Development of technology in the twentieth century. Important inventions of the 20th century

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Ufa State Aviation Technical University

Department of History of the Fatherland and Cultural Studies

"Domestic military equipment XIX - started XX century »

Timofeev Maxim Alexandrovich

Faculty of ATS Group RMP-403-d

Ufa, 2013

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the topic. Militarism and military conflicts. Period from the 70s. XIX century before 1917 was characterized by the development of militarism in all major powers.

Twenty years before the start of the First World War, the Japanese-Chinese (1894-1895), Spanish-American (1898), Anglo-Boer (1899-1902), Russian-Japanese (1904-1905), Italian-Turkish (1911- -1912), the first and second Balkan wars (1912--1913) and many colonial expeditions against the peoples of Az ii, Africa and Latin America. The greatest achievements of technical thought, which in other social conditions could have alleviated the situation of the masses, were most quickly used during the period of imperialism to destroy people and material values.

The development of military affairs was based on the achievements of the leading branches of production - metallurgy, mechanical engineering (especially engine building), electrical engineering, precision instrument making, chemical technology etc. In military technology, trends towards mechanization and automation have appeared.

“From that moment,” F. Engels pointed out, “military affairs became one of the branches of large-scale industry (armored ships, rifled artillery, rapid-fire guns, repeating rifles, steel-jacketed bullets, smokeless powder, etc.), large-scale industry, without which all this cannot be produced, has become a political necessity.”

Review of sources and literature. To describe history of the development of military equipment at the end XIX started XX centuries, were studied various magazines (“History of Science and Technology ", articles "Outstanding creators of Russian rifle in th cannon weapons », from Promtekhizdat M. 2012, No. 3, 3 pp., “History of Russian Aviation”, No. 5, because of 2010, 16 pp., “Russian Tank Building”, No. 7, 2011, 21 pp., “Science and Technology”, article “Internal combustion engines I, history of creation and development", M. "Mechanical Engineering" 2010 No. 2, 23 pp.), special teaching aids : V.S. Virginsky, V.F. Khoteenkov, “Essays on the history of science and technology of the middle XIX , started XX century", ed. - in “Enlightenment”, 1988, chapter Military technology, pp. 194-257., Nadezhdin N.P., “History of science and technology”, from “Phoenix” M. 2007 , chapter - War as a catalyst for the development of science and technology, p. 94.

1) Give an idea of ​​the significance of domestic military equipment of the late 19th century , started XX centuries in human history.

2) Consider the main types and directions of development of military equipment of the end XIX , started XX century.

3) Describe the contribution of Russian engineers and inventors to the development of world weapons

4) Summarize the presented material and draw conclusions.

1. INFANTRY WEAPONS

One of the characteristic features of military equipment period end XIX started -- automation of firearms. Since the invention of the Maxim (X. Maxim) heavy machine gun in 1883, the design of machine guns has been constantly improved (heavy machine gun Maxim, Hotchkiss, light machine gun Lewis, Vickers, Hotchkiss, etc.). The widespread use of machine guns in European armies began after Russo-Japanese War 1904--1905, during which it was revealed the advantages of this weapon .

Russian gunsmith inventors very successfully solved the problems of creating automatic weapons. However, the implementation of their proposals was systematically hampered by the backwardness of Russian industry and its dependence on foreign firms. Thus, with great difficulty, the innovating gunsmiths P. P. Tretyakov and I. A. Pastukhov managed to achieve the introduction into service of a machine gun of the 1910 model, which was given a more convenient wheeled machine gun of the 1908 model of the Sokolov system . In 1913 Tretyakov modernized the Vickers light machine gun, which was then adopted for service with the Russian cavalry.

The Russian infantry at that time was armed with the well-known three-line repeating rifle of the S.I. Mosin system, model 1891. In the years preceding the First World War, V.G. Fedorov, Ya.U. Roshchepey, F.V. Tokarev (1871- -1968) and other Russian inventors offered samples of new automatic handguns .

In 1916, Fedorov first created the type of weapon now called an assault rifle. At the same time, the activity of V. A. Degtyarev (1879--1949) began, who developed his own design of automatic weapons However, until October 1917, these inventions did not receive distribution .

Only at the end 1916 The first company, armed with automatic rifles of the Fedorov system, was sent to the active army. This was the first military unit in military history armed with manual automatic weapons.

An important point in the development of infantry weapons was the spread of melee weapons, which became widely used at the beginning of the 20th century - hand and rifle grenades, grenade launchers and mortars. In Russia, mortars were created earlier than in other countries, but the military department delayed their mass release.

2. ARTILLERY

During the First World War, a number of new powerful weapons were created, both flat (cannons) and mounted fire (howitzers and mortars), including semi-automatic and automatic. The firing range of heavy guns increased from 12-17 km at the beginning of the war by 1918 . up to 18--22 km .

The use of heavy artillery on a massive scale required the development of mechanical traction to move the guns. A number of types of mechanical traction using engines were introduced internal combustion. The guns were pulled on a trailer by a tracked or wheeled tractor, and sometimes they were mounted on a special self-propelled structure, from which, after some preparatory measures, they fired.

The heaviest systems were transported on special railway platforms.

Figure 1 - Model 1902 gun, 87 mm caliber

Figure 2 - Russian field 122-mm rapid-fire howitzer 1910

Russian artillery scientists outside He made an outstanding contribution to the theory and practice of artillery development. (These are the works and inventions of N.V. Maievsky, A.V. Gadolin, V.S. Baranovsky, A.N. Engelhardt, N.A. Zabudsky, F.F. Lender, R. A. Durlyakhov, etc.)

For service with the Russian army at the beginning of the 20th century. many new types of guns were adopted, distinguished by high combat qualities (for example, the 76-mm field rapid-fire gun of the 1902 model, produced since 1906, with a panoramic arc sight and shield cover) .

Unfortunately, many of the proposed innovations were implemented late and became the property of foreign firms before the Russian army received them.

The fight against enemy aircraft brought to life the use of anti-aircraft machine guns, automatic rifles and anti-aircraft artillery. In Russia, since 1914, a 76-mm anti-aircraft gun with a semi-automatic wedge breech, built by F. F. Lender at the Putilov plant, has been used.

The opponents entered the First World War with a total of about 20 thousand heavy and light guns. By the end of the war, the number The number of guns increased to 85 thousand.

The rapid improvement of rifled artillery pieces overshadowed the use of military missiles, which were used by Russian troops in military operations in Central Asia (60s and 70s) and in Russian-Turkish war 1877--1878, but on a smaller scale.

