Definition. What is Grammatical Meaning

Grammatical meaning is the abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit, which has a regular (standard) expression in the language (for example, the grammatical meaning of words new, old is the general categorical meaning of attribute, as well as particular grammatical meanings - gender, number and case: all these meanings have a standard expression in the language in the affixal morpheme -th; in English the grammatical meaning of plurals is regularly expressed using the suffix ~(e)s: book-s, student-s, hors-es). The grammatical meaning differs from the lexical one more high level abstractions, because “this is an abstraction of characteristics and relationships” (A.A. Reformatsky). The grammatical meaning is not individual, since it belongs to a whole class of words, united by a commonality of morphological properties and syntactic functions. Some particular grammatical meanings can change in a word in its different grammatical forms (cf. the change in the meaning of number and case in nouns or tense in verb forms, while the lexical meaning of the word remains unchanged in them). At the same time, the possibility of changing the grammatical meaning of a word is limited by the very set of grammatical meanings of a particular part of speech, the “closedness” of their list in each language, while the list of lexical meanings is open, since the lexical system of any language is open in nature, which means it capable of being replenished with new words and, accordingly, new meanings. Unlike the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is not called a word directly, directly, but is expressed in it “in passing”, in a strictly defined way, with the help of specially assigned grammatical means (affixes). It seems to accompany the lexical meaning of the word, being its additional meaning.

Abstracted linguistic content, expressed by grammatical meaning, has varying degrees of abstraction, i.e. By its nature, the grammatical meaning is heterogeneous: it can be more abstract or less abstract (cf. in the word read the most abstract is the meaning of process: it is inherent in all verbs and all its forms; it is followed by the meaning of the past tense: it is inherent in all verbs in the past tense form; the meaning of the masculine gender is more specific and narrower: it is inherent only in forms of the verb that are opposed to the feminine and neuter forms and combined with the pronoun He). Depending on the nature of the grammatical meaning, i.e. depending on whether it is internally inherent in the word (for example, the meaning of objectivity in a noun) or is realized in the word form in a certain context as part of a phrase or sentence (for example, the meaning of number and case in a noun), non-syntactic or referential grammatical meanings, which are internally inherent in the word (for example, the meaning of gender in nouns), and syntactic or relational grammatical meanings that indicate the relationship of the word (or rather word form) to other words in a phrase or sentence (for example, the meaning of gender, number, case in an adjective). Finally, depending on the relationship of the grammatical meaning with the nature of the displayed objects, a distinction is made between objective or dictal grammatical meanings, which convey objective features and relationships independent of the subject (cf. grammatical meanings of the attribute in adjectives, tense and aspect in the verb) and modal, reflecting the speaker’s attitude towards what he is talking about or with whom he is talking (cf. grammatical meanings of subjective assessment, mood, etc.).

The grammatical meaning of a word is inferred from its relationship to other units of the same class (for example, the grammatical meaning of the past tense form of the verb carried is derived by relating it to other tense forms -- carries, will carry).

The grammatical meaning of a word often includes its word-formation meaning (if the word is derivative), since word-formation is part of the grammatical structure of the language. Derivative meaning is a generalized meaning inherent only to motivated words, expressed by word-forming means. It represents a certain semantic relationship between the members of a word-formation pair - the generating and derivative words. Like grammatical meaning, it is not individual, but characterizes entire classes of words belonging to the same word-formation type, i.e. constructed according to the same typified model (which means that all these words belong to the same part of speech, are formed by the same method of word formation, using the same affix from the stem belonging to the same part of speech, and they all have the same word-formation meaning, cf., for example, the word-formation type “a person performing an action named by a motivating word”: teacher, writer, builder, investigator etc.). The word-formation meaning has different degrees of abstraction (cf. the different degrees of abstraction of the following word-formation meanings: “immaturity” in words naming young animals: kitten, wolf cub or "short duration of action" in verbs cry, get sick). At the same time, word-formation meanings are more abstract than lexical ones, but more concrete than grammatical ones (cf., for example, the word-formation meaning of “diminutive” and the grammatical meaning of “animation”).

Since the semantic relationships between the generating and derived words can develop in different ways, several semantic types of word-formation meaning are distinguished: mutational, in which the meaning of the derived word is derived from the meaning of the generating word, i.e. the derived word acts as a carrier of a feature called producing (cf. the subject-characterizing word-formation meaning “carrier of an attributive feature” in the word sage), in this case, the part-speech affiliation of the derived word may or may not coincide with the generating one (cf. bread--bread box, read--reader)", transpositional type, in which the meaning of the derived word completely preserves the grammatical semantics of the producer, although it is transferred to another part-verbal class (cf. the meaning of the objectified action in the word walking or the meaning of an abstract feature in a word wisdom) and a modification type, in which the meaning of a derived word that receives an additional semantic component is only modified, since the meaning of the generating word is completely included in the semantic scope of the derivative, the part-verbal affiliation of which does not change (cf. the meaning of collectiveness in the word crow or singularity in a word pea).

