out. And we see the same thing in the history of mankind.” Thus, Darwin came to the conclusion that the social instinct represents the common source from which all moral principles developed.

Our primitive ancestors lived among animals and with them, says P.A. Kropotkin. Animal psychology was the first psychology studied by man. Among his closest relatives, the monkeys, man saw hundreds of species living in large communities, where all members of each community were closely connected with each other. He saw how monkeys support each other when they go foraging, how carefully they move from place to place, how they unite against common enemies, how they provide each other with small services, for example, pulling out thorns and thorns that got into the fur of a comrade , how closely they crowd together in cold weather, etc. In moments of danger, they showed amazing feelings of mutual affection, not to mention the affection of mothers for their children and old males for their group. The primitive savage saw and knew that even among predatory animals there is one universal law: they never kill each other.

P.A. Kropotkin notes that for our Stone Age ancestors, sociability and mutual assistance within the clan must have been considered so common in nature, so universal, that they could not even imagine life in any other form. For primitive man, the life of a solitary creature seemed strange and unusual, contrary to the nature of living beings. In most cases, if the hermit is not a sage who has temporarily retired from the world to ponder its fate, or not a sorcerer, he is an “outcast”, expelled from his midst for some serious violation of the mores of the community. He did something so contrary to the usual way of life that he was thrown out of his society.

Based on an analysis of the similarities in the psychology and behavior of primitive people and animals, P.A. Kropotkin concluded that social life is the natural order of life. In this identification, one might even say - in this dissolution of the “I” of a particular person in his clan and tribe lies the germ of all ethical thinking. Self-affirmation of the “personality” came much later. In the minds of primitive savages, the main place is occupied by the clan with its firmly established customs, prejudices, beliefs, prohibitions, habits and interests.

In this constant identification of the unit with the whole lies the origin of all ethics, from which all subsequent concepts of justice and even higher concepts of morality have developed.

Thus, already primitive man had to learn to identify his “I” with the social “we”, developing the initial foundations of morality. He saw how insignificant everyone would be in the face of the formidable harsh nature, if he ceased to be part of the clan. As a result, he got used to limiting his will by the will of others, and this constitutes the basic principle of morality. Since there is a community of people, certain forms of life, certain customs and mores inevitably develop in it, which, being recognized as useful and becoming habitual ways of thinking, turn into instinctive habits, and then into rules of life, which are placed under the protection of superstitions and religion.

Different from C. Darwin and P.A. Kropotkin, considers the question of the origin of morality by the greatest Russian philosopher of the 19th century V.S. Soloviev (1853-1900). Recognizing that, despite all the diversity of degrees spiritual development in the past and present of humanity, to all individual deviations and to the ever wider influences of race, climate and historical conditions, there still exists an indivisible basis of universal morality, V.S. Soloviev considers Charles Darwin’s point of view on the exclusively social nature of human morality and its rapprochement with the social instincts of animals erroneous, arguing that there is a special human nature with all its distinctive features, between which the most important place occupy moral traits. In his opinion, primary, natural morality is nothing more than a reaction of spiritual nature against the suppression and absorption that threatens it by lower forces - carnal lust, selfishness and wild passions. The ability for such a reaction in a person makes him a moral being, but remaining uncertain in its actual strength and scope, it cannot in itself justify the moral order in humanity.

Being a deeply religious person, V.S. Solovyov seeks to substantiate the religious principle of morality, presuming the existence of something that is higher than us, on which each of us depends. This feeling arises and manifests itself, first of all, in the child’s relationship with his parents, since the idea of ​​the Divine is embodied for the infant in the living image of the parents.

Every rational being, according to V.S. Solovyov, comes to the realization of his dependence on something invisible and unknown. It is impossible to deny such a dependence, because we are in fact subordinate to the absolute, whatever we call it.

The point of view on the origin of morality of the greatest German-American philosopher and humanist of the 20th century, psychoanalyst Erich Fromm (1900-1980), who believed, like V.S. Solovyov, that the source of norms of moral behavior should be sought in the very nature of man, that moral norms are mediated by his innate qualities and violation of these norms leads to emotional and mental decay. A person, in his opinion, is not a blank sheet of paper on which a culture writes its letters, he is a being endowed with energy and organized in a certain way, which, in the process of adaptation, develops specific responses to the influence of external conditions.

