Developmental Psychology - Shapovalenko I.V. Anna Freud and play therapy

Attempts to organize work with children from the perspective of traditional psychoanalysis have encountered real difficulties: children do not express an interest in exploring their past, there is no initiative to contact a psychoanalyst, and the level of verbal development is insufficient to express their experiences in words. At first, psychoanalysts were used as material for interpreting observations and reports from parents. A little later, methods of psychoanalysis were developed aimed specifically at children. Followers of S. Freud, Anna Freud and M. Klein, created their own versions of child psychotherapy. A. Freud adhered to the traditional position for psychoanalysis about the child’s conflict with the social world full of contradictions. She emphasized that in order to understand the difficulties of behavior, a psychologist must strive to penetrate not only into the unconscious layers of the child’s psyche, but also to obtain the most detailed knowledge about all three components (self, it, superego), about relationships with the outside world, about the mechanisms of psychological defense and their role in personality development. A. Freud adhered to the traditional position for psychoanalysis about the child’s conflict with the social world full of contradictions. She emphasized that in order to understand the difficulties of behavior, a psychologist must strive to penetrate not only into the unconscious layers of the child’s psyche, but also to obtain the most detailed knowledge about all three components (self, it, superego), about relationships with the outside world, about the mechanisms of psychological defense and their role in personality development. A. Freud gave important children's game, believing that, being carried away by the game, the child will also become interested in the interpretations offered to him by the analyst regarding defense mechanisms and the unconscious emotions hiding behind them. A psychoanalyst, according to A. Freud, to be successful in child therapy must have authority with the child. Special meaning has the character of communication between a child and an adult. The main thing is emotional communication. When organizing research and correctional work with difficult children

(aggressive, anxious) the main efforts should be aimed at forming attachment, developing libido, and not at directly overcoming negative reactions.; English. psychoanalyst M. Klein (1882-1960) developed her approach to organizing psychoanalysis at an early age.

The main attention was paid to the child's spontaneous play activity. M. Klein, unlike A. Freud, insisted on the possibility of direct access to the content of the child’s unconscious. She believed that action is more characteristic of a child than speech; stages of the game are analogues of the associative production of an adult. Psychoanalysis with children, according to Klein, was based mainly on spontaneous children's play, which was helped to manifest itself by specially created conditions. Her play with many toys. The game can manifest a variety of emotional states: feelings of frustration and rejection, jealousy of family members and accompanying aggressiveness, feelings of love or hatred for a newborn, the pleasure of playing with a friend, confrontation with parents, feelings of anxiety, guilt and the desire to improve the situation. So, penetration into the depths of the unconscious, according to

M. Klein, possibly using play techniques, through an analysis of the child’s anxiety and defense mechanisms. Regularly expressing interpretations of his behavior to the child patient helps him cope with emerging difficulties and conflicts.

Some psychologists believe that the game itself is healing.

So, D.V. Winnicott emphasizes the creative power of free play in comparison with playing according to the rules. Understanding the child’s psyche with the help of psychoanalysis and gaming technology has expanded ideas about the emotional life of little ones.

children, deepened understanding of the most early stages development and their long-term contribution to normal or pathological development

psyche in adult periods of life.

leads to a very important and lasting action on the part of the unconscious. We may suggest that this complex with its derivatives is the fundamental complex of all neuroses, and we must be prepared to find it no less valid in other areas. mental life. The myth of Oedipus the King, who kills his father and marries his mother, is a little modified manifestation of infantile desire, against which the idea of ​​incest subsequently arises. At the heart of Shakespeare's creation of Hamlet is the same incest complex, only better hidden.