The material expression of the grammatical meaning of a word in the broad sense is its grammatical form. In the narrow sense of the word, a grammatical form is understood as one of the regular modifications of a word (for example, any form of a word during its declension or conjugation). Grammatical meaning and grammatical form are inseparable from each other; they are two sides of a linguistic sign. However, the relationship between them is not unambiguous: the same grammatical form can convey several grammatical meanings (for example, the word form brother contains the meanings of objectivity, masculine gender, singular number, instrumental case, animation, concreteness) and vice versa, the same grammatical meaning can be conveyed by several grammatical forms (cf. the meaning of plurality contained in the words leaves And foliage, which is conveyed by different grammatical forms, or the meaning of diminutive and endearing, conveyed by different suffixes: -ik: house, -ok: town, -och: son and etc.). The set of grammatical forms of one word is called a paradigm (cf. im.p. house, kind.p. Houses, dat.p. home etc.). A word can have a complete paradigm, i.e. including all possible grammatical forms in a particular language that are inherent in a given part of speech (for example, inflected nouns Russian language type table, country, village have a complete paradigm of twelve grammatical forms), an incomplete or defective paradigm in which some grammatical forms are missing (for example, in verbs like win, convince no 1 liter form. singular) and a replete paradigm in which there are redundant grammatical forms (compare, for example, the paradigms of the verbs to drip: dripping And caplet or move: moves And moves).

Despite the fact that the grammatical meaning is, as it were, a secondary meaning of the word, it plays a significant role in creating the holistic meaning of the sentence (cf. I put a friend's gift... And I gave a gift to a friend..., changing the grammatical meaning of case in a word Friend leads to a change in the meaning of the sentence). A striking illustration of this point is the proposal drawn up by JI.B. Shcherba of meaningless, but grammatically correctly formed and interconnected words that convey a certain grammatical meaning and even form some meaning of the sentence: The glok kuzdra shteko has sprouted the bokr and is curling the bokrenka. Each word in it contains morphemes, the meaning of which is easily derived from the relationship of words to each other (cf. the meaning of the feminine gender, which is conveyed by inflections -aya (glocking),-A ( kuzdra And budlanula), meaning of time - past - suf.-l ( budlanula) and the present - inflection -it ( curls), the meaning of immaturity is suf.-onok (bokrenka), the meaning of animation is inflection -a ( bokra And bokrenka), meaning of one-time action - suf. -Well ( budlanula) and etc.).

Grammatical and lexical meanings: gradation and transitions

Grammatical and lexical meanings represent the main types of content plan of linguistic units. These are a kind of poles in the semantic space of the language. At the same time, there is no insurmountable gap between them. In a word they appear in unity, and for some categories of words they are simply indivisible. For example, about the semantics of pronouns it can be argued that it has an intermediate, transitional character between vocabulary and grammar.

The functional classification of word elements - morphemes - is based on the opposition of lexical and grammatical meanings. However, division into roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections, etc. requires a more detailed differentiation of meanings. In particular, grammatical meanings are divided into proper grammatical (inflectional) and lexical-grammatical (classificatory). The former form a semantic characteristic of the form of the word, the latter characterize the entire word as a whole, as its permanent feature (i.e., they assign the lexeme to a certain grammatical class). An example of the former may be in Slavic languages the person of a verb, the case of a noun or the degree of comparison of an adjective; An example of the second is the aspect of a verb, the gender of a noun, or the quality of an adjective. However, both meanings are conveyed through grammatical morphemes, sometimes even simultaneously, in a complex (for example, the inflection -a in the word winter).

Intermediate between grammatical and lexical meanings are word-formative meanings. These meanings are inherent in entire groups of lexemes and, moreover, have their own formal (intra-word) expression. In principle, word-formative and, say, inflectional meanings can again be expressed by the same morpheme (Russian -ой in gold, capital, etc.).

The listed types of meanings, arranged according to the degree of their abstraction and breadth of vocabulary coverage into “inflectional - classification - word-formative - lexical”, in a particular case form a unity. For example, the Polish form przerabiasz “redo* contains the following different types of meanings: lexical (to do), word-formative (repetition, multiplicity), classification (imperfect form, transitivity), inflectional (2nd person, singular, present tense).