The difference between humans and animals is that they adapt to external conditions not by changing his own nature and adapting to one type of conditions for which he has developed specific adaptive reactions, in which case he would have reached the dead end of specialization, which is the fate of every species of animal, making history impossible. On the other hand, a person cannot adapt to any conditions at all without opposing those that are contrary to his nature; in this case, he would not have a history.

Human evolution, in accordance with the theory of E. Fromm, is based on a combination of adaptive abilities and stable qualities of human nature, which forces him to never stop searching for conditions the best way providing for its internal needs. It is the moral factor that plays a decisive role in historical events, manifesting itself in one way or another in people’s actions.

Thus, despite the different points of view on the origin of morality that exist in ethical science, there is no doubt that morality has always existed, everyone is involved in it, it was formed and developed in the process of formation and evolution human society.

Traditionally, the classification of historical types of morality is based on the formational principle of distinguishing methods of production, according to which the following are distinguished: the morality of the primitive system, the morality of slaveholding, feudal, bourgeois and modern society.

Morality is formed spontaneously, in the process of joint labor, which required general collective efforts in the conditions of a tribal society.

Its emergence is associated with basic social needs:

Firstly, in regulating the attitude of members of the primitive collective to work;

Secondly, in the regulation of family and marriage relations;

Thirdly, in strengthening the social unity of the clan.

It should be noted that primitive tribes have ethical requirements that are both absolutely mandatory and desirable. The norms aimed at maintaining the tribal way of life were obligatory for everyone to follow.

In the process of collective work, the first moral requirements appeared:

Compulsory work for everyone;

Discipline and work routine;

Equal distribution of labor products;

Mutual assistance, etc.

In family and marital relations, their own norms are formed that regulate relations between the sexes, parents and children, elders and younger ones. These norms are consolidated in the form of customs, traditions, and rituals, which were the main regulating force of moral relations. As social life developed, the concept of justice in mutual relations had to emerge more and more. The first beginnings of justice, in the sense of equality, were reflected in the primitive rules: “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a wound for a wound.” In tribal life, a person learned to follow the basic rule of any community, called the “golden rule of morality” (not to do to others what you do not want done to you), and to restrain those who did not want to obey this rule. Then he developed the ability to identify his personal life with the life of his family. The concept of good and evil was thus developed not on the basis of what constitutes good or evil for an individual, but on what constitutes good or evil for the entire race.

Joint work and social life determined the primitive collectivism characteristic of clan society, which is characterized by:

Boundless devotion and loyalty to one's family and tribe;

Self-sacrifice for common interests;

Attachment to relatives;

Mutual help, compassion.

In the name of the clan, its members showed hard work, endurance, courage, and contempt for death. In joint work, a sense of duty, justice, and self-esteem was born and strengthened.

Norms, rules, customs were uniform and unwritten laws of life, passed down from generation to generation and observed due to public opinion. Their role in the life of society was determined by the fact that they directly united the team, regulated people’s behavior, and acted as channels for transmitting socially significant experience to an individual.

It should be borne in mind that the collectivism of primitive man, like morality in general, is limited. This collectivism was law only within the tribe. “Everything that was outside the tribe was outside the law.” In a clan system, the rule “each for all” does not extend beyond the clan.

Thus, in human life, from the most ancient times, two types of relationships have been developed: within one’s own clan and with neighboring clans, which created the ground for clashes and wars. Although even at this stage attempts were made to streamline mutual neighborly relations. When entering a hut, it was imperative to leave your weapon at the entrance, and even in the event of a war between two clans, some specific rules were required to be followed.

Low level The development of production and man, extremely harsh living conditions and human powerlessness before the elemental forces of nature gave rise to superstition and extremely cruel customs and norms: blood feud, sacrifice, cannibalism, murder of old people and weak children.