At the time when the child is possessed by the not yet repressed basic complex, Substantial part His mental interests are devoted to sexual issues. He begins to think about where the children come from, and learns from the signs available to him about the actual facts more than the parents think. Typically, interest in issues of childbirth manifests itself as a result of the birth of a brother or sister. This interest depends solely on fear material damage, since the child sees only a competitor in the newborn. Under the influence of those partial drives that characterize the child, he creates several infantile sexual theories, in which the same genital organs are attributed to both sexes, conception occurs as a result of food intake, and birth occurs through evacuation through the end of the intestine; The child views copulation as a kind of hostile act, as violence. But it is precisely the incompleteness of his own sexual constitution and the gap in his information, which consists in ignorance of the existence of the female genital canal, that forces the child researcher to stop his unsuccessful work. The very fact of this children's research, as well as the creation various theories, leaves its mark on the formation of the child’s character and gives content to his future neurotic illness.

It is absolutely inevitable and quite normal that a child chooses his parents as the object of his first love choice. But his libido should not be fixed on these first objects, but should, taking these first objects as a model, move on to other persons during the final choice of the object. The separation of a child from his parents must be an inevitable task so that the child’s social status is not endangered. At a time when repression leads to choice among partial drives, and subsequently, when the influence of parents should decrease, great tasks lie ahead in the work of education. This education, undoubtedly, is not always carried out as it should be at present.

Do not think that with this analysis of sexual life and psychosexual development As a child, we moved away from psychoanalysis and from the treatment of neurotic disorders. If you want, psychoanalytic treatment can be defined as a continuation of education in the sense of eliminating the remnants of childhood” (Freud 3. On psychoanalysis // Psychology of the unconscious: Collection of works / Compiled by M.G. Yaroshevsky. M., 1990. P. 375).

TASK 2

Browse books and periodicals on psychology recent years, choose the work of a foreign or domestic psychologist, the author of which is an adherent psychoanalytic approach.

- Read, paying attention to the conceptual apparatus.

- Highlight the author's main initial settings.

- What aspects of mental and personal development does the author consider to be the most important?

- Outline those practical problems of mental development, education and upbringing that are proposed to be solved in the context of psychoanalytic theory.

Scientific views

Having become a direct heir to the scientific views of her father, Anna Freud primarily developed psychoanalytic ideas about the Self, essentially founding a new neo-Freudian direction in psychology - ego psychology. Her main scientific achievement is usually considered to be the development of the theory of human defense mechanisms - the mechanisms by which the I neutralizes the influence of the Id. Anna also made significant progress in the study of aggression, but still the most significant contribution to psychology was the creation (this merit belongs to her together with Melanie Klein) of child psychology and child psychoanalysis. She developed methods of working with children, including play, and the principles of psychoanalytic theory were revised by Anna for applied assistance to parents and children in their interaction. Children were Anna Freud's main scientific and life interest; she once even said: “I don't think I'm a good subject for a biography. Probably my whole life can be described in one sentence - I worked with children!” At the end of her life, the scientist, who already had the title of Professor Emeritus at many of the world's largest universities, was attracted to another area related to children - family law, which she studied at Yale University, publishing two works in co-authorship with colleagues (see Selected scientific works). Along with Melanie Klein, he is considered the founder of child psychoanalysis.

Development of Ego Psychology in the Works of Anna Freud

V.V. Starovoitov

Candidate of Philosophy, Senior Researcher at the Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Anna Freud (1895 - 1982) - youngest child in the Freud family, received a private Teacher Education and from 1914 to 1920 she worked as a teacher. During the First World War she began to study psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud personally conducted an educational analysis of his daughter, although until the early 20s it was not a mandatory element of the training of psychoanalysts, which further strengthened her attachment to her father, and also affected her scientific position in psychoanalysis - she forever remained an advocate classical psychoanalysis Z. Freud. In 1921, A. Freud was admitted to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association. Since 1923, she began to engage in child analysis. After emigrating to England in 1938, she was accepted as a member of the British Psychoanalytic Society. In December 1940, together with Dorothy Barlingham, her closest friend and ally, she organized the Hampstead Orphanage", where a psychoanalytic study of children was carried out. Here A. Freud develops child analysis as independent region psychoanalysis. In 1952, the Hampstead Clinic and child therapy courses were opened under the direction of A. Freud. She herself was repeatedly elected to the position of vice-president of the IPA.