Although in a number of cases the missiles were removed from service, supporters of this type of weapon (followers of K. I. Konstantinov) continued to improve them. So, V.V. Nechaev suggested. new type high-explosive pyroxylin rockets. Since 1892, Russia had rocket designs with a stabilizer ami wings in the tail section.

The most important research in the field of design of combat and illumination rockets was carried out since 1902 by M. M. Pomortsev (1851-- 1916). As a result of Pomortsev's experiments, the range, speed and accuracy of missile flight increased. (The flight range of flares increased from 1 to 4 km, and combat flares - from 4 to 8 km . ) .

3. EXPLOSIVES

In 1890--1891 D. I. Mendeleev, together with L. G. Fedotov (1847--1894) and I. M. Cheltsov (1848--1904), developed a method for producing a new type of smokeless gunpowder, which he called pyrocollodion. The gunpowder was intended for the Russian fleet. A number of other explosives were also created. Their production received enormous development during the years of the First World War.

The main raw materials for the production of explosives were nitrogenous compounds (nitrates). Before the war, nitrates were extracted in European countries from imported Chilean saltpeter or from by-products of coking and gas plants.

A galaxy of remarkable chemists worked in Russia at that time (N. S. Kurnakov, A. E. Favorsky, N. D. Zelinsky, etc.). They put forward many valuable proposals for new technology for the extraction of toluene, gasoline, synthetic phenol, etc. But The chemical industry in the country was extremely backward and completely unprepared to meet the demands of the army and navy for both explosives and other chemical products of defense significance. (Before the war, the bulk of chemical products imported to Russia from Germany ) .

4. toxic substances, means of protection against them

In Russia, prominent scientists were involved in the production of gas masks. In 1915, N. D. Zelinsky (1861--1953) created a coal gas mask, notable for its simplicity cooking and good qualities.

During the First World War, more than 50 toxic compounds were used, of which the most effective were phosgene, diphosgene, mustard gas, diphenylchloroarcine and diphenylcyanarcine . At the end of the war, lewisite, adamsite and chloroacetophenone appeared. Total for 1915-1918 the warring countries used more than 125 thousand tons of toxic substances . Total losses from chemical weapons amounted to about a million people.

5. TANK BUILDING

The idea of ​​using tanks arose in a number of countries at the beginning of the 20th century. Levasseur in 1903 in France, V.D. Mendeleev (son of the great chemist) in Russia in 1911, Burshtyn in Austria in 1912 proposed projects for armored all-terrain vehicles on tracked tracks. But the governments of these countries were indifferent to projects of this kind. At the beginning of the First World War, English inventors - Colonel Swinton and, independently of him, engineers Tritton and Wilson - created new tank designs. In France, Colonel Estienne worked on the constructive implementation of this idea.

In the early stages of tank development, tanks with purely machine gun armament were sometimes produced, and after World War II, experiments were carried out to create tanks with rocket armament. There are known variants of tanks with a flamethrower.

The word “tank” comes from the English word tank, that is, “tank” or “tank.” The origin of the name is as follows: when the first tanks were sent to the front, British counterintelligence started a rumor that the tsarist government had ordered a batch of drinking water tanks in England. And the tanks went by rail under the guise of tanks. It is interesting that in Russia the new combat vehicle was initially called “lokhan” (one translation of the word tank).

Tanks owe their appearance to the First World War. After a relatively short initial maneuvering stage of hostilities, balance was established on the fronts (the so-called “trench warfare”). The enemy's deeply echeloned defense lines were difficult to break through.

At the very beginning of the war, in August 1914, the foreman of the machine-building plant in Riga Porokhovshchikov proposed to the commander-in-chief of the Russian army original project combat tracked vehicle. It was what we now call a tank . In June 1915, Porokhovshchikov was already testing his car. During testing, its speed reached 25 km/h. Neither the British nor the French first tanks had such speed. [ 11 , 32 ] .

Later, Porokhovshchikov improved his vehicle, making it a wheeled-tracked vehicle: it could move along roads on wheels and across terrain on tracks. This was several years ahead of tank building at that time. Porokhovshchikov made the tank's hull waterproof, as a result of which it could easily overcome water obstacles. In Porokhovshchikov's tank, side clutches were used for turning for the first time - mechanisms that later began to be installed on most tanks; on some machines they have been preserved to this day.

The Porokhovshchikov tank can be considered not only the first Russian tank, but also the first tank in general, since its idea arose and was implemented earlier than in other countries. In addition, Porokhovshchikov largely anticipated the development of tanks in the future. And if we started the history of the tank with an English vehicle, and not with Porokhovshchikov’s tank, it is only because his tank was not used in the Russian army. The industry of Tsarist Russia could not master such a complex machine as a tank. Porokhovshchikov suffered the same fate as many other talented nugget inventors in Tsarist Russia. His tank was forgotten, and was remembered only many years later, when tanks were already widely used in all armies.

Another attempt to create a tank in Russia was made in 1915 by the head of the experimental laboratory of the War Ministry, Captain N. N. Lebedenko. His idea was similar to Hetherington's. He proposed a design for a wheeled tank. Like Hetherington, Lebedenko's car was supposed to have two large front wheels with a diameter of 9 m and a cat-shaped rear wheel for turning the car . Lebedenko was inspired by the carts he saw in the Caucasus to create a high-wheeled vehicle. .

From the first Soviet tank “Freedom Fighter Comrade. Lenin", built by the workers of the Sormovsky plant in 1920, to a modern main tank with high firepower, protection from all weapons and high mobility - this is the long and glorious path of Soviet tank building.

In Tsarist Russia, the country where the world's first model of a tank was created (A. A. Porokhovshchikov's tank), there was no tank-building industry and no tanks were built. Only after the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution did the young Red Army begin to be equipped with military equipment. Already in the spring of 1918, speaking at a meeting of military specialists, V.I. Lenin proposed a program technical equipment The Red Army, in which armored forces played a significant role.

August 31, 1920, the first Soviet tank, named “Freedom Fighter Comrade. Lenin,” came out of the gates of the Krasnoe Sormovo plant. By the hands of skilled workers disabilities 15 tanks of the same type were manufactured. From this period the history of the development of tank building in the USSR begins.

The first Soviet tanks were not inferior in combat qualities to the best foreign models, and in some design features they were superior to them. These domestic vehicles and captured ones captured from the interventionists became the basis for the formation of tank detachments. The first such detachments, which included three tanks, appeared in 1920. They took part in battles on various fronts and were used to directly support the infantry, being in their battle formations. It should be noted that the main tanks of the Red Army during the period civil war were trophy.