Emerging and developing religious beliefs warn against violating established norms, threatening the vengeance of ancestors and various spirits, and establishing sacred rituals expressing worship of the forces of nature. The most important norms for the existence of human society (“thou shalt not kill,” “thou shalt not steal,” etc.) are placed under the protection of supernatural forces, giving morality a religious form. The moral and religious in man have been so closely intertwined historically that it is extremely difficult, and often impossible, to separate one from the other.

Subsequently, in connection with the division of labor, the growth of productive forces and the emergence of private property, the clan system decomposed and classes emerged, and, consequently, class morality was formed. This historical form of morality is turning into a relatively independent form of social consciousness along with religion, law, and art. It ceases to be a system of demands addressed to all members of society and breaks down into class forms: the morality of slaves and slave owners, feudal lords and serfs, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The dominant morality in society becomes the morality of the ruling (privileged) classes, which expressed their fundamental class interests, justified class inequality, defended and justified private property and exploitation.

It should also be noted that in addition to the forms considered (religious, class, professional, etc.), in any human society morality appears in two main forms:

firstly, as personal properties, usually called moral qualities (courage, honesty, generosity, restraint);

secondly, as a set social norms behavior (“thou shalt not steal”, “thou shalt not kill”, etc.).

Moral qualities characterize a person from the point of view of his ability to communicate with his own kind. When they say about a person that he is simple, modest, easy-going, then we are talking about such properties that are revealed in his relationships with other people.

Moral qualities are, first of all, qualities of character. They are formed in the real experience of communication, struggle, and cooperation of people. In this respect, they differ from, and often oppose, the intellectual properties of the individual, which express cognitive power, the ability to penetrate into the depths of the cause-and-effect relationships of the surrounding world.

Morality does not have its own outwardly strictly and constantly delineated sphere. It is characteristic of any socially significant activity, all social relations: political decisions are characterized as humane or inhumane; economic - both fair and unfair; spiritual position - as honest or dishonest, etc. Morality is represented in every human-to-human contact.

The entire diverse range of bodily and objective manifestations of human activity can serve as a way of expressing morality: facial expressions, gestures, speech, silence, clothing, housing, etc. - behind all this there may be a certain moral position hidden.

Modern society cannot be imagined without ethical standards. Every self-respecting state compiles a set of laws that citizens are obliged to follow. The moral side in any business is a responsible component that cannot be neglected. In our country, there is a concept of moral damage, when the inconvenience caused to a person is measured in material equivalent in order to at least partially compensate for his experiences.

Morality– norms of behavior accepted in society and ideas about this behavior. Morality also refers to moral values, foundations, orders and regulations. If in society someone commits actions that contradict the designated norms, then they are called immoral.

The concept of morality is very closely related to ethics. Compliance with ethical concepts requires high spiritual development. Sometimes social attitudes run counter to the needs of the individual himself, and then a conflict arises. In this case, an individual with his own ideology runs the risk of finding himself misunderstood and alone in society.

How is morality formed?

Morality of man depends largely on himself. Only the individual himself is responsible for what happens to him. Whether a person will be successful or not is accepted by others depends on how ready she is to follow the orders established in society. The development of morality and moral concepts occurs in the parental family. It is those first people with whom a child begins to interact in the early stages of his life who leave a serious imprint on his future fate. So, the formation of morality is significantly influenced by the immediate environment in which a person grows. If a child grows up in a dysfunctional family, then from an early age he develops a misconception about how the world works and develops a distorted perception of himself in society. As an adult, such a person will begin to experience enormous difficulties in communicating with other people and will feel dissatisfaction on their part. If a child is raised in a prosperous average family, he begins to absorb the values ​​of his immediate environment, and this process occurs naturally.

Awareness of the need to follow social instructions occurs due to the presence in a person of such a concept as conscience. Conscience is formed from early childhood under the influence of society, as well as individual inner feelings.

Functions of morality

Few people actually question why morality is needed? This concept consists of many important components and protects a person’s conscience from unwanted actions. The individual is responsible for the consequences of his moral choice not only to society, but also to himself. There are functions of morality that help it fulfill its purpose.

