Abstract Bronze and Iron Age.

Venus of Willendorf, 22-24 thousand years BC.

The Stone Age is the oldest period in human history, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay spread (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture). Periodization of the Stone Age:

Paleolithic:

Lower Paleolithic - the period of the appearance of the most ancient species of people and widespread Homo erectus.
The Middle Paleolithic is the period when erecti were replaced by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern humans. Neanderthals dominated Europe throughout the Middle Paleolithic.
Upper Paleolithic - period of dominance modern look people throughout the globe during the last glaciation.

Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on the extent to which the region has been affected by the loss of megafauna as a result of glacier melting. The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and general culture person. There is no ceramics.

Neolithic is the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still made of stone, but their production is being brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

2.2. Copper Age

Mummy "Ötzi", 3300 BC. e.

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic (Greek χαλκός “copper” + Greek λίθος “stone”) or Chalcolithic (lat. aeneus"copper" + Greek λίθος "stone")) - a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4–3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, the Chalcolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but is sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone ones still predominated.

2.3. Bronze Age

Golden helmet, Late Bronze Age. Castro culture.

The Bronze Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with the improvement of the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, later phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 35/33 – 13/11 centuries. BC e., but they differ among different cultures. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost synchronous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th–12th centuries. BC e., known as the Bronze Collapse, while in western Europe the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age dragged on for several more centuries and ended with the emergence of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Bronze Age periods:

Early Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

2.4. Iron Age

Iron Age coin hoard

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Bronze Age civilizations go beyond the history of primitive society; other peoples' civilization takes shape during the Iron Age. The term " iron age“usually applies to the “barbarian” cultures of Europe that existed simultaneously with the great civilizations of antiquity (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Parthia). The “barbarians” were distinguished from ancient cultures by the absence or rare use of writing, and therefore information about them has reached us either from archaeological data or from mentions in ancient sources. On the territory of Europe during the Iron Age, M. B. Shchukin identified six “barbarian worlds”:

Celts (La Tène culture);

Proto-Germans (mainly Jastorf culture + southern Scandinavia);

mostly Proto-Baltic cultures of the forest zone (possibly including Proto-Slavs);

proto-Finno-Ugric and proto-Sami cultures of the northern forest zone (mainly along rivers and lakes);

steppe Iranian-speaking cultures (Scythians, Sarmatians, etc.);

pastoral-agricultural cultures of the Thracians, Dacians and Getae.

Lesson developments (lesson notes)

Basics general education

Line UMK O. S. Gabrielyan. Chemistry (8-9)

Attention! The site administration is not responsible for the content methodological developments, as well as for compliance with the development of the Federal State Educational Standard.

Target: summarize and systematize students’ knowledge gained in history, chemistry and biology lessons about the importance of metals in the development of human civilization.

Lesson Objectives

development logical thinking;
instilling interest in the subject, developing curiosity, outlook, interest in reading additional literature;
formation of communication skills;

Equipment and methodological support for the lesson:

Collections "Metals and alloys".
An educational presentation on this topic, made on a computer using the program Power Point, created by the teacher.
Quiz cards for independent work students.
O.S. Gabrielyan textbook “Chemistry 9th grade” Bustard 2010
O.S. Gabrielyan, I.G. Ostroumov “Teacher's Handbook. Chemistry 9th grade" Bustard 2002
Multimedia projector.
Computer.

Lesson format: learning new material.

Training methods:

Verbal – formation of theoretical knowledge.
Problem-search - development of independent thinking and research skills.
Inductive – the ability to generalize, make inferences, conclusions.
Deductive - the ability to analyze.
Practical – development of practical skills when performing laboratory experiments.

Tasks:

Educational:

based on the knowledge of 5th grade students, conduct short excursion into the history of man's acquaintance with metals;
formation of knowledge about the physical properties of metals, the importance of metals in human life;
formation of practical skills when working with metals, use of acquired knowledge in Everyday life;
systematization of previously acquired knowledge about metals.

Developmental: development of students’ intellectual abilities, self-education skills, interest in history and chemistry, literature and biology.

Educational: formation of a natural scientific worldview.

Equipment: bell (copper, iron), ring (silver, gold), wooden stick, collection of metals, magnets, corroded metal wire (or nails, collection of coins).