The relativity of the opposition between lexical and grammatical meanings is evidenced by such a characteristic manifestation of linguistic evolution as grammaticalization. This is a process in which the meaning of some linguistic element, word or morpheme, changes its status: from lexical it becomes grammatical. It is not surprising that such an element becomes a regular means of expressing a grammatical category. In particular, synthetic, or simple, verbal forms of the future tense in the modern Ukrainian language go back to the combination of the infinitive with the verb (i)mati “to have”: pisatimu “I will write” arose from pisati + imu; pisatimesh "you will write" - from pisati + imesh; pisatime "he will write" - from pisati+ime, etc. And similar forms of the Serbo-Croatian language include as an indicator of the future tense the verb hteti "to want" that has lost its original meaning: ja fly pisati (or simply nucahy) "I will write ", ti Yesh Pisati (or PisaPesh) "you will write", he 1ge Pisati (or nucahe) "he will write"...

On the other hand, some grammatical meaning may, over time, losing its binding nature and narrowing the scope of its application, turn into a lexical one. An example with a dual number was already given above: now in most Slavic languages this meaning has become lexical. In the course of linguistic development, one or another form of a word can turn into a separate, independent word - this process is called lexicalization. An illustration of this phenomenon in the Russian language can be the formation of adverbs such as winter, around, groping, below, etc. If we consider a separate grammatical morpheme, then here too it is not difficult to find examples of how a morpheme changes its status, receiving the rights of a root. Thus, in a number of modern European languages, the suffix of Greek-Latin origin -ismus gave a root meaning “social current, direction” (cf. Russian expression“various isms”, etc.). Another, no less famous example. The modern English root bus "bus", which arose as a result of the contraction of the word omnibus, goes back to the inflection -(оbus as part of the Latin pronominal form: omnis "everyone" - omnibus literally "for all".

In general, despite all the borderline and transitional cases, lexical and grammatical meanings retain their global opposition in the language system.

GRAMMATICAL MEANING, a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language (see Grammatical form). In the field of morphology, these are general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedural in verbs), as well as particular meanings of word forms and words in general, contrasted with each other within the framework of morphological categories (see Grammatical category) (for example, the meanings of that or other time, person, number, gender). In the field of syntax, this is the meaning of predicativity (the attribution of what is being communicated to a particular temporal and objective-modal plane, inherent in a sentence), as well as various relationships of the components of phrases and sentences as abstract grammatical patterns (in abstraction from their lexical content): the meaning of the semantic subject, this or that another adverbial qualifier (local, temporal, causal, target, etc.); components of the thematic-rhematic structure of a sentence formalized in certain linguistic means (see Actual division of a sentence); relationships between parts of a complex sentence expressed by a conjunction. Grammatical meanings can also include word-formative meanings as generalized meanings expressed by intra-word means in some motivated words of a particular part of speech. These are mutational meanings (for example, the bearer of a characteristic, the producer of an action), transpositional (for example, an objectified action or characteristic), modification (for example, gradational - indicating one or another degree of manifestation of the characteristic). Grammatical meanings are opposed to lexical meanings, devoid of regular (standard) expression and not necessarily of an abstract nature, but are closely related to them, sometimes limited in their manifestation to certain lexical groups of words.

In the system of grammatical meanings, knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality, their connections and relationships is objectified (through the level of concepts): thus, the concept of action (in the broad sense - as a procedural feature) is abstractly revealed in the general meaning of the verb and in the system of more specific categorical meanings inherent verb (tense, aspect, voice, etc.); the concept of quantity - in the grammatical meaning of number (category of number, numeral as a special part of speech, etc.); different relationships of objects to other objects, actions, properties - in the system of grammatical meanings expressed by case forms and prepositions.

Lit.: Research on general theory grammars. M., 1968; Invariant syntactic meanings and sentence structure. M., 1969; Principles and methods of semantic research. M., 1976; Bondarko A.V. Grammatical meaning and meaning. L., 1978; aka. Theory of meaning in the system of functional grammar. M., 2002; Kubryakova E. S. Types of linguistic meanings. Semantics of a derived word. M., 1981; Maslov Yu. S. Introduction to linguistics. 2nd ed. M., 1987; Wierzbicka A. The semantics of grammar. Amst., 1988; Bulygina T.V., Shmelev A.D. Linguistic conceptualization of the world: (On the material of Russian grammar). M., 1997; Melchuk I. A. Course of general morphology. M., 1998. T. 2. Part 2.

1 What is grammatical meaning? Explain with examples. Lexical meaning refers to reality itself and the grammatical meaning complements the lexical meaning. and expresses a relationship to another word (coordination, adjacency). Eg. lex. meaning "country" - designation “state”, a certain territory, and the grammatical meaning of the word “country” is noun, f.r. , units, etc. The grammatical form is a language means that is used to express grammatical meanings. These means are prefixes, suffixes, etc. Eg. there is ch. do - do, redo. Gram category - a class of gram values united by the homogeneity of gram values: for example. syst. conjugations, category of tenses in Russian. language - present, past, future, old, pre-past, etc. Word forms are representatives of a specific grammatical category. The totality of all grammatical forms constitutes a paradigm. The grammatical form has both an external meaning (ending in the case, in the main form) and an internal meaning - a relation to someone. person, other object. One form can have several meanings: Eg. give someone something and someone (objective meaning) became cold (subjective). Sometimes grammatical meaning. superimposed on the semantic and historical. the words lost their meaning: oak - husband. kind, birch - f.r.