In 1924, a technical bureau of the Main Directorate of Military Industry was created, headed by engineer S.P. Shchukalov. It has become important event in the history of Soviet tank building. If earlier the development of tank equipment was carried out by separate factories, which, naturally, did not contribute to the accumulation of the necessary experience, then after the creation of the bureau, all work is concentrated in a single center.

Figure 3 - Tank T18

Three years later, in 1927, the first sample of a light tank designed by this bureau was tested. Based on the test results and by decision of the USSR Revolutionary Military Council dated July 6, 1927, the model was accepted into service with the Red Army. The modified version of the T-18 tank received the MS-1 brand, which meant “small escort, first sample.”

In the 30s, Soviet tank building began to develop rapidly. During this period, tank design bureaus were created, which in a short time developed a whole generation of tanks of all weight categories. An outstanding role in the creation of the first models of tanks of that period was played by N.V. Barykov, who in 1929 headed the special design and mechanical engineering department (OKMO).

6. AIR FORCE

military equipment firearms aviation

Air fleet in the world war 1914-1918. played a significant role. Lighter-than-air devices used in combat operations included tethered kite balloons and airships, and heavier-than-air devices used airplanes.

By the beginning of the war, Sikorsky had built several modifications of the Ilya Muromets aircraft. At that time, such aircraft were considered giants. For example, built in July 1917, it had 5 motors (3 traction and 2 pushing propellers) with a total power of 1445 hp, a speed of up to 105 km/h and a load capacity of 4.2 tons. . In 1916, V. A. Slesarev’s twin-engine aircraft “Svyatogor” was built (according to the 1913 project). The military department ordered several aircraft of this type, offering to equip them with weapons and use them as bombers and military transports. “Ilya Muromets Kyiv”, “Ilya Muromets III” and others carried out a number of successful raids on German positions, convoys and railway stations, hangars, warehouses and other objects in East Prussia and Galicia. In addition to bombing, these planes carried out aerial photography, since reconnaissance aircraft could not then fly far behind enemy lines.

Figure 4 - Aircraft “Ilya Muromets III”

This idea was picked up in Germany to create multi-engine Gotha bombers, etc. Russia’s allies followed the same path.

7. NAVY

Russia in late XIX- beginning of the 20th century had remarkable specialists in the field of shipbuilding, such as S. O. Makarov, A. N. Krylov, I. G. Bubnov, experienced engineers and mechanics. But their activities were constrained by the backward system of the Naval Department, headed by an admiral general - one of the great princes with his proteges, usually routiners and formalists.

The results of the activities of this department were clearly revealed during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Russia suffered such losses that, in the words of Academician A. N. Krylov, “a complete renewal of the fleet was ahead.” Unfortunately, the reorganization of the Naval Department was limited only to the abolition of the post of admiral general, and “the management system essentially remained the same” 2.

When a decision was made in Russia to build dreadnoughts and a competition was announced involving both domestic and foreign firms, A. N. Krylov barely managed to defend the project of the Baltic Shipyard, drawn up under the leadership of I. G. Bubnov.

In 1912, under the leadership of I.G. Bubnov, 4 battlecruisers of the Izmail type were designed, which were to become the most powerful ships of this class. They were to be armed with 12 356 mm guns. The speed was supposed to be 37 knots (50 km/h). However, the construction that had begun was abandoned. Russian fleet t I never received these cruisers.

I. G. Bubnov and M. P. Naletov developed it in 1903-1915. a number of valuable projects for new type submarines. In 1908, according to the design of I. G. Bubnov, the first submarine with a diesel engine, “Lamprey,” was built. In the same year, M.P. Naletov created the submarine “Crab”, which for the first time served as an underwater minelayer capable of holding 60 mines. However, the military authorities did not support talented inventors. Thus, in 1914, I. G. Bubnov’s bold projects for the construction of cruising submarines with a displacement of 1 thousand tons with a range of 4 - were rejected 5 thousand km .

8. USE OF COMMUNICATIONS

Among the means of communication during the war, the telegraph, telephone, optical means and radio were widely used in all armies.

By this time, significant advances had been made in radio engineering. In 1902-1904. Danish inventor V. Poulsen designed a new type of transmitting radio stations with an arc generator of continuous oscillations. The German military command purchased new transmitters, installed them in the fleet and kept them secret, putting them into use only after war was declared. Allied radio stations, unaware of them, could not initially intercept radiograms from the German fleet. The secret was unraveled in Russia by the prominent electrical engineer M.V. Shuleikin (1884-1939).

Military formations and individual units in all armies began to be equipped with radio installations. The improvement of transmitters and receiving devices has made it possible to introduce radio communications on all sea surface and underwater vessels, aircraft, tanks, etc.

CONCLUSION

Generalizations. The growth of aggressiveness of the leading powers, on the one hand, and technical capabilities, on the other, led to the rapid development and improvement of military equipment. The first projects of an armored combat vehicle, later called a tank, were proposed in Russia (1911-1915) by engineers V.D. Mendeleev, A.A. .Porokhovshchikov, A.A.Vasiliev. The appearance of the first military aircraft dates back to 1909-1910. In Russia, aircraft were first used for military purposes during maneuvers in the St. Petersburg, Warsaw and Kyiv military districts in 1911. Aircraft were first used in combat during the Balkan Wars (1912-1913). By the beginning of the First World War, Russia had 263 military aircraft. In Russia in 1914. The world's first bomber, the Ilya Muromets, was put into service. Thanks to the works of I. G. Bubnov and M. P. Naletov in Russia during the period XIX - XX Several icebreakers of the Izmail type were built, and several submarines were developed. For service with the Russian army at the beginning of the 20th century. Many new types of guns were adopted that were distinguished by high combat qualities (for example, the 76-mm field rapid-fire gun of the 1902 model, produced since 1906, with a panoramic arc sight and shield cover). In the infantry weapons of that period, the most significant samples were: rifle A system of S.I. Mosin model 1891, machine gun V.G. Fedorov and 1916 , machine gun by V. A. Degtyarev 1916.

Conclusions. Despite all the obstacles, domestic military equipment of the late 19th century started XX remained one of the most advanced and progressive in the world. The discovery and production of new military equipment in all its fields allowed Russian army approach World War 1 as one of the most technically armed countries of the old world.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Vernadsky V.I. Works on the general history of science. M. Science. 1988;

2. Virginsky V.S. Essays on science and technology 16-19 centuries. M., 1984.

3. Virginsky V.S., Khoteenkov V.F. Essays on the history of science and technology 1870-1917. M., 1988.

4. Virginsky V.S., Khoteenkov V.F. Essays on the history of science and technology from ancient times to the mid-15th century. M., 1993.