During the classes

I. Organizational moment. Greetings

II. Chemistry teacher's introduction

The word metal has been known to everyone since early childhood. L. Uspensky writes interestingly about its origin in the book “Why not otherwise?”: “In one of the plays by A.N. Ostrovsky depicts a merchant’s wife who is most afraid of “terrible words” such as “bogeyman” and “metal”.

She would be very surprised if the origin of these fatal sayings were revealed to her. The Greek “metallon” meant “earth work”, “excavation”, and later came to mean “mines”, “mines”, “ore”.

In Latin, the word metallum already received the meaning of “ore and the metal smelted from it” and from there, in the form of the French “metal”, migrated to us in Russia.

Already in ancient times, seven metals were known to man: gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron and mercury. These metals can be called “prehistoric”, since they were used by man even before the invention of writing. Obviously, of the seven metals, man first became acquainted with those that occur in native form in nature. These are gold, silver and copper. The remaining four metals entered human life after he learned to extract them from ores using fire.

In ancient times and the Middle Ages, the known seven metals were correlated with the number of known planets: Sun (gold), Jupiter (tin), Moon (silver), Mars (iron), Mercury (mercury), Saturn (lead), Venus (copper). Alchemists believed that under the influence of the rays of the planets these metals were born in the bowels of the Earth.

Slide 1 of the presentation

Today it is very difficult to imagine that people could once do without metals. Let's imagine for a moment that metals suddenly disappeared from use. What will open up to you? Scary, deserted world. All cars will disappear from the streets, planes will not fly and trains will not rush along the rails. Due to the destruction of all underground communications, huge holes, gaps, and cracks will gape on the streets of our cities. There is no television, radio, telegraph or telephone - communication between continents, countries, people becomes difficult to access. There is no electricity - darkness and silence reigns all around. The woman holds a stone needle and a stone knife, and the men have stone axes, clubs, and a wooden bow. That is, we will return to primitive society, the beginning of history.

Slide 2 historical fact

The history of mankind covers a huge period of time. The remains of the most ancient people are found in East and North Africa, their age is 2.5–3 million years. To make it more convenient to navigate the stages of human development, it is customary to divide history into the Stone, Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages, based on the material from which people made tools.

– Why do you think the presence of tools indicates the appearance of man?

Over hundreds of thousands of years, people have learned to skillfully process stone. For every job, their own tool was made. Removed with scrapers animal skins and scraped off the fat from them. Skins were cut with stone knives.

The stone tip was tied with leather straps to the shaft. This spear is much better than a wooden one. This is how composite tools - made of stone and wood - appeared. Arrowheads were made from stone. Attaching a pointed stone to wooden handle people made an axe. Then they learned to drill a stone with a hollow bone by adding sand to the stone. Then the butt sat firmly on the handle. There were more stone tools than wooden and bone ones. In addition, all tools were made using stone ones. Scientists call the time when people used them stone age.

- Look at the stones. Do you think it was easy to work with them?

The most famous monument Ancient world are Egyptian pyramids– huge stone tombs of the pharaohs. The largest of them was built around 2600 BC. for Pharaoh Cheops. Its height is about 150 meters (this is approximately the height of a 50-story building). Two million three hundred thousand stone blocks were used for its construction, the average weight of each was two and a half tons. The blocks are packed so tightly that it is impossible to insert a needle between them.

Slide 3 Chemistry fact

About 9 thousand years ago, people noticed that some “stones” had an unusual yellowish-red color. When processed, they do not break into pieces under impacts, but are flattened, changing their shape. You can make a hole in such “stones”. When they fall into the fire, they soften and, when frozen, I accept! new uniform. What are these “stones”? And are these stones?

Primitive people realized that this was some other material. It's metal. This discovery was made in areas where there were deposits of copper lying on the surface of the earth. Then people learned to smelt copper from copper ore. Molten copper was poured into a mold and a copper product was obtained. the desired type, for example, an axe.

A dull copper ax could be sharpened, and a broken one could be melted down. It was more convenient to work with stone tools using copper tools.

– Look at the copper plate. Try bending it.