• Evaluation function is connected with how other people or the person himself determines the actions he has committed. In the case when self-assessment occurs, the person is usually inclined to justify his own actions by some circumstances. It is much more difficult to bring actions to public court, because society is sometimes unforgiving when assessing others.
• Regulatory function helps establish norms in society that will become laws intended to be followed by all. The rules of behavior in society are acquired by the individual at a subconscious level. That is why, when we find ourselves in a place where there are a large number of people, most of us, after some time, begin to unerringly follow the unspoken laws adopted specifically in this particular society.
• Control function is directly related to checking how much an individual is able to follow the rules established in society. Such control helps to achieve a state of “clear conscience” and social approval. If an individual does not behave appropriately, he will certainly receive condemnation from other people as a backlash.
• Integrating function helps maintain a state of harmony within a person. When performing certain actions, a person, one way or another, analyzes his actions, “checks” them for honesty and decency.
• Educational function is to give a person the opportunity to learn to understand and accept the needs of the people around him, to take into account their needs, characteristics and desires. If an individual reaches a state of such internal breadth of consciousness, then we can say that he is able to care for others, and not just for himself. Morality is often associated with a sense of duty. A person who has responsibilities to society is disciplined, responsible and decent. Norms, rules and procedures educate a person, form his social ideals and aspirations.

Moral standards

They are consistent with Christian ideas about good and evil and what a real person should be.

• Prudence is an essential component of any strong person. It presupposes that an individual has the ability to adequately perceive the surrounding reality, build harmonious connections and relationships, make reasonable decisions, and act constructively in difficult situations.
• Abstinence involves a ban on looking at married people of the opposite sex. The ability to cope with one’s desires and impulses is approved by society, while reluctance to follow spiritual canons is condemned.
• Justice always implies that for all acts committed on this earth, sooner or later retribution or some kind of response will come. Treating other people fairly means first recognizing their value as significant units human society. Respect and attention to their needs also relate to this point.
• Durability is formed through the ability to endure the blows of fate, gain the necessary experience and constructively emerge from a crisis state. Resilience as a moral standard implies the desire to fulfill one's purpose and move forward despite difficulties. By overcoming obstacles, a person becomes stronger and can later help other people go through their individual trials.
• Hard work valued in any society. This concept means a person’s passion for something, the realization of his talent or abilities for the benefit of other people. If a person is not ready to share the results of his work, then he cannot be called hardworking. That is, the need for activity should not be related to personal enrichment, but in order to serve as the consequences of one’s work as much as possible. more of people.
• Humility achieved through prolonged suffering and repentance. The ability to stop in time and not resort to revenge in a situation where you have seriously offended is akin to real art. But for real a strong person has enormous freedom of choice: he is able to overcome destructive feelings.
• Politeness necessary in the process of interaction between people. Thanks to it, it becomes possible to conclude deals and agreements that are beneficial for both parties. Politeness characterizes a person with the best side and helps her move constructively towards a given goal.

Principles of morality

These principles exist, making significant additions to generally accepted social norms. Their significance and necessity lies in contributing to the formation of general formulas and patterns accepted in a given society.

• Talion principle clearly demonstrates the concept of uncivilized countries - “an eye for an eye.” That is, if someone suffered any loss due to the fault of another person, this other person is obliged to compensate the first through his own loss. Modern psychological science says that it is necessary to be able to forgive, reorient oneself to the positive and look for constructive methods to get out of a conflict situation.
• Principle of morality involves following Christian commandments and observing divine law. An individual does not have the right to harm his neighbor, or to deliberately try to cause him any damage based on deception or theft. The principle of morality most powerfully appeals to a person’s conscience, forcing him to remember his spiritual component. The phrase “Treat your neighbor the way you want him to treat you” is the most striking manifestation of this principle.
• The principle of the "golden mean" is expressed in the ability to see moderation in all matters. This term was first introduced by Aristotle. The desire to avoid extremes and move systematically towards a given goal will certainly lead to success. You cannot use another person as a way to solve your individual problems. You need to feel moderation in everything, be able to compromise in time.
• The principle of well-being and happiness is presented in the form of the following postulate: “Act towards your neighbor in such a way as to bring him the greatest good.” It doesn’t matter what action is performed, the main thing is that it can benefit as many people as possible. This principle of morality presupposes the ability to predict the situation several steps ahead, to foresee the possible consequences of one’s actions.
• Principle of justice based on equal treatment between all citizens. It states that each of us must observe the unspoken rules of treating other people and remember that the neighbor living in the same house with us has the same rights and freedoms as us. The principle of justice implies punishment in case of illegal actions.
• The principle of humanism is the leading one among all the above. It assumes that every person has the idea of ​​a condescending attitude towards other people. Humanity is expressed in compassion, in the ability to understand one’s neighbor and to be as useful to him as possible.