5. Solomatin V.A. History of science. M., 2003.

6. Starostin B.A. The formation of historiography of science. From origin to XVIII century. M. Science. 1990.

7. Kirillin V.A. Pages of the history of science and technology. M., 1989.

The science. Encyclopedia. M., 1994.

8. Nadezhdin N.P., History of science and technology, from Phoenix M. 2007

9. Pavlov N.A., Outstanding creators of Russian small arms and cannons ,magazine History of science and technology , from Promtekhizdat M. 2012, No. 3 2012

10. Gavrilov K.A., History of Russian aviation, journal History of Science and Technology , from Promtekhizdat M. 2011, No. 5 2012, - 54 p.

11. Makeev N.A., Russian tank building, journal History of Science and Technology , from Promtekhizdat M. 2011, No. 5 2012 - 54 p.

12 . Bykov A.L. Internal combustion engines, history of creation and developmentmagazine Science and Technology , M. “Mechanical Engineering” 2010 No. 2 . - 60 s.

Posted on Allbest.ru

...

Similar documents

    Determining the scope of tasks and time for decontamination of weapons and military equipment, sanitary treatment of personnel. Military-economic assessment of special treatment of weapons and military equipment with military means of radiochemical protection.

    course work, added 10/04/2010

    Poisonous, poisonous and psychotropic substances. Means of using toxic chemicals and bacteriological weapons. Types of BTXV according to their effect on the human body. Sources of Anthrax. Technologies for the destruction of chemical weapons.

    abstract, added 10/04/2013

    Modern military history as a science. Development of means, forms and methods of conducting armed struggle. The structure of Russian military history as a science according to the views of the late 20th – early 21st centuries. Special and interdisciplinary branches of military history.

    article, added 11/12/2014

    The origins of the evolution of weapons. The evolution of the weapons of peoples and states. The era of cold steel. The era of firearms. The era of nuclear weapons. Anthropology of war. Identification of the sources and preconditions of people's belligerence.

    abstract, added 05/22/2007

    Definition of the concept, classification and goals of unification of weapons and military equipment; description of its restrictive and layout directions. Familiarization with the qualitative requirements and quantitative indicators of standardization of defense products.

    lecture, added 04/19/2011

    The procedure, time and place of taking the Military Oath of citizens of the Russian Federation. Storage of lists given to the Military Oath. The procedure for handing over weapons and military equipment to personnel. Seeing off military personnel transferred to the reserve or retired.

    abstract, added 01/20/2015

    Operation of military vehicles according to their intended purpose in compliance with established norms and rules. Maintenance to maintain the operational performance of vehicles, their storage, transportation and combat readiness.

    lecture, added 07/13/2009

    The history of firearms. Invention of the matchlock and the matchlock arquebus. Using the energy of gunpowder to throw bullets and projectiles. Weapons that use the principles of gas pressure during combustion of a substance.

    presentation, added 01/31/2014

    History of military uniforms, shoulder straps and epaulettes. Improving the uniform of military clothing in accordance with the requirements of combat, new materials and types of weapons. Types of field uniforms, military symbols. Sleeve patches, emblems, headdresses and badges.

    presentation, added 03/17/2012

    History of the formation of aviation military units. Brief description of the Russian heavy military transport aircraft IL-76. Safety requirements for the operation of weapons and military equipment in aviation military units of internal troops.

The greatest achievements of technical thought, which could and should have alleviated the situation of the broad masses of the people, were most quickly used in military equipment designed to destroy people and material assets.

The military industry during the period of imperialism developed extremely widely, and the successes of military technology were very significant.

One of the characteristic features of military equipment of this period was the automation of small arms. The designs of heavy machine guns, first invented by the American engineer X. Maxim in 1883, were significantly improved; heavy machine guns of Maxim and Hotchkiss, light machine guns of Lewis, Vickers, etc. appeared.

The widespread use of machine guns in European armies began after the Russo-Japanese War.

By the beginning of World War several types of automatic rifles had also been created. The trend towards automation was also observed in artillery. Before the World War and during it, new rapid-fire guns were designed - semi-automatic and automatic. The longest range of artillery fire at the beginning of the war was 16-18 km, and in 1917 the unique German cannon “Colossal” (“Big Bertha”) fired at Paris from a distance of up to 120 km.

The massive use of heavy artillery required the development of mechanical traction to move the guns. A number of types of tractors with internal combustion engines were introduced. The fight against enemy air raids caused the appearance of anti-aircraft machine guns and artillery.

The production of explosives has increased enormously. New inventions and important technical improvements have been introduced in this area. In particular, smokeless gunpowder was invented in 1884. Nitrogen compounds (nitrates) became the main raw materials in the production of explosives. Before the World War, nitrates were extracted in European countries from imported Chilean saltpeter or from by-products of coke and gas plants.

The blockade of the German coast since the beginning of the war prompted German industry to establish the production of fixed nitrogen from the air (using the Haber-Bosch method). If in 1913 the enterprises of the powerful chemical association “Baden Aniline-Soda Plants” produced only 3 thousand tons of bound nitrogen, then in 1918 its production reached 270 thousand tons.

In 1915, German troops used chemical warfare agents for the first time. The Entente countries also launched the production of asphyxiating, tear, blister and other poisonous gases. Chemical artillery shells and special gas launchers were manufactured.

To protect against gases, gas masks were introduced in all armies. The construction of gas shelters has also begun. In Russia, work on the production of gas masks was led by prominent scientists. A coal gas mask, distinguished by its versatility and at the same time ease of manufacture, was developed in 1915 by N. D. Zelinsky.

First World War was, to a certain extent, the first “war of engines.” Motor transport was widely used to supply the front; new combat weapons appeared - tanks and armored vehicles.

The idea of ​​using tanks arose in a number of countries even before the start of the war. Levasseur in France (1903), V.D. Mendeleev - the son of the great chemist - in Russia (1911) and Burshtyn in Austria (1912) put forward projects for armored all-terrain vehicles with caterpillar tracks. After the outbreak of World War II, new tank designs were proposed by the English inventors Tritton and Wilson.

First used in battle on September 15, 1916 on the Somme, tanks soon became a powerful means of breaking through the defensive lines that had been envisioned back in 1914-1915. impregnable. Armored vehicles armed with machine guns and small-caliber guns received great development in all warring countries.

In military affairs, aeronautics and aviation were widely used. Germany energetically prepared squadrons of rigid airships of the Zeppelin and Schütte-Lanz system and soft airships of the Parseval system for military purposes. During the World War, the German command put into operation 123 airships that made about 800 sorties. The volume of the largest airships reached 68.5 thousand m.