In the early 1920s, pedagogically oriented psychoanalysis began to develop in Vienna. Hermine Hug-Helmuth (1871 - 1924) was the first analyst in Vienna to begin a systematic study of children. Anna Freud also found herself among the child psychoanalysts. In addition to Vienna, another center of child psychoanalysis in those years was Berlin, where Melanie Klein developed the “play method” for analyzing children, and then the theory of early child analysis. In 1926, M. Klein finally moved to London, where she continued to develop the theory and practice of analyzing children. Over the course of many subsequent years, A. Freud was in an irreconcilable polemic with M. Klein due to acute disagreements on issues of child analysis.

Their first correspondence clash occurred in 1927, after the publication of A. Freud’s book “Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis,” in which she discusses the possibility of changing the analytical technique when working with children.

Speaking about the specifics of the analysis of children, A. Freud highlights the following points:

1. The child does not have awareness of his illness and the will to recover. The decision to undergo analysis never comes from the little patient, but is made by his parents. Therefore, the analyst requires a preparatory period to evoke in the child the missing readiness and consent to treatment. Because of this, the analyst must first of all establish a certain emotional relationship between himself and the child.

2. However, after this pre-analysis stage, the analyst becomes too clearly defined a person and a poor object for transference.

4. In addition, the parents continue to be the child’s love objects in reality, and not in fantasy, so he does not feel the need to replace the parents with the analyst in his experiences. As a result, the child does not develop a transference neurosis, although some of its components may be present.

5. Due to the above, the child's abnormal reactions continue to play out in the home environment. Therefore, the analyst must be aware of all family relationships. Where, according to A. Freud, circumstances or the attitude of parents exclude the possibility of joint work, the result is the loss of the material to be analyzed. In such cases, A. Freud had to limit himself to the analysis of dreams and daydreams in children.

6. Finally, when working with children, an additional problem arises. Since the child’s super-ego is still very closely connected with those raising him, that is, in most cases with his parents, the assessment of the child’s unconscious instinctive impulses is left to the discretion not of the super-ego, but of his loved ones, who, with their excessive severity, prepared the appearance of neurosis in child. The only way out of this impasse, according to A. Freud, may be for the analyst to occupy the place of the latter’s ego-ideal while working with the child. However, this becomes possible only if for the child the authority of the analyst becomes higher than the authority of the parents.

Child analysts tried to compensate for the child’s lack of free expression of all his thoughts with various technical techniques. In particular, M. Klein replaced the technique of free association with the technique of play, believing that action is more characteristic of a small patient than speech. She considered every play action of a child to be an analogue of free associations in an adult and accompanied him own interpretation. A. Freud criticized this assimilation of play actions to the thoughts of an adult and rejected the presence of transference neurosis postulated by M. Klein in a child.

In response to the publication of the book “Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis,” analysts working under the leadership of M. Klein in London held a symposium at which they sharply criticized A. Freud’s views on the analysis of children. In particular, they believed that transference neurosis did not occur in A. Freud’s work due to the introductory phase of analysis she introduced. They also emphasized the need to use gaming technology due to the less reprehensible nature of play for a child when he cannot produce free associations due to certain fears. In addition, according to the views of M. Klein, the superego, and behind it the Oedipus complex, is formed in the child in the first or second year of life, due to which she rejected the pedagogical approach to the analysis of the child, characteristic of A. Freud.

Subsequently, A. Freud made changes to the technique of child psychoanalysis, starting to study everything that could cause repression and other defense mechanisms in the child: fantasies, drawings, emotions - finding in them the equivalent of free associations, which made the preliminary analysis stage unnecessary. At the same time, A. Freud continued to consider the symbolic interpretation of children’s play given by M. Klein as rigid, stereotypical, not taking into account the unknown components of the Ego, which resulted in a distorted idea of ​​the child’s personality. A. Freud herself argued that the path to the child’s Id lies through the development of Ego defenses.