Thus, the importance of morality in human life is of decisive importance. Morality affects all areas of human interaction: religion, art, law, traditions and customs. In the existence of every individual, sooner or later questions arise: how to live, what principle to follow, what choice to make, and he turns to his own conscience for answers.

Presentation-simulator for preparing for the Unified State Exam in social studies in 2017-2018 academic year. Option 3.

Prepared by a teacher of history and social studies of the Municipal Educational Institution “Secondary School of the village. Perekopnoye, Ershov district, Saratov region” named after Hero of the Soviet Union V.I. Kireev. Ermakov Ivan Alexandrovich

№ 1.Write down the word missing in the table.

Subsystems

characteristics

institutional

Includes the state, political parties, public organizations, media, etc.

Includes a variety of interactions between subjects of political life

Subsystems of the political system of society.

№ 1.

Answer: communicative.

№ 2.

Answer:

№ 2.

In the row below, find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts presented. Write down this word (phrase).

Undertaking not to leave and proper behavior; personal guarantee; preventive measure; pledge; House arrest.

Answer: a preventive measure.

№ 3.

Answer:

№ 3.

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of “social control”.

• encouragement; 2) punishment; 3) social mobility; 4) social norm; 5) social sanction; 6) social stratification.

Find two terms that “fall out” from the general series and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table.

Answer: 3 6.

№ 4.

Answer:

№ 4.

Choose the correct judgments about morality and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

• Moral standards reflect the needs of society.
• Morality is formalized in normative legal acts.
• Morality helps a person evaluate the events of social life.
• The basis of morality is a person’s internal motivation and self-control.
• Morality always ensures mutual understanding between people in society.

Answer:1 3 4.

№ 5.

Signs

A) objective nature

D) testability of knowledge

Types of truth

• only relative truth

Answer: A B C D D

№ 5.

Establish a correspondence between the signs and types of truth: for each element given in the first column, select the corresponding element from the second column.

Signs

A) objective nature

B) reflection of the properties of the cognizable object

C) the possibility of adjustment with further development of science

D) incomplete, changeable knowledge about the subject

D) testability of knowledge

Types of truth

• only relative truth
• both absolute and relative truth.

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: A B C D D

2 2 1 1 2

№ 6.

Answer:

№ 6.

In country Z, information technology is the most important factor production. What other signs indicate that country Z is developing as a post-industrial society? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) Science-intensive, resource-saving technologies are receiving the greatest development.

2) There is a transition to electronics at all levels of production activity.

3) Natural factors influence the development of society.

4) Social relations are regulated by legal and moral norms.

5) The share of the middle class in the population structure is high.

6) Extensive farming methods predominate.

Answer: 1 2 5.

№ 7.

Answer:

№ 7.

Choose the correct judgments about valuable papers ah and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) A bond is a security without a specified circulation period, which is evidence of receipt of a share in the company’s property and gives its owner the right to receive part of the profit in the form of a dividend.

2) The sale of securities is carried out on the stock market.

3) Securities include shares, bills, bonds.

4) There are equity and debt securities.

5) The issue of securities is called devaluation.

Answer:2 3 4.

№ 8.

Characteristics

C) factor income - rent

D) factor income - profit.

Factors of production

• work
• Earth

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: A B C D

№ 8.

Establish a correspondence between characteristics and factors of production: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Characteristics

A) the activity of people in the production of goods and services by using their physical and intellectual capabilities, professional skills and experience

B) all types of resources available on the planet and suitable for the production of economic goods

C) factor income - rent

D) factor income - wages

D) factor income - profit.

Factors of production

• work
• Earth
• entrepreneurial skills

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: A B C D D

1 2 2 1 3

№ 9.