2 What are parts of speech? What are the principles of their classification?Parts of speech- the largest grammatical classes of words, which are characterized by 3 features: 1) the unity of a generalized grammatical meaning, it abstracts from the lexical and denotes categories more general order: subjectivity, procedurality (verb), quality (adjective) 2) commonality of grammatical categories and inflections. The commonality is determined by the composition of morphological categories, the commonality of their organization when they are arranged into a paradigm (conjugations, declensions)3) the identity of syntactic functions. Those. they appear in sentences and phrases in a general form (i.e., nouns are usually subjects, verbs are predicates, etc.). 10 parts of speech modern grammar, which is divided into 2 groups - significant (nouns, adjectives and numbers, as well as a pronoun (pronoun-noun only), verb and adverb) and auxiliary (preposition, conjunction and particles, as well as interjection (serves for expressive expression, feelings)).

3 Name the independent and auxiliary parts of speech. In modern grammar there are 10 parts of speech: one group is significant / independent (noun, adjective, number, pronoun, verb and adverb), the other is auxiliary (preposition, conjunction, particles and separately - interjection - their syntactic role is not defined.

4 What are modal words? Give examples. There are interjections introductory words, imitation (jin-jin), motivation, expression of feelings (ah, well, ah, yes)). Modal words are motivating, conciliatory, appreciative (obviously, probably, of course, of course). Functions introductory words, and semantics is a definition of the relationship to reality, or an additional assessment.

5 Grammatical features of common and proper nouns. Existence is a part of speech, which denotes an object, names saints, abstracted from the bearer, and actions, abstracted from the subject. There are proper and common nouns. Narits are generalized phenomena. Own - individual. Usually the latter are used in the singular (Kyiv, Athens). Proper names can turn into common names, and vice versa (Pisces is a zodiac sign, and fish).

6 Specific and vested noun The first are concrete nouns, when objects appear in the form of individual instances or numbers. individuals, they combine with finite numerals and change in numbers, agreeing in gender, number and case (house, houses, three houses).

7 Grammatical features of collective nouns. Collective - denotes an indefinite set of objects as one indivisible whole: military, junk, animals, relatives, youth. There are complex transitional cases. For example, the words people, group, heap, collective do not belong to the collected ones, because they denote separate sets and grammatically have plural(peoples, groups).

8 Real noun - they denote a homogeneous mass that can be weighed, but not counted: flour, sulfur, salt, cereal, etc. They have not changed in numbers (although they vary in type: mineral waters, fragrant oils).

9 Eat single among them are singularities: dew - dewdrop, straw - straw. There are abstract ones - they denote qualities, properties, actions (abstract qualities): reading, anger, grief, joy. Words with an abstract meaning do not have plurals, although they can also have individualization, i.e. the meaning is enriched (initiative (general activity) and initiatives (specific proposals)). These beings outwardly not countable, but when there are specific manifestations of this quality, then it can be used in the plural. - the beauty of nature, choose the lesser of two evils.

10 Soulful and inanimate beings. The souls are named. living creatures, mythological animals (dinosaur). To inanimate. rel. named. plants (oak, maple), collective animate names (people, crowd - grammatically they behave like inanimate ones), as well as words such as “dead man (I see a dead man A), dead", but I see a corpse _ (it used to mean “dead, fallen tree”). There are difficult moments: playing Cossack And-robber And(the word behaves like an inanimate, for “a game called Cossacks-robbers”). Buy a crocodile A, but buy "Crocodile". Inanimate. more often refer to s.r.

11 Categories of grammatical gender. In inanimate noun it is defined formally, at the end (tree - s.r., cedar - (m.r.) pine, palm (f.r.)). Common names are belly - (m.r.), belly -s.r., although they are the same. To grammatical The genus is usually referred to by an abbreviation in accordance with that gram. genus, which underlies the core genus. But this is not true in general: university (higher educational institution), but the university is not neuter, but m.r. Ministry of Foreign Affairs - s.r., but for ordinary people - m.r. There is noun. general kind- also applies to m.r. and to Zh.R.: crybaby, headman, lecturer. Unmarked nouns - reader, student, i.e. in general these classes of people. “The student is now rude.”