In her second book, “The Ego and Defense Mechanisms” (1936), A. Freud systematized everything that was known at that time about the action of the defense mechanisms used by the Ego. In addition to repression, she included in this list regression, isolation, projection, introjection, transformation into the opposite, sublimation, reactive formation, etc. This systematization significantly expanded the understanding of the protective and synthesizing functions of the Ego, since, according to the views of A. Freud, there is no antithesis between development and protection, since all “defense mechanisms” serve both internal restrictions on drives and external adaptation.

As for the treatment technique, it was built by A. Freud in accordance with the model of intrapsychic conflict, where everything that was not new was described as transference. Based on this understanding of transference, she emphasized its spontaneity. Her point of view completely coincided with the view of Freud, who also believed that the transference is not created by the doctor.

Freud's understanding of the repetition compulsion as a biological attribute of living matter, providing an explanation for the ubiquity of the transference phenomenon, led to an emphasis on the spontaneity of the transference as created solely by the patient, and, consequently, to a model of intrapsychic conflict and the standard technique of single-person psychology. The cornerstones of psychoanalysis—transference and resistance—were built into the foundation of an idealized scientific impartiality. This led to “interpretive fanaticism,” when everything that happened in the analytic situation was seen primarily as a manifestation of transference, which led to a clear inequality between the omnipresent object, the analyst, and the unequal subject, the patient. This inequality grew as a result of the analyst's genetic interpretations, which led to the patient's perception of the analyst as a person who knew everything about his past, including the origin of resistance. At the same time, the judgment of what is true and what is a distortion of the “truth” was left entirely to the discretion of the analyst.

Yet, later, in the 1954 article “Expansion of indications for psychoanalysis,” A. Freud finally raised the question of whether some aggressive reactions of patients, usually considered as transference, could not be caused by a categorical denial of the fact that the analyst and the patient how adults are in real personal relationships. Thus, she came to the idea that not everything in analysis is “transference.”

Psychoanalysis 3. FreudMain subject: Personality development
Research methods: Analysis of clinical cases,
free association method, dream analysis,
reservations, etc.
Basic concepts:
Levels of the psyche (consciousness, preconsciousness,
unconscious), personality structure (Id, Ego, Superego), psychological defense, sexual energy
(libido), sexual instinct, life instinct,
death instinct, stages of psychosexual development,
erogenous zones, pleasure principle, principle
reality, Oedipus complex, Electra complex,
identification, conflict, residual behavior,
fixation, genital character

Mental development from the perspective of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud

The foundations of the psychoanalytic approach to understanding the development of the psyche in ontogenesis were laid by Z. Freud.

Mental development= process
complications of the sphere of desires,
motives and feelings, development
personality, its complication
structures and functions.

three levels of the psyche
consciousness
unconscious
preconscious

The unconscious level of the psyche is the receptacle of the body’s instinctive needs, drives, primarily sexual and aggressive.

Unconscious level of the psyche
- repository of instinctual needs
body, drives, first of all
sexy and aggressive.
The unconscious initially opposes
to society.
Personality development - adaptation (adjustment)
individual to the external social world,
alien to him, but absolutely necessary.

Three structural components of personality
It
I
Super-ego

O n o (Id)

primitive core of personality;
it is innate,
is in the unconscious and
obeys the principle
pleasure.
contains congenital
impulsive drives (instinct
life Eros and the death instinct
Thanatos) and makes up
energy basis
mental development.

10. I (Ego)

- rational and in principle
conscious part
personality. arises as
biological maturation
between 12 and 36 months
life and is guided
the principle of reality.
The Ego's job is to explain
what's happening and build
human behavior is
to his instinctive
there were requirements
satisfied and
restrictions of society and
there would be no consciousness
violated.
Assisted by the Ego
conflict between an individual
and society throughout life
should weaken.
I (Ego)

11. S u p e r x - I (S u p e r - Ego)

Super-ego
(Supper - Ego)
as a structural component
personality is formed last,
between 3 and 6 years of age.
represents conscience, ego-ideal and strictly controls
compliance with the standards adopted in
this society.

12.