• rent for premises
• administration salaries
• piecework payment for tailors

Answer:

№ 9.

Owners of a tailoring shop incur fixed and variable costs. Which of the following is a company's short-run variable cost? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

• rent for premises
• purchase of fabrics, threads, accessories
• interest on previously taken loans
• payment for consumed electricity
• administration salaries
• piecework payment for tailors

Answer:2 4 6.

№ 10.

• the onset of the winter season.

Answer:

№ 10.

The graph shows the change in the supply of figure skating skates in the consumer market: the supply curve S1 has moved to position S2. (On the graph, P is the price of the product, Q is the quantity of the product.)

Which of the following factors could cause this change? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

• growth in skate components
• mass opening of public skating rinks
• reduction in the number of companies producing skates
• decline in income for most households
• the onset of the winter season.

Answer: 2 5.

№ 11.

Answer:

№ 11.

Choose the correct judgments about the family and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The recreational function of the family is manifested in the provision of a certain social status family members in fulfilling the role of a social elevator.

2) Family members are bound by mutual moral and legal responsibility.

3) The family is the main agent of the primary socialization of individuals.

4) The family is called upon to create conditions for the physical, mental, emotional and intellectual development of the child.

5) Nuclear families include three to four generations of blood relatives.

Answer:2 3 4.

№ 12.

• Answer:

№ 12. A survey was conducted among 14-year-old teenagers in country Z about why it is necessary for all people to comply with social norms. The results obtained (as a percentage of the number of respondents) are presented in the form of a diagram.

Find in the list below the conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

• Every third respondent noted that if everyone complies social norms citizens feel comfortable.
• There are fewer people who believe that there will always be people who violate norms than those who believe that compliance with norms ensures the stability of society.
• Among the respondents, there are more people who believe that compliance with standards ensures the comfortable well-being of citizens than those who believe that if standards are observed, people and the state can build long-term development plans.
• More than half of those surveyed believe that compliance with standards ensures the stability of society and makes it possible to build long-term development plans.
• The smallest proportion of respondents gave another explanation.
• Answer: 2 4 5.

№ 13.

№

Answer:

№ 13.

№ 13. Select the correct judgments about the political elite and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The political elite is a group of people professionally engaged in activities in the sphere of power and government.

2) The political elite includes, first of all, the heads largest enterprises countries.

3) In any society, serious contradictions can develop between the composition and interests of elite and non-elite groups.

4) Replenishment or change in the composition of the political elite depends only on the desire of the elite groups themselves.

5) The political elite formulates programs for the development of the state and society.

Answer: 1 3 5.

№ 14.

Functions

D)announcement of amnesty

1) State Duma

2) Government of the Russian Federation

3) Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation

4) Federation Council

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: A B C D D

№ 14.

Establish correspondence between functions and subjects state power RFs that perform them: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Functions

A) consideration of cases on the compliance of normative acts with the law having supreme legal force

B) management of federal property

C) calling elections for the President of the Russian Federation

D) development of the federal budget

D)announcement of amnesty

Subjects of state power of the Russian Federation

1) State Duma

2) Government of the Russian Federation

3) Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation

4) Federation Council

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: A B C D D

3 2 4 2 1

№ 15.

1) legal

2) conservative

3) communist

4) personnel

5) liberal

6) massive

Answer:

№ 15.

A political party is registered in state Z, which has a central body and regional branches. The program of the political party states: “The goal of our activity is to build a socially homogeneous classless society in which the principle of distribution of goods according to needs would be implemented.” Which of the following characterizes, for various reasons, such political party? Write down the numbers under which the correct characteristics are indicated.

1) legal

2) conservative

3) communist

4) personnel

5) liberal

6) massive

Answer:1 3 6.

№ 16.

2) right to life

4) right to privacy of correspondence

5) right to housing

Answer:

№ 16.

Which of the following refers to the personal (civil) rights of a citizen of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) right to social security

2) right to life

3) the right to protection of honor and good name

4) right to privacy of correspondence

5) right to housing

Answer:2 3 4.

№ 17.

Answer:

№ 17.

Choose the correct judgments about the legal system and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The legal system is built according to objective criteria.