Copper is a soft metal; a hollow copper tool is less hard than a pointed piece of stone. Despite this, a piece of wood could be cut down with a copper ax three times faster than with a stone one. How is this known?

Russian scientist Sergei Aristarkhovich Semenov conducted an experiment. Under his leadership, accurate models of ancient axes - stone and copper - were made. They chose two pine trees of the same thickness with a diameter of 25 cm. One of the scientist’s assistants took a copper ax in his hands, the other assistant took a stone one. The time was noted on the clock and the experiment began. With a stone ax it was possible to cut down a tree in 15 minutes, and with a copper ax in 5. The experiment was repeated several times and the result was the same. Why? The reason is that the blade of a copper ax can be made sharper than a stone one, so it penetrates deeper into the wood. In addition, a copper ax, although the same size as a stone one, is heavier - this also makes it easier to process wood.

The period in human history when people learned to process copper is usually called copper age.

During this period, craftsmen learned to work with precious metals- gold and silver, make jewelry from them, mint coins. These metals were expensive, durable and did not deteriorate over time. But at first, instead of money, they simply used pieces of gold or silver: when paying, the necessary part was cut off from the metal ingot. This is where the name of our modern money comes from - the ruble. And the first gold and silver coins began to be minted in the Lydian kingdom, located in the west of the peninsula Asia Minor, where there were large deposits of these metals.

Slide 4 Biological fact

– Do you know the importance of silver in a person’s life?

– Yes, silver kills bacteria. An example is the case in the army of A. Macedonian. Noble warriors took silver mugs on a campaign, and they were little sick, but ordinary warriors were sick.

Both silver and gold were used by ancient dentists during the life of the pharaohs.

Loose teeth were fastened to healthy teeth with gold and silver wires.

Slide 5 historical fact

Copper tools made people's lives easier. Copper, as we found out, is not a hard enough metal. Therefore, people began to add tin to copper. This is how bronze was obtained, an alloy not inferior in strength to stone. So about 7 thousand years ago came bronze age.

Weapons, shields, knives, blades for plows and sickles, and other tools began to be made from bronze. Luxurious dishes, vases, statues, and decorations for palaces and temples were smelted from bronze. Monuments are made from bronze. One of the most famous monuments in our country “ Bronze Horseman”. Despite the name, it is still made of bronze.

“Tsar Cannon” is an artillery gun (mortar), cast in 1586 by the Russian master A. Chokhov. Barrel weight 40 tons, length 5.34 m, caliber 890 mm. Designed for the defense of the Kremlin (but it was never fired from). Monument to foundry art of the 16th century. Installed in the Moscow Kremlin.

Bronze is one of the main materials of sculptors. Unique bronze creations, statues and sculptures (look at the picture in the textbook on page 20).

The word “bronze” comes from the name of the small Italian town of Brindisi on the Adriatic Sea.

Slide 6

According to archaeological classification, the third and last period of the primitive era, characterized by the appearance of iron tools, was called the Iron Age.

It began 3–3.5 thousand years ago. For thousands of years, people walked on the reddish-red earth and did not suspect that it was iron ore, from which a substance much harder than copper could be extracted. It should be noted that, unlike other metals, for example, copper, gold, silver, iron does not occur in nature in the form of nuggets. True, sometimes iron falls to earth from space in the form of debris celestial bodies(meteorites). Therefore, some ancient peoples called iron “heavenly stone”. But there was very little iron that fell from the sky, and it was worth much more than gold. For example, in the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, many gold objects weighing several tons were found, and only the three most precious iron objects: a sacred beetle, a bracelet and a dagger.

In its pure form, iron is a soft metal, and it could not replace bronze. In addition, iron rusts. Look at metal alloys: cast iron and steel.

Biochemists have discovered the important role of iron in the life of plants, animals and humans. Being part of an extremely complex construction organic compound, called hemoglobin, iron causes the red color of this substance, which in turn determines the color of human and animal blood. The body of an adult contains almost 3 g of pure iron, 75% of which is part of hemoglobin. The main role of hemoglobin is the transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and in the opposite direction - CO 2.

Plants also need iron. It is part of the cytoplasm and participates in the process of photosynthesis. Plants grown on a substrate that does not contain iron have white leaves. A small addition of iron to the substrate and they turn green. Moreover, it is enough to grease a white sheet with a solution of salt containing iron, and soon the greased area will turn green.