The foundation of personality is laid
experiences of early childhood, in
result of conflict between id and superego

13. Periodization of age development 3. Freud – psychosexual theory of personality

Periodization of age
development 3. Freud –
psychosexual
personality theory
"Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" (1905):
a person is born with a certain amount
sexual energy (libido), which is
strictly defined sequence
moves through different areas of the body (mouth,
anus, genitals)

14. Stages are a kind of steps on the path of development, and there is a danger of “getting stuck” at one stage or another, and then the components of children’s sex

Stages of personal development
oral
anal
phallic
latent
genital
Stages are their own
kind of steps on the way
development, and there is
danger of getting stuck
on one or another
stage, and then
components for children's
sexuality can
become prerequisites
neurotic
symptoms
later life.

15. Oral stage (from birth to 18 months)

Main source
pleasure connects
with satisfaction
basic organic
needs and includes
actions related to
breastfeeding:
sucking, biting and
swallowing.
The mother awakens in the child
sexual attraction, teaches
love him. Optimal
degree of satisfaction
(stimulation) in oral
zone (chest
feeding, sucking)
lays the foundations
healthy independent
adult personality.

16.

Too much parental affection
accelerates puberty and makes
child “spoiled”, dependent.
Insufficient stimulation - adult
will be used as methods
adaptation to the surrounding world demonstration
helplessness, gullibility, will need
constant approval of their actions with
sides.

17.

Fixation in the oral-sadistic phase, with
teething when
emphasis shifts to
actions of biting and chewing,
leads to such traits
adult personality, like
love of controversy, cynical consumer attitude towards
to others, pessimism.
Libido attachment
sometimes to the oral area
is also preserved in
adult and makes himself known
know residual
oral behavior - gluttony, smoking,
biting nails,
chewing gum, etc.

18. Anal stage (from 1 - 1.5 to 3 years)

Associated with the emergence of the Ego
Anal erotica is associated, according to Freud, with pleasant
sensations from intestinal function, from excretory
functions, with an interest in their own feces.
At this stage, parents begin to teach the child
use the toilet, presenting it to him for the first time
the requirement to abandon instinctive
pleasure.
The correct educational approach is important (attention
to the child’s condition, encouragement, support
neatness)

19. Phallic stage (3-6 years)

the child often looks and
examines his genitals,
shows interest in issues
associated with the birth of children and
sexual relations.

20.

Oedipus complex
boy
is discovered
desire to "possess"
mother and eliminate
father.
Identifying yourself with
father (imitation
intonations,
statements,
actions,
borrowing norms
rules, settings)
promotes
the emergence of the superego, or conscience,
last component
personality structures.
Electra complex
girls identify themselves with
same-sex parent
- mother and
suppression of gravity
to my father.
Girl zooming in
resemblance to mother
receives
symbolic
"access" to your
to my father.

21. Latent stage (from 6 - 7 years to 12 years)

Sexual lull, before
beginning of adolescence.
The energy reserve is directed to
non-sexual goals and activities
- study, sports, knowledge,
friendship with peers,
mostly of the same gender.
Freud emphasized
the significance of this break in
sexual development
human as conditions for
higher education
human culture.

22. Genital stage (12-18 years)

Stage due to biological maturation in
puberty and final psychosexual
development.
A surge of sexual and aggressive urges, a complex
Oedipa is reborn on a new level. Autoerotism
disappears and is replaced by interest in another
sexual object, partner of the opposite sex.
Normally, in youth there is a search for a place in society,
choosing a marriage partner, creating a family.
One of the most significant tasks of this stage is
liberation from parental authority, from attachment
to them, which provides the necessary for the cultural process
the contrast between the old and new generations.

23. Freud was convinced that all the most significant things in personality development happen before the age of five, and later a person is only a “functional

Thus, childhood interested 3. Freud
as a period that preforms adulthood
personality.
Freud was convinced that everything essential
in personality development occurs before the age of five
age, and later a person is only
“functioning”, trying to overcome early
conflicts, so no special stages
He did not highlight adulthood.