However, the experience of using airships was not successful: Substantial part they were shot down by anti-aircraft artillery and Allied aircraft or destroyed in the boathouses by air bombing. Military aviation acquired much greater importance.

Before the war, it was assumed that the aircraft would primarily perform aerial reconnaissance functions. But from the summer of 1915, aircraft began to be equipped with machine guns, and they began to be assigned the functions of fighters. By the end of the war, fighters reached speeds of up to 190-220 km per hour, which previously seemed to be a record even for special racing aircraft.

Aviation was also used for bombing. Back in 1913, designer I. Sikorsky built the first four-engine aircraft “Russian Knight” in Russia. IN next year he completed the construction of another large four-engine aircraft, the Ilya Muromets, with a total engine power of 400 hp. With. and a lifting capacity of 1.3 tons. By the beginning of the war, a second aircraft of the same type appeared and in 1916 - the twin-engine aircraft of V. A. Slesarev “Svyatogor”.

Subsequently, the warring countries improved bomber aircraft. Thus, the German R-43-48 bomber reached speeds of up to 105 km per hour and had a payload capacity of 4.2 tons. The development of naval aviation also began. One of the first seaplanes (“flying boat”) was built by the Russian designer D. P. Grigorovich in 1913.

To conduct combat operations at sea, large conventional surface battleships and so-called dreadnoughts, which had greater armament and armor capacity, were intensively built in many countries (since the pre-war years).

The use of the internal combustion engine and electric motors has made the long-standing dream of mankind - scuba diving - a reality. However, submarines were also used solely as a means of war. The construction of submarines began in various countries V last years XIX century

They were driven on the surface by internal combustion engines, and when submerged by electric motors receiving energy from batteries.

Germany, which entered the World War with a well-established production of submarines, paid special attention to the construction of submarines. The actions of German submarines caused great damage to the merchant fleet of the enemy and neutral countries.

Telegraph, telephone, optical communications and radio were widely used in military affairs.

Radio installations began to be supplied to military formations and individual units in all armies, naval surface and submarine ships, aircraft, tanks, etc.

At the same time, the first experiments were undertaken in controlling submarines, torpedoes and fire ships (incendiary ships) at a distance by radio. Similar experiments were carried out in aviation.

The World War caused a huge development of military technology, using all the diversity of scientific and technical knowledge. “...For the first time in history,” noted V.I. Lenin, “the most powerful achievements of technology are applied on such a scale, so destructively and with such energy to the mass extermination of millions of human lives.”

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...2

1. Scientific and technical inventions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries…………………...3

2. Structural changes in industry………………………………...7

3. The influence of scientific and technological progress on the world economy…………9

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….11

List of used literature……………………………………………………...12

Introduction

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the development of productive forces occurred at a rapid pace. In this regard, the volume of global industrial production has increased significantly. These changes were accompanied by the rapid development of technology, innovations of which covered various areas of production, transport and everyday life. Also, significant changes have occurred in the technology of organizing industrial production. During this period, many completely new industries arose that did not exist before. There have also been significant shifts in the distribution of productive forces, both at the international level and within individual states.

Such rapid development of global industry was associated with the scientific and technological revolution of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Through the introduction of achievements of scientific and technological progress, the development of industry in the 19th and 20th centuries. led to significant changes in the conditions and way of life of all mankind.

The purpose of writing this work is to analyze scientific and technological achievements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as to determine their impact on global economic development.

When writing this work, it is necessary to solve the following problems: characterization of scientific and technical inventions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries; analysis of structural changes in industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; determining the impact of technological development on the global economy.

Scientific and technical inventions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

At the end of the 19th century, the so-called “Era of Electricity” began. So, if the first machines were created by self-taught craftsmen, then during this period all technological implementations were closely interconnected with science. Based on the development of electricity, a new energy basis for industry and transport was developed. So, in 1867 V. Siemens invented an electromagnetic generator, with the help of which, by rotating a conductor in a magnetic field, it was possible to receive and generate electric current. In the 70s. In the 19th century, the dynamo was invented, which was used not only as a generator of electricity, but also as a motor that converted electrical energy into dynamic energy. In 1883, the first modern generator, and in 1891 he invented the transformer. Thanks to these inventions, industrial enterprises could now be located far from energy bases, and electricity production was organized at special enterprises - power plants. Equipping machines with electric motors significantly increased the speed of machines, which led to increased productivity and created the prerequisites for subsequent automation of the production process.


Due to the fact that the demand for electricity was constantly growing, there was a need to develop more powerful, compact and economical engines. Thus, in 1884, the English engineer Charles Parsons invented a multi-stage steam turbine, with the help of which it was possible to increase the rotation speed several times.

Internal combustion engines, which were developed by German engineers Daimler and Benz in the mid-80s, were widely used.

In 1896 German engineer R. Diesel developed an internal combustion engine with a high efficiency. A little later, this engine was adapted to operate on heavy liquid fuel, and therefore it began to be widely used in all sectors of industry and transport. In 1906, tractors with internal combustion engines appeared in the USA. Mass production of such tractors was mastered during the First World War.

During this period, one of the main industries was electrical engineering. Thus, electric lighting became widespread, which was associated with the construction of large industrial enterprises, urban development and a significant increase in electricity production.

Also, such a branch of electrical engineering as communications technology has also received widespread development. At the end of the 19th century, wire telegraph equipment was improved, and by the beginning of the 80s. 19th century, work was carried out on the design and practical application telephone equipment. Telephone communications began to quickly spread throughout all countries of the world. The first telephone exchange was built in the USA in 1877, in 1879. a telephone exchange was built in Paris, and in 1881 - in Berlin, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Riga and Warsaw.

One of the main achievements of the scientific and technological revolution was the invention of radio - wireless telecommunications, which is based on the use electromagnetic waves. These waves were first discovered by the German physicist G. Hertz. In practice, this connection was applied by the outstanding Russian scientist A.S. Popov, who on May 7, 1885 demonstrated the world's first radio receiver.

At the beginning of the 20th century, another branch of electrical engineering was invented - electronics. So, in 1904 English scientist J. A. Fleming invented a two-electrode lamp (diode), which could be used to convert the frequencies of electrical vibrations. In 1907 American designer Lee de Forest invented a three-electrode lamp (triode), with which it was possible not only to convert the frequency of electrical vibrations, but also to amplify weak vibrations.

Yes, industrial applications electrical energy, the construction of power plants, the expansion of electric lighting in cities, and the development of telephone communications led to the rapid development of the electrical industry.