So, for the same reason - the presence of iron in juices and tissues - the leaves of plants turn cheerfully green and a person’s cheeks brightly blush.

Presentations by students “SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD” in which metals are used. (Colossus of Rhodes, Faro Lighthouse)

Students defend their presentations.

Quiz “Interesting things about metals”

If you believe the ancient historian, then during the campaign of Alexander the Great in India, the officers of his army were much less likely to suffer from gastrointestinal diseases than soldiers. Their food and drink were the same, but the dishes were different. What metal was the dishes for officers made of? (Silver).
By discarding three letters in a row in the name of a large mammal of the carnivorous order, you get the name of a chemical element of group I. (Bear - copper)
By replacing the first letter in the name of a chemical element, you will get the name of an excessively moistened area of land overgrown with plants (Gold - swamp)
By discarding the first two letters in the name of the chemical element, you get the name of the arched bone that is part of the chest. (Silver - edge)
What metal can “suffer from the plague”? (Tin).
Why is bronze called bronze? (The name “bronze” comes from Italian. bronze, which in turn came either from the Persian word "berenj", meaning "copper", or from the name of the city of Brindisi, from which this material was transported to Rome)
What metal ion do we have in our blood? (iron ion)
Who is the author of The Bronze Horseman? (A.S. Pushkin)
What metal symbolizes the Sun? (gold)
What metals make up bronze? (tin and copper)

In conclusion, I would like to say that the importance of metals in human life is great both in ancient times and in today’s time.

An abundance of secrets is hidden in world history, and until now researchers have not given up hope of discovering something new in known facts. Moments seem exciting and unusual when you realize that once upon a time, on the same lands that we now walk on, dinosaurs lived, knights fought, and camps were set up. World history The basis of its periodization is based on two principles that are relevant for the formation of the human race - the material for the production of tools and manufacturing technology. In accordance with these principles, the concepts of “Stone Age”, “Bronze Age”, and “Iron” Age appeared. Each of these periodizations became a step in the development of humanity, the next round of evolution and knowledge of human capabilities. Naturally, there were no absolutely passive moments in history. From ancient times to the present day, knowledge has been regularly updated and new ways of obtaining useful materials have been developed.

World history and the first methods of dating time periods

Natural sciences have become a tool for dating periods of time. In particular, one can cite the radiocarbon method, geological dating, and dendrochronology. The rapid development of ancient man made it possible to improve existing technologies. Approximately 5 thousand years ago, when the written period began, other prerequisites for dating arose, based on the time of existence of various states and civilizations. It is tentatively believed that the period of separation of man from the animal world began about two million years ago, until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in 476 AD, the period of Antiquity continued. Before the Renaissance began, there were the Middle Ages. Until the end of the First World War the period lasted New history, and now it’s time for the Newest. Historians of different times set their own “anchors” of reference, for example, Herodotus paid special attention to the struggle between Asia and Europe. Scientists of a later period considered the establishment of the Roman Republic to be the main event in the development of civilization. Many historians agree that for the Iron Age, culture and art were not of great importance, since the tools of war and labor came first.

Background of the metal era

In primitive history, the Stone Age is distinguished, including the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. Each period is marked by the development of man and his innovations in stone processing. At first, the most widely used tool was the hand ax. Later, tools appeared from elements of stone, rather than from a whole nodule. This period saw the development of fire, the creation of the first clothing from skins, the first religious cults and the development of housing. During the period of man's semi-nomadic lifestyle and hunting of large animals, more advanced weapons were required. A further round of development of stone processing technologies occurred at the turn of the millennium and the end of the Stone Age, when agriculture and cattle breeding spread, and ceramic production appeared. During the metal era, copper and its processing technologies were mastered. The beginning of the Iron Age laid the foundation for work for the future. The study of the properties of metals consistently led to the discovery of bronze and its spread. The Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages are a single harmonious process of human development, based on mass movements of peoples.