12 Number category. There is singular, plural and dual: eye, eyes (plural), eyes (dual), four tables (dual), but five tables (plural). Words with an abstract meaning do not have plurals, although they can also have individualization, i.e. meaning is enriched (initiative (general activity) and initiatives (specific proposals)). Joy, stupidity, vulgarity, etc. These beings outwardly not countable, but when there are specific manifestations of this quality, then it can be used in the plural. - the beauty of nature, choose the lesser of two evils, say nasty things. At the same time, the meaning changes - shreds (clumps of snow, cotton wool), shreds - small pieces. Forms with stressed plural endings. with “a” began to spread even before the time of Pushkin (before, for example, the house y, but the forms of years, years with different ones have been preserved. meaning).

13 Case categories. Case - (“fall”) - “not a direct meaning.” Historically up to 10 cases. In R.P. there is also a genitive " parts" - drink a glass of tea. In Sentence P. has an explanatory meaning - to talk about tea, about business. Now there are 6 of them. V.P. goes to R.P. in case of denial (“don’t give him your hand”). V.P. used when talking about a specific item (don’t forget a suitcase).

15 Glass of tea- a measure of a substance (i.e. not a liquid, a dry brew poured into a glass). Glass of tea- the liquid we drink.

16. On the edge / on the edge. “On the edge” (more colloquial form) has a connotation of concreteness (to stand on the edge of the abyss (objectivity)). “On the edge” - more lit. the form is of a more generalized nature (meaning “on the outskirts”) (write on the edge (cap) of the board - i.e. in the very corner).

17 Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives. Adj. - part of speech, which is not a procedural sign of the subject. Select 3 categories of adjectives: 1) qualitative - directly denotes the quality, sacredness of objects (white, red). They can be used both in short and in full form. 2) relative - through the relationship to other objects (glass - made of glass). 3) possessive - a relationship of ownership, belonging (father's portfolio).

18 Degrees of comparison of adjectives. Adj. can change according to degrees of comparison (stupid - even dumber), but not all (blind - there is no “blinder”). In addition to the comparative degree (lower), there is also the superlative degree (the dumbest). Elative - superlative degree with a hint of servility, deep. respect: in the shortest possible time.

19 Places of numerals. A numeral denotes a number and expresses a definition. number of homogeneous objects. There are 1) quantitative - this is a quantitative determinant of almost all entities that can be counted (one, two, three). They are divided into simple (two, three, thousand), derivatives (fifteen, four hundred - formed with a suf. or consist of 2 bases) and compound - two or more words (four hundred thirty-five) 2 ) collective (two (pair), three, four). They also have no gender or number. 3) fractional numerals - denote, numerals. in fractional units. (three and two tenths). They are composite in structure. May be f.r. (one sixth).

20 Declension of fractional numbers. When declining, all their constituent words change (twenty-two hundredths - twenty-two hundredths). The word “one and a half, one and a half” stands out. An hour and a half, but one and a half melons, excl. one and a half days (from beat to first syllable). Options: with a thousand rubles (countable nouns), with a thousand rubles (displaces other forms), with a thousand rubles (this is a pure number)

21 Declension of numerals by =ten. Well, it’s like fifty, sixty—decline it yourself.

22 Declension of numerals 40, 90, 100. They have only two case forms. Ninety - stands apart. In I.P. ninety O, and in all indirect ones - ninety A, fourty A, st A. St O books—with two hundred A with books, no three hundred _ books, i.e. Either one part of the word or both can be declined.

24 Collective numbers, their grammatical features. With morphol. That is, numerals have neither gender nor number. Usage with noun m.r. (five men), with the words “children, guys, people, faces”, with the name of baby animals (four cubs), with a noun, which only have a plural form. (two sleighs), with paired nouns. (four stockings, but two pairs of stockings are better) Collect. number not used with noun w.r. (one cannot say three dressmakers, four janitors, four teachers), with noun. which means named. animals (two tigers are not allowed), with noun, called persons high. society provisions (minister).

26 Classes of pronouns. There are 3 categories: 1) pronoun-noun. 2) place-e-adjectives 3) place-e-numerals. The first category includes the words “I, you, you, who, what, this, anyone, someone...”. In the sentence they are either an object or a subject. The second category is “mine, yours, yours, this, some.” In the sentence either the nominal part of the predicate., or defined. In the third category: “how many, as many, several, not at all, several.” Ch. function of places. - replacement of semantically independent words in speech.

27 Morphological categories of the verb. Tense, person, number, voice, mood, aspect, gender - gram. verb categories. Many verb forms are not able to express all these 7 forms (complete). We must not forget about the infinitive - in it the verb reflects the aspect and voice.

31 Verb tenses. Synonymy of times. SV - the use of one tense in another: historical. S.: “I came yesterday and saw” (present tense). So everything can change: the present instead of the future, the past instead of the future. (“So I believed you!”), etc.