The rapid development of mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, military production and railway transport created a demand for ferrous metals. Technical innovations began to be applied in metallurgy, and metallurgical technology achieved great success. The designs of blast furnaces have changed significantly and the volumes of blast furnaces have increased. New methods of steel production were introduced through the processing of cast iron in a converter under strong blast.

In the 80s 19th century was introduced electrolytic method production of aluminum, which led to the development of non-ferrous metallurgy. The electrolytic method was also used to obtain copper.

Another main area of ​​scientific and technological progress was transport. Thus, in connection with technological development, new types of transport have appeared. The growth in the volume and speed of transportation contributed to the improvement of railway technology. The rolling stock on the railways was improved: power, traction force, speed, weight and size of steam locomotives and the carrying capacity of cars increased. Since 1872, automatic brakes were introduced in railway transport, and in 1876. An automatic coupling design has been developed.

At the end of the 19th century, experiments were carried out in Germany, Russia and the USA to introduce electric traction on railways. The first electric city tram line opened in Germany in 1881. In Russia, the construction of tram lines began in 1892.

During the period of scientific and technological progress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A new type of transport was invented - the automobile. The first cars were designed by German engineers K. Benz and G. Daimler. Industrial production cars started in the 90s. 19th century. The high pace of development of the automobile industry contributed to the construction of highways.

Another new mode of transport was air transport, in which airplanes played a decisive role in its development. The first attempts to design aircraft with steam engines were made by A.F. Mozhaisky, K. Ader, and H. Maxim. Aviation became widespread after the installation of light and compact gasoline engines. At first, airplanes had a sporting value, then they began to be used in military affairs, and then for transporting cars.

During this period, chemical methods of processing raw materials were also organized in almost all branches of production. In industries such as mechanical engineering, electrical production, and the textile industry, the chemistry of synthetic fibers has begun to be widely used.

Scientific and technological progress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. contributed to the introduction of many innovations to improve technical sphere light, printing and other industries.

War protects peoples from decay. The German philosopher Hegel said this. Be that as it may, the real rise of science did not occur in the twentieth century, but “a little earlier.” Science was practiced back in medieval monasteries, and alchemists even thought about applying its results. However, the “villain and invader” Napoleon kicked the inventor of the machine gun out of his office. For a very simple reason - he considered such an effective weapon immoral. A little later, the “kindest” German Kaiser Wilhelm II was already gassing people like rats.

Cultural Revolution - Scientific and technological progress

A little about the nature of progress

The development of mechanics led to the creation of important machines. First, Watt's primitive steam engine was created. But very quickly this machine completely changed its appearance and was already working on sea ships and steam locomotives. The result of this was a colossal order for steel and coal, and since the mechanization of production was, to put it mildly, “not very good,” this caused great discontent among low-paid workers. Trade was the engine of progress, but traders had not yet had to work on such a scale as entire continents, and therefore crazy ideas about “ classes», « exploiters», « race and blood"and so on. However, this is from a different area.

By the beginning of the 20th century, many books appeared full of euphoria about the future. Not only half-educated people, but also fairly educated people succumb to the influence of “man’s power over nature.” This even penetrated into the twentieth century itself - Sergei Korolev without jokes believed that crowds of tourists would be able to fly into space. The price of a ticket and the consequences for the environment were the last things they thought about back then; apparently, there was a lack of practical experience.

It must be said that politicians only use science, like everything else. Science develops according to its own internal logic, due to the curiosity of scientists. But sometimes this curiosity backfires on everyone. Powerful of the world This one, who gets away with everything, always, everywhere, uses the released energy for destruction. Their motive is simple - to please their vanity, to go down in history. How more people Whether this or that politician kills, the more his servants eat other people’s bread and butter, the more honorable and glorious his deeds. And of course, pocket priests, historians and scribblers will provide the necessary basis for everything, they will find justifications for everything.

« Cost“Science has never served as an obstacle for politicians, unless it was about new guns and fortresses. But if science was done for peaceful purposes, then penny donations were allocated to it with a sour expression. A good example is the history of atomic physics. There was a time when scientists worked with the most dangerous materials in ordinary washing basins in the barn (the Curies' wife) and paid for it. An example of the squalor of financing " pure science" But as soon as there was a smell of “a device the size of a pineapple,” huge amounts of money were allocated. No one was embarrassed that there was a huge concrete building on the way, where all production activities take place without human intervention - he would not live even a few days if he only looked inside. (By the way, this is a very small part of all expenses.) There is no need to explain what “device” we are talking about.

You should also not think that in “the most peace-loving state,” etc., science was used only for peaceful purposes. Perhaps, on the contrary, the Bolsheviks' rumblings on the topic of world revolution seriously frightened the West, and therefore Mr. Hitler was given cards in his hands. Nothing else can explain the corporal's rapid career. The West acted as when extinguishing steppe fires - it set fires in the opposite direction. Actually, this is what politicians have always done, but the time of Clausewitz is one thing, and Hiroshima is another.

Key points of science and technology of the 20th century

  • Discovery of blood groups 1900
  • First plane 1903
  • Special theory of relativity 1905
  • Invention of the vacuum tube (diode) 1905
  • Improvement of diode (triode) 1096
  • Creation of the 1908 conveyor
  • Preparation of synthetic rubber 1910
  • Superheterodyne radio reception 1917
  • Discovery of insulin 1922
  • Television transmission tube 1923
  • Sound film 1927
  • Discovery of penicillin 1928
  • sound recording 1930
  • Discovery of the neutron 1932
  • Discovery of uranium fission 1939
  • Ballistic missile 1942
  • Creation of the atomic bomb 1945
  • Creation of computers 1945
  • Creation of the hydrogen bomb 1952
  • Discovery of the structure of DNA 1953
  • Integrated Circuits 1959
  • Creation of the laser 1960
  • Flights into space 1961
  • Invention of the Internet 1969
  • Genetic Engineering 1973
  • Microprocessors 1979
  • Cloning 1996
  • Stem cells 1999

Inventions and their consequences

In a short article it is impossible to even simply list the most important inventions of the twentieth century, so it is necessary to highlight those that entailed major consequences. By the beginning of the century there already existed railways, internal combustion engine(including diesel), telegraph, telephone and even radio. Much has been done in biology. So the twentieth century did not begin in a vacuum. But this was the age of invention. Less has been done in basic science than in previous centuries. (If dissertations on the benefits and harms of kefirs and their connection with alcoholism are not considered fundamental science.) Einstein’s work on the theory of relativity, for example, is an absolute example of fundamental achievements. Work on genetics and biochemistry can also be considered fundamental - they open up many perspectives, including some quite frightening ones.