Actual data on the duration of the era

The spread of iron dates back to the primitive and early class history of mankind. Characteristic features of the period were trends in metallurgy and the production of tools. Also in ancient world an idea was formed about the classification of centuries according to the material. The Early Iron Age has been studied and continues to be studied by scientists in the most different areas. IN Western Europe voluminous works published
Görnes, Montelius, Tischler, Reinecke, Kostrzewski, etc. In Eastern Europe, corresponding textbooks, monographs and maps were published by Gorodtsov, Spitsyn, Gautier, Tretyakov, Smirnov, Artamonov, Grakov. The spread of iron is often considered characteristic feature tribes that lived outside of civilizations. In fact, all countries at one time experienced the Iron Age. The Bronze Age was only a prerequisite. It has not occupied such a vast period of time in history. Chronologically, the Iron Age period spans from the 9th to the 7th centuries BC. At this time, many tribes of Europe and Asia received an impetus for the development of their own iron metallurgy. Since this metal remains the most important material for production, modernity is part of this century.

Culture of the period

The development of production and the spread of iron quite logically led to the modernization of culture and all social life. Appeared economic prerequisites for working relationships and the breakdown of tribalism. Ancient history marks the accumulation of values, the growth of property inequality and the mutually beneficial exchange of parties. Fortifications spread widely, and the formation of a class society and state began. More wealth became the private property of a select few, slavery arose and the stratification of society progressed.

How did the metal age manifest itself in the USSR?

At the end of the second millennium BC, iron appeared on the territory of the Union. Among the most ancient mining sites are Western Georgia and Transcaucasia. Monuments of the Early Iron Age have been preserved in the southern European part of the USSR. But metallurgy here gained mass popularity in the first millennium BC, which is confirmed by a number of archaeological artifacts made of bronze in Transcaucasia, cultural relics North Caucasus and the Black Sea region, etc. During excavations of Scythian settlements, priceless monuments of the early Iron Age were discovered. The finds were made at the Kamensky settlement near Nikopol.

History of materials in Kazakhstan

Historically, the Iron Age is divided into two periods. These are the early, which lasted from the 8th to the 3rd century BC, and the late, which lasted from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD. Each country has a period of iron proliferation in its history, but the features of this process greatly depend on the region. Thus, the Iron Age on the territory of Kazakhstan was marked by events in three main regions. Cattle breeding and irrigated agriculture are common in Southern Kazakhstan. The climatic conditions of Western Kazakhstan did not allow for farming. And Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan were inhabited by people adapted to harsh winters. These three regions, radically different in living conditions, became the basis for the creation of three Kazakh zhuzes. Southern Kazakhstan became the place of formation of the Senior Zhuz. The lands of Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan became a refuge. Western Kazakhstan is represented by the Junior Zhuz.

Iron Age in Central Kazakhstan

Endless steppes Central Asia have long become a place of residence for nomads. Here ancient history is represented by burial mounds, which are priceless monuments of the Iron Age. Especially often in the region there were mounds with paintings or “mustaches”, which, according to scientists, performed the functions of a beacon and compass in the steppe. The Tasmolin culture, named after the area in the Pavlodar region, where the first excavations of a man and a horse in a large and small mound were recorded, attracts the attention of historians. Archaeologists of Kazakhstan consider the mounds of the Tasmolin culture to be the most widespread monuments of the Early Iron Age.

Features of the culture of Northern Kazakhstan

This region is distinguished by the presence of large cattle. Local residents switched from farming to sedentary life and the Tasmolin culture is revered in this region. The attention of researchers of early Iron Age monuments is attracted by the mounds of Birlik, Alypkash, Bekteniz and three settlements: Karlyga, Borki and Kenotkel. On the right bank of the Yesil River, an early Iron Age fortification has been preserved. The art of melting and processing non-ferrous metals was developed here. Produced hardware transported to Eastern Europe and to the Caucasus. Kazakhstan was several centuries ahead of its neighbors in the development of ancient metallurgy and therefore became a communicator between the metallurgical centers of its country, Siberia and Eastern Europe.