24. VALUE OF PSYCHOANALYTICAL CONCEPT

Valuepsychoanalyst
icological concepts
This is a dynamic development concept,
it shows a complex range
experiences, unity of soul
human life, its irreducibility to
individual functions and elements.
The importance of childhood, the importance and
longevity of parental
influence

25. The most important aspect of the psychoanalytic approach can be considered the idea of ​​sensitive attention to the child, the desire to discern beyond the seemingly ordinary

The most important aspect of the psychoanalytic approach can be
consider the idea of ​​sensitive attention to the child, the desire
see beyond his seemingly ordinary words and actions
questions that truly bother or confuse him.
K.G. Jung critically remarks: “We must take
children as they are in
in fact, we need to stop seeing in
they are only what we would like to see in them,
and when raising them, we must conform not to
dead rules, but with natural
direction of development"

26. The further development of the psychoanalytic direction in psychology is associated with the names of K. Jung, A. Adler, K. Horney, A. Freud, M. Klein, E. Erikson

Further development
psychoanalytic direction in
psychology is associated with the names of C. Jung,
A. Adler, K. Horney, A. Freud, M.
Klein, E. Erickson, B. Bettelheim, M.
Mahler et al.

27. A. Freud (1895-1982)

Her works:
"Introduction to Children's
psychoanalysis" (1927)
"Norm and pathology in
childhood" (1966), etc.

28. A. Freud believed that in the psychoanalysis of children:

You can and should use common
with adults analytical methods:
hypnosis, free associations,
interpretation of dreams, symbols,
parapraxia (slips of the tongue, forgetting),
resistance analysis and transfer.
It is necessary to take into account the originality
child analysis techniques

29. New technical methods

Transformation analysis,
undergone
affects
baby
(instead of sadness - a cheerful mood,
instead of jealousy - excessive tenderness)
Analysis of animal phobias, characteristics
school and family behavior of children
Analysis of children's play

30. When psychoanalyzing a child, the external world has a much stronger influence on the mechanism of neurosis than in an adult. The outside world will educate him

When psychoanalyzing a child, the outside world influences
much stronger influence on the mechanism
neurosis than in an adult. The outside world, it
educational influences - powerful
ally of the weak child's self in the fight against
instinctive tendencies.

31. English psychoanalyst Melanie Klein (1882-1960)

32.

The main focus was
child's spontaneous play activity
(specially created conditions:
the therapist provides the child with a lot of
small toys, "the whole world in
miniature" and gives him the opportunity
free to act for an hour).
The action is more characteristic of a child,
than speech
Observation of various reactions
child, following the “stream of children’s play” (and
especially for manifestations
aggressiveness or compassion) the main method of studying the structure
child's experiences.

33.

May appear in the game
various emotional
states: feelings of frustration and
rejection, jealousy of members
family and related
aggressiveness, feelings of love or
hatred for the newborn,
fun to play with a friend,
confrontation with parents
feelings of anxiety, guilt and
desire to improve the situation.
Regular expression
child patient
interpretations of his behavior
helps him cope
emerging difficulties and
conflicts.

34. Modern psychoanalysts about the development and upbringing of children

35. J. Bowlby

Attachment theory: the mother is not important
just because it satisfies
primary organic needs
child, in particular, satisfies hunger, but
the main thing is that she creates the child’s first
feeling of affection
Various disorders of the primary
emotional connection between mother and
child, “attachment disorders”
create a risk of personal
problems and mental illness
(for example, depression).

36. R. Spitz

Relationships between the child
and mother at a very early age
influence
the formation of his personality in
subsequent
Concepts such as
"affection", "security"
establishing loved ones
relationships between children and adults,
creating conditions for establishing
interactions between children and parents
in the first hours after birth.