37 Adverb, its grammatical features. N. is a part of speech that conveys a quality or circumstance of other qualities or actions. There are qualitative N. (from qualitative adjectives) (to speak red), participle N. (looked questioningly), N. as a function. adj-x (so-so person). N. on “o” and “e” began to be actively formed in the end. XIX century, they have not changed (in absentia, ahead of schedule). N. has subjective assessments (it’s been a while, good). Eat comparative degree(more freely, brighter) N. and excellent (to ask most humbly, to bow most deeply). There is an emotional expression of the degree (raspberry, early, very stupid, extremely). There are transitional N. (in a good way, often blindly) these are qualitative and circumstantial shades. N. may refer to adj., moreover, to N. himself.

38 State category words. This is the state of something that does not fall under any part of speech. Ex. The expression on his face is scary(cr. adj.). It was scary (Adverb, which refers to an adverb) and interesting to him. He became scared (the description of the state is the words of the category of the state): boring, it is necessary, it is impossible, it must, it is possible, it is a pity - they are used. in function only predicate ( I miss). State category words can include nouns, pronouns, adverbs of time, place, quantity, and maybe an infinitive.

39 Word combinations, their categories. Types of phrases - substantive (noun - core word), verbal (predictive). The main thing is what the core word is. Word combination. divided according to structure into: 1) simple ( new house, give the book) 2) complex (uncontrollable desire to wander) 3) combined - i.e. those that consist of several core words, phrases, and those are in a state of adjacency, subordination to each other (enthusiastically reading an interesting book).

40 Sentences, their categories. Sentence categories - simple, complex, complex, repaired, complex, complex, non-union, introductory sentences, direct. speech, etc.

41 What is predicativity. This is the correlation of the statement with reality.

42 Essay how syntactic connection . Opinion as a syntactic connection is a coordinating connection between equal elements. This is a sentence in which no element can be a component of another.

43 Subordination as a syntactic connection. This is the connection between elements of sentences that are mutually subordinate in meaning.

44 Agreement, its grammatical features. Concord is a type of subordinating connection, which is expressed likening dependent word form of the dominant one.

45 Management, its grammatical features. U. is one of the types of subordinating connections. It can be direct or through prepositions. There are options - to be amazed by something (to admire) and to be amazed by something (to be surprised). The phenomenon of “management” is semantic and grammatical in origin, which means the meaning is important. There is a decomposition. forms: review of something (lit.), review of something. (obsolete).

46 Adjunction, its grammatical features. P. is a subordinating connection, in which the words act as a dependent word immutable(adv., adjectives, infinitive, gerund).

49 Complex syntactic whole. This is a type of text in which the statement is built on the material of sequentially constructed complex sentences and complex syntactic structures. SSC is a unity of complex sentences that are built on the principle of consistency.

50 Text, features and properties. A text is a written or oral statement characterized by internal coherence and completeness. Its mandatory features are 1) completeness 2) connectedness.

51 What is discourse? Discourse - “movement back and forth” - a connected text in combination with extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors, i.e. which go beyond the context. Dr. words are speech immersed in life (reporting, live conversation). The discourse is divided into 1) frames - k.-l. typical situations, scenes; this is the structure of data that makes up a person’s knowledge about the world 2) scenarios - show how frames develop in a class. situations. The main functions are persuasion and emotional influence. Discourse is not a text; it cannot be applied to antiquity. Rhema - statement, verb, saying.

Grammatical meanings

In any significant word they combine lexical And grammatical meanings. The grammatical meaning acts as an addition to the lexical one and expresses various relationships (the relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the attitude of the speaker to the communicated, etc. ). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, a country has the meaning of feminine gender, nominative case, singular; verb read contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, imperfective.

Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed by the form of a word.

The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed using other words with which given word connected in a sentence.

The term “grammatical categories” refers to a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings. The meanings of individual cases are combined into the case category, the meanings of individual tense forms - into the tense category. The grammatical category relates to grammatical meaning as the general to the particular. Window: category of gender from the meaning of neuter gender. Read: mood category from verb form, expressing the grammatical meaning of the imperative mood.

When identifying grammatical form, we mean linguistic means used to express grammatical meanings. I'll take it: ending -у indicates 1st person, singular, present tense, indicative mood.

Grammatical form is the relationship between grammatical meaning and grammatical way in their unity.

2. Parts of speech. Principles of their classification. Independent and service ch.r. Modal words

Parts of speech are the main lexical and grammatical categories (classes) into which the words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: 1) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.); 2) morphological ( morphological categories words); 3) syntactic ( syntactic functions words).

Parts of speech - independent (notional) and auxiliary.

Special groups include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words.

Independent(nominative) parts of speech either name objects, qualities or properties, quantity, action or state, or indicate them. They have independent lexical and grammatical meanings and act as main or secondary members in a sentence. Independent parts of speech - 7 categories of words: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, state category.