"Guarding the Gold"

The majestic mounds of Eastern Kazakhstan are mainly concentrated in the Shilikta Valley. There are more than fifty of them here. In 1960, a study was conducted of the largest of the mounds, which is called Golden. This unique monument to the Iron Age was erected in the 8-9 centuries BC. The Zaysan region of Eastern Kazakhstan allows you to explore more than two hundred of the largest mounds, of which 50 are called Tsarsky and may contain gold. In the Shiliktinskaya Valley there is the most ancient on the earth of Kazakhstan royal burial 8th century BC, which was discovered by Professor Toleubaev. Among archaeologists, this discovery caused a stir, just like the third “golden man” of Kazakhstan. The buried person was wearing clothes decorated with 4325 gold figured plates. The most interesting find is a pentagonal star with lapis lazuli rays. Such an object symbolizes power and greatness. This became further proof that Shilikty, Besshatyr, Issyk, Berel, Boraldai are sacred places for ritual rites, sacrifices and prayers.

Early Iron Age in nomadic culture

Documentary evidence of ancient culture Not much of Kazakhstan has survived. Mostly information is obtained from excavations. Much has been said about nomads regarding the art of song and dance. Separately, it is worth noting the skill in making ceramic vessels and painting on silver bowls. The spread of iron in everyday life and production became the impetus for the improvement of a unique heating system: a chimney, which was laid horizontally along the wall, evenly heated the entire house. Nomads invented many things that are familiar to us today, both for domestic use and for use in wartime. They came up with pants, stirrups, a yurt and a curved saber. Metal armor was developed to protect horses. The protection of the warrior himself was provided by iron armor.

Achievements and discoveries of the period

The Iron Age became third in line after the Stone and Bronze Ages. But in terms of importance, it is undoubtedly considered the first. Until modern times, iron remained the material basis of all human inventions. All important discoveries in the field of production are associated with its application. This metal has a higher melting point compared to copper. Natural iron does not exist in its pure form, and it is very difficult to carry out the smelting process from ore due to its refractoriness. This metal caused global changes in the life of the steppe tribes. Compared to previous archaeological eras, the Iron Age is the shortest, but the most productive. Initially, humanity recognized meteorite iron. Some original products and jewelry made from it were found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Chronologically, these relics can be dated back to the first half of the third millennium BC. In the second millennium BC, the technology for producing iron from ore was developed, but for quite a long time this metal was considered rare and expensive.

Widespread production of weapons and iron tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia and India. The spread of this metal, as well as steel, provoked a technical revolution that expanded human power over nature. Clearing large forest areas for crops has now become easier. The modernization of labor tools and the improvement of land cultivation were promptly carried out. Accordingly, new crafts were quickly learned, especially blacksmithing and weapons. Shoemakers, who received more advanced tools, were not left out. Masons and miners began to work more efficiently.

Summarizing the results of the Iron Age, it can be noted that by the beginning of our era all the main types of hand tools were already in use (with the exception of screws and hinged scissors). Thanks to the use of iron in production, the construction of roads became much easier, military technology advanced a step forward, and metal coins came into circulation. The Iron Age accelerated and provoked the collapse of the primitive communal system, as well as the formation of a class society and statehood. Many communities during this period adhered to the so-called

Possible development paths

It is worth noting that it existed in small quantities in Egypt, but the spread of the metal became possible with the beginning of ore smelting. Initially, iron was smelted only when the need arose. Thus, fragments of metal inclusions were found in monuments in Syria and Iraq, which were erected no later than 2700 BC. But after the 11th century BC, the blacksmiths of Eastern Anatolia learned the science of systematically making objects from iron. Secrets and subtleties new science kept secret and passed on from generation to generation. The first historical finds confirming the widespread use of metal for making tools were recorded in Israel, namely in Gerar near Gaza. Found here great amount hoes, sickles and iron openers dating from after 1200 BC. Melting furnaces were also discovered at the excavation sites.

Special metal processing technologies belong to the masters of Western Asia, from whom they were borrowed by the masters of Greece, Italy and the rest of Europe. The British technological revolution can be attributed to the period after 700 BC, and there it began and developed very smoothly. Egypt and North Africa showed interest in the development of metal at about the same time, with the further transfer of skills to the south side. Chinese craftsmen almost completely abandoned bronze, preferring turned iron. European colonists brought their knowledge of metalworking technology to Australia and the New World. After the invention of bellows, iron casting became widespread on a mass scale. Cast iron became an indispensable material for creating all kinds of household utensils and military equipment, which was a productive impetus for the development of metallurgy.