37. E. Fromm

Mother's love is unconditional:
the child is loved simply because
he is.
Fatherly love - more
parts of conditional love, its
necessary and can be deserved

38. K. Bütner

Influence
videos,
cartoons, games,
toy industry
children's inner world
is constantly growing and
often it can be
rated harshly
negative

39. F. Dolto

"On the Child's Side", "On the Child's Side"
teenager."
Problems: the nature of memories
childhood, the child’s well-being in
kindergarten and school, attitude towards
money and punishments, education
in an incomplete family, the norm and
pathology of parent-child
relationships, in vitro conception.

40. Conclusion

Child psychoanalysis
influence on the organization of work with
children in educational and social
spheres, to work with parents.
numerous early childhood programs
interventions, treatment options
relationship between parents and
child", "father - mother - child" for
parents and children at risk
psychoanalytic therapy centers
children.

41.

Prepared the presentation
student of group 673(2n)
Minkina Katya

In this work we will try to partially illuminate one of the psychological approaches to understanding childhood - psychoanalytic. As you know, psychoanalysis was created by Sigmund Freud at the beginning of our century. Since his teachings in psychological science awareness of the importance of childhood for a person’s entire life and the study, systematization and discussion of this period began human life. Subsequently, a variety of psychological theories childhood, some of which are largely or completely opposed to psychoanalytic, but almost all recognize its importance. For example, L. S. Vygotsky in his works (see “Problems of the development of the HMF,” Chapter 1) largely disagrees with Freud’s theory, however, he notices its significance.

Below we look at three authors belonging to the psychoanalytic school who have contributed to the understanding of childhood problems in psychology. This would be, first of all, Sigmund Freud himself - in his theory and practice, he, as a rule, did not deal with children, but his entire theory of neuroses stems from childhood experiences, which determines the saturation of his works with information about his views on childhood. The second author, who is presented below, is Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund. Her theory is interesting to us because she, in fact, was the founder of child psychoanalysis. Finally will complete our short review Erik Erikson's theory. American psychoanalyst who created his own, epigenetic theory human development. This psychoanalyst has already moved quite far in many of his positions from orthodox psychoanalysis: however, at the same time, unlike, for example, Fromm, he remained within its framework. It is all the more interesting to consider his theory, and thus understand the development of psychoanalysis. So, let's move on to specific material.

Classic psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud.

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, is one of the first psychologists to pay attention to the problem of studying childhood. Psychoanalysis initially developed as a method of treatment - a purely practical direction, but it soon became a rich source of psychological facts. In particular, it was impossible not to notice the enormous role of childhood, childhood experiences in the entire subsequent life of a person. Further research and theoretical developments led Freud to believe that these childhood experiences have a sexual connotation and that this experience has an unconscious influence on the behavior and life of an adult. Unconscious experience, according to Freud, is the content of one of the three components of the human personality - the unconscious or “It”. The other two components are the “I” and the “Super-Ego”. “It” is the irrational principle in man, subject to the principle of pleasure, “Super-I” - limits the drives of the unconscious, being the carrier moral standards, and “I” follows the principle of reality and helps the subject to act adequately to the external situation. As you can see, the content of “It” and “Super-Ego” is filled in childhood - “It”, as stated above, represents unconscious drives determined by childhood experiences, and “Super-Ego” is the parental principle, censor, critic, teacher, and the idea of ​​norms, prohibitions, taboos is also laid down in childhood.

Another important point Freud's theories are his idea of ​​libidinal energy - driving force instinctive principle in man. This, in his opinion, is a force that largely determines human behavior. Human development in his theory comes down to the stages of movement and transformation of this energy. In accordance with the movement of libidinal energy through erogenous zones (in Freud's understanding, erogenous eons are those that are sensitive to stimulus). Here short description these stages of development of childhood sexuality:

1. Oral stage (0-1 year). The main erogenous zone is the oral region associated with feeding. Freud distinguished 2 substages in this stage - early and late. The child's sexual expression in the early substage is sucking, and in the later stage, biting is added to it. At this stage, the basic, deepest instincts of “It”, “I”, initially absent from the child, are consolidated, only in the second half of the child’s life begins to stand out from the “It”. The “Super-I” instance is still absent at this stage.