Service parts of speech are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. They manifest themselves in the relationships and connections between words and sentences (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as in the transmission of semantic and emotional shades of meaning expressed by independent parts of speech (particles). Functional parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions, particles.

Modal words serve to express the speaker’s assessment of his statement as a whole or its individual parts s.t.z. their relationship to objective reality.

Interjections also lack the naming function. They are exponents of certain feelings (Oh! Chu! Fu! Alas!) and expressions of will (Out! Stop! Shh!).

Onomatopoeic words are, in their sound design, a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, etc.: quack-quack, moo-u, ding-ding, etc.

3. Grammatical features of common and proper nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into common and proper nouns.

Common nouns nouns serve as names of homogeneous objects, actions or states: person, mother, island, river, book, holiday, joy, grief, sleep, riding.

Semantically they are opposed to nouns own, which are the names of individual objects, isolated from a number of homogeneous ones: personal names, surnames, geographical, administrative-territorial names, names of literary works, astronomical names, names of historical eras and events, popular movements, significant dates, etc.: Ivan, Elena, Petrov, Vladimirov, Europe, Dvina, Ryazan, “War and Peace”, Mars, Earth, Renaissance, Great Patriotic War, Victory Day.

A formal grammatical feature of proper nouns is that they only have a singular form. The appearance of the plural is associated with the use of the word in a different meaning, therefore the plural form in this case is not correlative in meaning with the singular form.

Proper nouns are used in the plural form: 1) when denoting different persons and objects with the same name (two Ivanovs, both Americas); 2) when designating persons who are related (the Karamazov brothers, Messrs. Golovlevs). When denoting the type of people, the properties of their character, proper names can become common nouns: Manilovs, Chichikovs, Khlestakovs.

4. Grammatical features of concrete and abstract nouns

A noun is a part of speech that combines words with a grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In the sentence i.s. acts as subject and object.

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into concrete and abstract (abstract).

Specific nouns are used to name certain objects and phenomena of reality, taken separately and therefore subject to counting: book, school, house, girl.

Distracted(abstract) nouns name an action or sign in abstraction from the producer of the action or the bearer of the holiday. Such names do not form correlative forms of numbers and are not combined with cardinal numerals: study, emergence, departure, whiteness, hatred, selfishness, lyricism, elections, vacations. However, some abstract nouns, acquiring a specific meaning, are used in the plural: winter cold, different destinies, seven troubles - one answer, southern latitudes, different temperatures.

5 . Grammatical features of collective nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into collective nouns.

Collective singular nouns denote a collection of identical persons or objects as one indivisible whole. They are not determined by cardinal numerals, but have special word-forming suffixes: -в(а), -ств(о), -еств(о), - ру(а), -аt: foliage, children, students, teachers, professors, proletariat .

6 . Grammatical features of real nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into real ones.

Real nouns denote a homogeneous mass, substance (liquids, metals, chemical elements and compounds, food products, agricultural crops, etc.): water, lead, amidopyrine, oxygen, sugar, cheese, meat, rye, cotton. They have the form of only one number (either singular or plural): milk, nitrogen; cream, yeast. They are not combined with cardinal numbers, but, like words denoting the substance being measured, they can be combined with words of measure: a kilogram of flour, a hectare of wheat, a liter of milk, a lot of water. In this case, real nouns are used in the genitive singular form, in contrast to immaterial nouns, which in such cases have a plural form. A number of masculine nouns have two forms of the genitive case: sugar - sugar, tea - tea, snow - snow.

7 . Grammatical features of singular nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into singular ones.

Single nouns (singulatives) name individual objects isolated from a mass of matter or a collection of homogeneous objects: pea (peas), pearl (pearl), pine (tesina), snowflake (snow), peasant (peasantry), professor (professorship). In some cases, singularities are formed analytically: a head of onion, a head of cabbage.

8. Grammatical features of animate and Not animate nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into animate and inanimate.

Animation-inanimation The meaning of nouns is lexically manifested in the fact that animate nouns denote mainly living beings (people and animals), and inanimate nouns denote objects and phenomena of reality that are not classified as living nature. Grammatically, the category of animateness - inanimateness manifests itself in the declension of nouns: form accusative case of animate nouns coincides with the form of the genitive case, while the form of the accusative case of inanimate nouns coincides with the form of the nominative case: student - animate name (v.p. = r.p. student), table (v.p. = r.p. table) .

The category of animacy covers mainly masculine and feminine nouns. In masculine nouns, except nouns. on -a, -i, it appears in both numbers (v.p. = r.p. student, students). For feminine and masculine nouns ending in -a, -ya - only in the plural (v.p. = r.p. students, boys, judges).

Animated nouns of the neuter gender include: 1) nouns with the suffixes -ish-(e), -ovishch-(e), -lish-(e): monster, monster, monster; 2) some substantive adjectives and participles: animal, insect, mammal; 3) nouns child, person (meaning person), creature (meaning living organism).