As for inventions, the twentieth century was a cornucopia. They started pouring in from the very beginning. Along with blessings, they also brought with them great disasters. For example, a diesel engine, which peacefully pulls an entire passenger or cargo train, was removed almost without alterations from submarines, which sank many ships with both cargo and passengers. Injection engines running on high-octane gasoline, which the respectable public considers “the latest achievements” (at the suggestion of advertisers), successfully turned airplane propellers back during the Second World War.

The inconspicuous and boring conveyor belt plays a special role. Henry Ford used it in car assembly, but the very principle of continuous production, as a model according to which products are produced, increased productivity tens, hundreds, and thousands of times. On the one hand, hundreds of thousands of consumers immediately acquired unprecedented goods en masse, which they could not get enough of. On the other hand, airplanes and bombs were produced on the same principles, which very soon turned this joy into plaster and soot, along with the guts of those who were unlucky.

Artificial (butadiene) rubber put cars on wheels and made it possible to lift and land the heaviest aircraft. The role of car tires is quite comparable to the role of the railway. If earlier the centers of civilization were the places where the Railway, then with the advent of tires it penetrated everywhere, with the exception of swamps and jungles.

Transport and communications are the three foundations on which states have stood since ancient times. Without communication, it is impossible to imagine even the pharaoh's kingdom. In the twentieth century, radio was added to wired telecommunications. His role is difficult to overestimate. But without the invention of the superheterodyne principle of radio reception, it would not have been possible to obtain a good communication range and “catch” a large number of stations. The radio instantly conveyed to listeners an almost complete picture of the world and made the imagination work in the most remote holes on the planet. The social consequences of this upended all politics in the world. Everything that follows: cinema, television, video, the Internet no longer plays such a role. The job is done, and now politicians have to lie very carefully.

The year 1939 plays a special role in the history of the twentieth century. German physicist Otto Hahn calculated how much energy would be released during the fission of a uranium nucleus. Since he was just a scientist, he published these results, in the simplicity of his soul. But very soon he was horrified when he realized the consequences. His colleagues pointed out to him the opportunity technical application this discovery. Yes, he himself began to understand this. His only consolation was that if not he, then someone else would have made this discovery in the near future. Very soon after the publication of the results (February 11, 1939), World War II began (September 1, 1939). It cannot be ruled out that she was prompted by the possibility of creating a “device.” In this case, the state that has achieved this begins to dictate its terms to others - it becomes a superpower. And someone’s nerves couldn’t stand it.

After World War II

The arms race continued. Georgy Zhukov, who visited the Totsky test site as an expert during exercises with nuclear weapons of very low power, said: “you cannot fight with these weapons.” However, this did not reach politicians soon. The idea of ​​“containment” was invented until, finally, the growth in the quality and quantity of the weapons themselves frightened the politicians themselves.

But the story of the race ended well. Thanks to her, today we have computers, laptops, Cell Phones, the Internet, certain advances in medicine, incredible saucepans, many new household materials, the upcoming complete transition to digital television, access to almost any information - just choose, and much more.

It cannot be ruled out that the biological foundations of the last century will lead to solving the problems of incurable diseases and unlimited extension of human life. There is still too little popular information in this area, although scientists have come close to many things. But what will it be back side medals? Nobody knows this. Understanding biological processes can provide the key to the deliberate creation of unprecedented infections, plants or organisms, and in the hands of maniacs, destroy the entire population on Earth. The most frightening thing is that biotechnology does not seem to require as much complex and expensive equipment as nuclear affairs. The main thing is to understand what is happening in the cells. Then knowledgeable person Ideally, you can get by with a set of bottles and a home refrigerator...

Another interesting side of progress is the Hubble Telescope. It is located in airless space, and, despite the meteorite dust that “abrasives” its mirror, it allows you to see piles of large stones that fly at breakneck speed in solar orbit. One such stone, several hundred meters in size (on Earth it would seem like an insignificant rock or mound), is quite enough to stop not only civilized life on Earth, but life in general as such. Astronomers know enough to be concerned. The fact is that not all stones that pose a danger are immediately visible. Will humanity be able to destroy such a stone using a spaceship with a thermonuclear bomb? How to change its orbit? Or at least reduce the consequences of fragments falling to the Earth?

This is such a thing as progress

You don't know where you will find it or where you will lose it. So it is unlikely that you will have to sit all the time and little by little engage in trading. Not all the consequences of technological progress from the twentieth century have yet fully manifested themselves. For example, it is unknown what the Internet will cause. Today politicians arrogantly spit on it, declaring speeches and online communication the activities of a bunch of crazy people, and no one knows what will happen tomorrow.

In the article we will talk about the great discoveries of the 20th century. It is not surprising that since ancient times people have tried to make their wildest dreams come true. At the turn of the last century, incredible things were invented that changed the life of the whole world.

X-rays

Let's start the list of great discoveries of the 20th century by looking at electromagnetic radiation, which was actually discovered at the end of the 19th century. The author of the invention was the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. The scientist noticed that when the current was turned on, a slight glow began to appear in the cathode tube coated with barium crystals. There is another version, according to which the wife brought dinner to her husband, and he noticed that he could see her bones visible through the skin. These are all versions, but there are also facts. For example, Wilhelm Roentgen refused to obtain a patent for his invention, because he believed that this activity could not generate real income. Thus, we rank X-rays among the great discoveries of the 20th century, which influenced the development of scientific and technological potential.

A television

More recently, a television was a thing that testified to the wealth of its owner, but in the modern world television has faded into the background. Moreover, the idea of ​​the invention itself originated in the 19th century simultaneously with the Russian inventor Porfiry Gusev and the Portuguese professor Adriano de Paiva. They were the first to say that a device would soon be invented that would allow image transmission via wire. The first receiver, whose screen size was only 3 by 3 cm, was demonstrated to the world by Max Dieckmann. At the same time, Boris Rosing proved that it was possible to use a cathode ray tube in order to be able to convert an electrical signal into an image. In 1908, physicist Hovhannes Adamyan from Armenia patented a signal transmission apparatus consisting of two colors. It is believed that the first television was developed at the beginning of the 20th century in America. It was collected by Russian emigrant Vladimir Zvorykin. It was he who split the light beam into green, red and blue, thus obtaining a color image. He called this invention an iconoscope. In the West, John Bird is considered the inventor of television, who was the first to patent a device that creates a picture of 8 lines.