2) Rules of law differ only in content.

3) A branch of law is a set of homogeneous legal norms that are isolated within the legal system and regulate a certain number of social relations.

4) A legal institution is a set of rules regulating a certain area (side) of homogeneous social relations.

5) Civil law refers to public law.

Answer:1 3 4.

№ 18.

D) charitable foundations

D) religious organizations

Kinds legal entities

1) commercial

2) non-profit

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: A B C D D

№ 18.

Establish a correspondence between organizational and legal entities and types of legal entities: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Organizational and legal forms of legal entities

A) business partnerships

B) state unitary enterprises

B) consumer cooperatives

D) charitable foundations

D) religious organizations

Types of legal entities

1) commercial

2) non-profit

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: A B C D D

1 1 2 2 2

№ 19.

Answer:

№ 19.

Citizen of the Russian Federation Ivan is 12 years old. Find the actions in the list below that correspond to his rightful status and write down the numbers under which they are listed.

• Conclude employment contract(courier work) with parental consent
• Manage funds provided by parents
• To be heard during court proceedings to determine the place of residence in the event of a parental divorce
• Make deposits with credit institutions and manage them
• Register a legal entity in your name
• Conduct small household transactions

Answer:2 3 6.

№ 20.

List of terms

• Globalization 6) society
• Procreation 9) freedom.
• Conditions of existence

Answer: A B C D E E

№ 20.

Read the text below, in which a number of words (phrases) are missing. Select from the list of words, phrases) that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

“Man is a part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with _____(A)._____(B) of a person is manifested in his anatomy, physiology: he has circulatory, muscular, nervous and other systems. These human properties are not rigidly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to different __________ (B).

A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, in ____(D)

__________(D) of a person is manifested through such properties as ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and intelligence,____(E), and responsibility, etc.”

List of terms

• Globalization 6) society
• Social essence 7) absolutization
• Communication with others 8) biological nature
• Procreation 9) freedom.
• Conditions of existence

The table below shows the letters representing the missing words (phrases). Write down in the table under each letter the number of the word (phrase) you have chosen.

Answer: A B C D E E

6 8 5 3 2 9

Part 2.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Social tension is a special state of social consciousness and behavior, a specific situation of perception and assessment of reality. This state is characteristic of conflict and accompanies it. The scale of social tension for the most part comparable to the scale of the conflict they generate. We can talk about interpersonal, intergroup, interethnic or global tension in society.

• Social tension as a phenomenon that manifests itself primarily at the socio-psychological and behavioral levels is characterized by the following points.
• First: the spread of feelings of dissatisfaction with the existing situation in one or another vital area of ​​public life.
• Second: under the influence of the above-mentioned sentiments, trust in the authorities is lost, the authority of the authorities and the power of authority are reduced, a feeling of danger appears, pessimistic assessments of the future and all kinds of rumors become widespread.

• In society as a whole, as well as in a separate territorial community, an atmosphere of mass mental anxiety and emotional excitement arises.
• Third: at the behavioral level, social tension manifests itself both in spontaneous mass actions (in rush demand, purchasing of goods and food products in order to create insurance reserves “for a rainy day”, etc.), and in various conflicts, rallies, demonstrations, strikes and other forms of civil disobedience and protest, as well as forced and voluntary migration to other regions and abroad.
• (A.V. Dmitriev, V.O. Rukavishnikov)

№ 21.

№ 21.

What do the authors think constitutes social tension? What examples of natural factors of social tension are given in the text? What connection between social tension and social conflict did the authors note?

Answer:

• An emotional state in a group or society as a whole, caused by pressure from the natural or social environment, usually lasting for a more or less long time;
• Climate change, resource depletion, earthquake;
• This state is characteristic of conflict and accompanies it.

№ 22.

№ 22.

What political factor of social tension is named by the authors? Using the text, give any two manifestations of social tension in the political behavior of the population.

Answer:

• Various types of mistakes or incompetence of leaders;
• - trust in the authorities is lost, the authority of the authorities is reduced;

Various conflicts, rallies, demonstrations, strikes and other forms of civil disobedience and protest occur.

№ 23.