A number of nouns exhibit fluctuations in the expression of the category of animation - inanimateness (in the names of microorganisms, in nouns image, type, character): consider ciliates and ciliates; kill bacteria and germs; create vivid images and special characters.

The lexico-grammatical category of gender is inherent in all nouns (with the exception of words used only in the plural). it is syntactically independent: the gender of a noun determines the gender form of the agreed words ( big house). Nouns different kinds differ in the declension paradigm (house - at home, home), word-formation structure (brother - brothers, teacher - teacher), and some lexical-semantic features (Tbilisi, lady). For inanimate nouns, the gender is purely formal, for animate nouns it is not only formal, but also significant, because associated with distinguishing the names of male and female persons and animals. The genus category is clearly displayed only in singular forms.

Masculine- this is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and for animate nouns - by the belonging of male creatures to it: table, edge, house, young man.

Feminine - This is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and for animate nouns - by the belonging to it of the names of female creatures: country, Moscow, week, cherry, joy, pea, daughter, sister. The feminine gender includes nouns that have i.p. units endings -а, (-я): book, earth.

Meaning general kind can be correlated with both a male and a female person: orphan, slob, smart girl, Sasha, vis-a-vis, protégé, incognito.

Neuter gender is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension and the meaning of inanimateness (with a few exceptions): village, gun, child, insect, monster.

Category numbers nouns - a lexical and grammatical inflectional category, which finds its expression in the opposition of correlative forms of singular and plural: student - students, teacher - teachers.

The form of a number denoting one object in a series of homogeneous objects is the form the only one numbers: table, notebook, textbook. The number form denoting an indefinite set of homogeneous objects is the plural form: tables, notebooks, textbooks.

The singular and plural differ in means of expression:

1) the presence of different endings: book - books, house - houses.

2) a change in the ending combined with a change in the place of stress: wall - walls, window - windows.

3) truncation, extension or alternation of suffixes at the base: peasant - peasants, leaf - leaves, foal - foals.

4) using suppletive forms: person - people, child - children.

A number of nouns do not have correlative singular and plural forms.

Nouns that have only singular forms include:

1) abstract nouns (courage, courage, sadness, linguistics)

2) collective nouns (foliage, students)

3) a number of material nouns (silver, hydrogen, raspberry, milk)

4) proper names (Moscow, Don, Ural)

Nouns that have only plural forms are:

1) some abstract nouns (vacations, farewell, twilight)

2) a number of material nouns (cream, cabbage soup, perfume, sweets)

3) individual proper names (Cheboksary, Kuriles, Pyrenees)

4) the names of some games (chess, checkers, blind man's buff, hide and seek)

5) concrete nouns denoting objects consisting of several parts or paired objects (scissors, gates, watches, rakes, railings).

Material nouns in the plural form are used to name different varieties and types of substances (high-quality steels, noble wines, territorial waters), products from of this material, they may indicate a large amount of matter, a vast space (desert sands, endless snow). Proper names are used in the plural form and to designate the type of people (Kabanikhas, Chichikovs), as well as members of the same family (the Artamonov family).

Case- an inflectional lexico-grammatical category of a noun, which, through a system of case forms opposed to each other, expresses the relationship of the object denoted by the noun to other objects, actions and characteristics. Relationships created with the help of cases appear at the level of phrases and sentences. There are 6 cases in modern Russian, but the number of meanings they convey is much greater than the number of case forms.

The meanings expressed by cases are divided into 4 main groups: subjective, objective, attributive and circumstantial.

Nominative- independent case form. It is not used with prepositions. Meanings: 1) Subjective (the boy is reading); 2)Objective (The lecture is recorded by students); 3) Definitive (he was a peasant).

Indirect cases according to their use are divided into verbs And applied: read a book (verb v.p.); reading a book (noun genitive case). V.P. It can only be a verb.

Meaning GRAMMARICAL MEANING in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

GRAMMATIC MEANING

(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relationships (the relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the attitude of the speaker to the communicated, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. Thus, the word country has the meaning of feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:

a) affixation. Book, books, book, etc. (case meanings);

b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (imperfect and perfect meanings);

c) accent. At home. (gen. fallen. singular) - at home (named. fallen. plural);

d) suppletivism. Take - take (meanings of the form). Good - better (values of the degree of comparison);

f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).

The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed using other words with which the word is associated in a sentence. The tram left for the depot.— The tram left the depot (the meanings of the accusative case of the indeclinable word depot in the first sentence and the genitive in the second are created in both cases different connections this word with other words). see also ways of expressing grammatical meanings.

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012

Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.

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Definition. What is Grammatical Meaning

Meaning GRAMMARICAL MEANING in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of words and what GRAMMATICAL MEANING is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.

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