Cell phones

The first mobile phone appeared in the 70s of the last century. One day, an employee of the famous Motorola company, which was developing portable devices, Martin Cooper, showed his friends a huge handset. Then they did not believe that something like this could be invented. Later, while walking around Manhattan, Martin called his boss at a competitor's company. Thus, for the first time in practice, he demonstrated the effectiveness of his huge telephone handset. Soviet scientist Leonid Kupriyanovich conducted similar experiments 15 years earlier. This is why it is quite difficult to definitively talk about who is actually the opener of portable devices. Anyway Cell phones- this is a worthy discovery of the 20th century, without which you can imagine modern life It's simply impossible.

Computer

One of the greatest scientific discoveries The 20th century is the invention of the computer. Agree that today it is impossible to work or relax without this device. Just a few years ago, computers were used only in special laboratories and organizations, but today they are ordinary thing in each family. How was this super machine invented?

The German Konrad Zuse created in 1941 computer, which, in fact, could perform the same operations as a modern computer. The difference was that the machine worked using telephone relays. A year later, American physicist John Atanasov and his graduate student Clifford Berry jointly developed an electronic computer. However, this project was not completed, so it cannot be said that they are the real creators of such a device. In 1946, John Mauchly demonstrated what he claimed was the first electronic computer, ENIAC. Much time passed, and huge boxes replaced small and thin devices. By the way, personal computers appeared only at the end of the last century.

Internet

The great technological discovery of the 20th century is the Internet. Agree that without it, even the most powerful computer is not that useful, especially in the modern world. Many people do not like to watch TV, but they forget that the Internet has long seized power over human consciousness. Who came up with the idea of ​​such a global international network? She appeared in a group of scientists in the 50s of the last century. They wanted to create a high-quality network that would be difficult to hack or eavesdrop on. The reason for this idea was the Cold War.

US authorities during Cold War used a certain device that allowed data to be transmitted over a distance without resorting to mail or telephone. This device was called APRA. Later, scientists from research centers in different states began creating the APRANET network. Already in 1969, thanks to this invention, it was possible to connect all the computers of the universities represented by this group of scientists. After 4 years, other research centers joined this network. After e-mail appeared, the number of people wanting to penetrate the World Wide Web began to quickly grow exponentially. Concerning current state, then at the moment more than 3 billion people use the Internet every day.

Parachute

Despite the fact that the idea of ​​a parachute came to the mind of Leonardo da Vinci, this invention in its modern form is still considered one of the great discoveries of the 20th century. With the advent of aeronautics, regular jumps from large balloons, to which half-opened parachutes were attached. Already in 1912, one American decided to jump from an airplane with such a device. He successfully landed on earth and became the bravest resident of America. Later, engineer Gleb Kotelnikov invented a parachute made entirely of silk. He also managed to pack it into a small backpack. The invention was tested on a moving car. Thus, they came up with a braking parachute that would allow the emergency braking system to be activated. Thus, before the outbreak of World War I, the scientist received a patent for his invention in France, and thus became the discoverer of the parachute in the 20th century.

Physicists

Now let's talk about the great physicists of the 20th century and their discoveries. Everyone knows that physics is the basis without which it is impossible to imagine integrated development any other science is in principle impossible.

Let us note Planck's quantum theory. In 1900, German professor Max Planck discovered a formula that described the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body. Note that before this it was believed that energy was always distributed evenly, but the inventor proved that the distribution occurs proportionally thanks to quanta. The scientist compiled a report that no one believed at that time. However, just 5 years later, thanks to Planck’s findings, the great scientist Einstein was able to create the quantum theory of the photoelectric effect. Thanks to quantum theory Niels Bohr managed to build a model of the atom. Thus, Planck created a powerful basis for further discoveries.

We must not forget about the greatest discovery of the 20th century - the discovery of the theory of relativity by Albert Einstein. The scientist managed to prove that gravity is a consequence of the curvature of four-dimensional space, namely time. He also explained the effect of time dilation. Thanks to Einstein's discoveries, it was possible to calculate many astrophysical quantities and distances.

TO greatest discoveries The invention of the transistor can be attributed to the 19th and 20th centuries. The first working device was created in 1947 by researchers from America. Scientists have experimentally confirmed the correctness of their ideas. In 1956, they already received the Nobel Prize for their discoveries. Thanks to them, a new era began in electronics.

Medicine

Let's begin our consideration of the great discoveries in medicine of the 20-21st centuries with the invention of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. It is known that this valuable substance was discovered as a result of negligence. Thanks to Fleming's discovery, people stopped being afraid of the most dangerous diseases. In the same century, the structure of DNA was discovered. Its discoverers are considered to be Francis Crick and James Watson, who using cardboard and metal created the first model of the DNA molecule. An incredible sensation was created by the information that all living organisms have the same DNA structure. For this revolutionary discovery, scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize.

The great discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries continue with the discovery of the possibility of organ transplantation. Such actions were perceived as something unrealistic for quite a long time, but already in the last century scientists realized that it was possible to achieve a safe, high-quality transplant. The official discovery of this fact took place in 1954. Then the American doctor Joseph Murray transplanted a kidney to one of his patients from his twin brother. Thus, he showed that it is possible to transplant a foreign organ into a person, and he will live for a long time.

In 1990, the doctor was awarded the Nobel Prize. However, for a long time, specialists transplanted everything except the heart. Finally, in 1967, an elderly man received a young woman's heart. Then the patient managed to live only 18 days, but today people with donor organs and hearts live for many years.

Ultrasound

Also important inventions of the last century in the field of medicine include ultrasound, without which it is very difficult to imagine treatment. In the modern world, it is difficult to find a person who has not undergone an ultrasound scan. The invention dates back to 1955. In vitro fertilization is considered the most incredible discovery of the last century. British scientists succeeded in laboratory conditions fertilize the egg and then place it in the woman’s uterus. As a result, the world famous “test tube girl” Louise Brown was born.

Great geographical discoveries of the 20th century

In the last century, Antarctica was explored in detail. Thanks to this, scientists received the most accurate data on the climatic conditions and fauna of Antarctica. Russian academician Konstantin Markov created the world's first atlas of Antarctica. We will continue the great discoveries of the early 20th century in the field of geography with an expedition that went to the Pacific Ocean. Soviet researchers measured the deepest oceanic trench, which was named Mariana.

Marine atlas

Later, a marine atlas was created, which made it possible to study the direction of currents, winds, determine depth and temperature distribution. One of the most high-profile discoveries of the last century was the discovery of Lake Vostok under a huge layer of ice in Antarctica.

As we already know, the last century was very rich in various kinds of discoveries. We can say that there has been a real breakthrough in almost all areas. The potential capabilities of scientists from all over the world have reached their maximum, thanks to which the world is currently developing by leaps and bounds. Many discoveries have become turning points in the history of all mankind, especially when it comes to research in the field of medicine.