The authors note the possibility of the emergence of interethnic tension in society. Using the example of the constitutional foundations of national policy in the Russian Federation, show any three ways to relieve interethnic tension.

№ 23.

Answer:

• recognition of the equality of citizens regardless of their ethnicity (the Constitution of F establishes the equality of citizens and prohibits any form of restriction of the rights of citizens on the basis of nationality);
• federal structure of the state and equality of all subjects of the Russian Federation (the Constitution of the Russian Federation establishes equal representation of all subjects of the Russian Federation in the Federation Council, their equality in relations with federal government bodies);
• promoting the development of national cultures (the Constitution of the Russian Federation affirms the right of the republics within the Russian Federation to introduce their state languages ​​along with the Russian language; citizens are guaranteed the right to use their native language, to freely choose the language of communication, education, training and creativity).

№ 24.

The authors believe that “it is not so easy to attribute tension to purely negative phenomena" Using the text, social science knowledge and facts of social life, personal social experience, formulate three assumptions about what positive impact a state of social tension can have on a person.

№ 24.

Answer:

• a state of social tension can discipline a person and lead to the mobilization of his abilities, professional and other qualities, and material resources;
• a state of social tension can contribute to the development of certain personal qualities in a person, for example the qualities political leader, entrepreneur, etc.;
• overcoming by man negative consequences social tension, success in protecting one’s family and business from these negative consequences have a positive effect on a person’s self-esteem.

№ 25.

What meaning do social scientists give to the concept of “demand”? Drawing on the knowledge of the social science course, compose two sentences: one sentence containing information about any of the non-price factors influencing the formation of demand, and one sentence revealing the law of demand.

№ 25.

Answer:

• The dependence of the volume of a certain type of product that consumers are willing to purchase (the amount of demand) on the prices at which these goods can be offered by producers/sellers;
• One of the factors influencing the formation of demand is cultural and religious traditions;
• Increasing prices usually leads to a decrease in demand, and decreasing prices usually leads to an increase.

№ 26.

№ 26.

In the process of socialization, mutual influence occurs between those who carry out socialization and those who are socialized. Illustrate this interaction with two examples.

Answer:

• Peter tells his son Anton about how to behave correctly in the theater. Anton listened to his father and pointed out to him that Peter himself did not follow these rules. The father thought about it and turned off the phone the next time during the performance;
• One of the social studies lessons took the form of role playing game“Elections”, schoolchildren were able to justify the importance of each vote for the future of the country. The teacher, who had previously missed elections, was influenced by this lesson and went to the polling station on election day and voted for one of the candidates.

№ 27.

State Z includes 11 territorial units that do not have political independence. The state exercises constant control over all spheres of life, one party dominates, other parties are prohibited. The head of state receives power by right of inheritance, and the government and judiciary are accountable to him.

What is the type of political (state) regime of state Z? Indicate the fact according to the problem conditions, on the basis of which such a conclusion can be drawn (write out the corresponding sentence from the problem conditions). Name any two features of this type of political (state) regime that are not named in the problem statement.

№ 27.

Answer:

• totalitarian;
• “The state exercises constant control over all spheres of life, one party dominates, other parties are prohibited.”
• - the presence of a universally binding state ideology;

• lack of real rights and freedoms of citizens;
• merging of the state and party apparatus;
• political censorship and propaganda in the media;
• cult of personality, leaderism;
• persecution of dissent, creation in the public consciousness of the image of an “enemy of the people” (internal and external);
• strict centralization of government;
• extrajudicial persecution, repression.

№ 28.

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic “Property as an institution of law in the Russian Federation.” Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

№ 28.

Answer:

• Contents of ownership:

a) possession;

b) use;

c) order.

2. Subjects of property rights:

a) citizens;

b) legal entities;

c) municipalities;

d) Russian Federation and constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

3. Equality of all owners.

4. Grounds for acquiring ownership rights:

a) purchase and sale;

b) donation;

c) exchange;

d) inheritance, etc.

5. Termination of ownership.

References.

• Unified State Exam. Social science. Typical exam options. O.A.Kotova, T.E. Lisova. Publishing house National Education. Moscow. 2018