2. Anal stage (1-3 years). In the second stage, libidinal energy is concentrated around the anus. Childhood sexuality, according to Freud, is now satisfied through mastery of the processes of excretion. The “I” of the child’s personality at this stage is already fully formed, it begins to control the impulses of the unconscious. Under the influence of such forces as the fear of losing parents, fear of punishment, social coercion, the “Super-I” instance gradually begins to form.

3. Genital stage (3-5 years). According to Freud, this is the highest level of childhood sexuality. The genital organs become the most important erogenous zone at this stage of child development. Sexuality ceases to be autoerotic; children who have moved to this phase of development begin to experience sexual attachment to adults. It is at this stage, as Freud believed, that the Oedipus complex is formed in boys and the Electa complex in girls - their essence lies in the child’s sexual attachment to the parent of the opposite sex and the perception of the second parent as a rival. In normal development, the resolution of this complex, according to Freud, occurs under the influence of castration fear, which forces the boy to renounce sexual attraction to his mother and identify himself with his father. at this stage, the three levels of human personality complete their formation.

4. Latent stage (5-12 years). At this stage, the “I” completely controls the “It,” which causes a decrease in the child’s sexual interest. The energy of libido finds other ways of realization - it is transferred to the development of human experience, communication with peers and adults, etc.

5. Genital stage (12-18 years). The child's sexual interest increases. According to Freud, at this stage a normal teenager strives for one goal - normal sexual communication. If there are difficulties in realizing this goal, regression or fixation at one of the previous stages of development may be observed. At this stage, the “I” must restrain especially aggressive manifestations and impulses of the “It”.

6. When a child becomes an adult (Freud did not identify such a stage, we will allow ourselves this for the convenience of presentation), his character is determined by the development and interaction of three main authorities. With normal development, their normal interaction can be carried out, according to Freud, with the help of the protective mechanism of sublimation. As E. Erikson later wrote (to be discussed later), correct and appropriate sublimation is necessary for the individual to develop normally - this is one of the most important and boldest provisions of Freud’s theory. Pathological development is characterized by the presence of such protective mechanisms as repression, regression, rationalization, etc.

Attempts to organize analytical work with children from the standpoint of traditional psychoanalysis have encountered real difficulties: children do not express an interest in studying their past, there is no initiative to contact a psychoanalyst, and the level of verbal development is insufficient to formalize their experiences in

words. At first, psychoanalysts mainly used observations and reports from parents as material for interpreting observations and reports.

Later, psychoanalytic methods were developed aimed specifically at children. Freud's followers in the field of child psychoanalysis, A. Freud and M. Klein, created their own, different versions of child psychotherapy.

A. Freud (1895-1982) adhered to the traditional position for psychoanalysis about the child’s conflict with the social world full of contradictions. Her works “Introduction to Child Psychoanalysis” (1927), “Norm and Pathology in Childhood” (1966) and others laid the foundations of child psychoanalysis. She emphasized that in order to understand the causes of difficulties in behavior, a psychologist must strive to penetrate not only into the unconscious layers of the child’s psyche, but also to obtain the most detailed knowledge about all three components of the personality (I, Id, Super-Ego), about their relationships with the outside world , about the mechanisms of psychological defense and their role in personality development2.

A. Freud believed that in the psychoanalysis of children, firstly, it is possible and necessary to use analytical methods common to adults on speech material: hypnosis, free associations, interpretation of dreams, symbols, parapraxia (slips of the tongue, forgetting), resistance analysis and transference. Secondly, she also pointed out the uniqueness of the technique for analyzing children. The difficulties of using the method of free association, especially in young children, can be partially overcome by analyzing dreams, daydreams, daydreams, games and drawings, which will reveal the tendencies of the unconscious in an open and accessible form. A. Freud proposed new technical methods to help in the study of the self. One of them is the analysis of the transformations undergone by the child’s affects. In her opinion, the discrepancy between the expected (based on past experience) and demonstrated (instead of grief - a cheerful mood, instead of jealousy - excessive tenderness) emotional reaction of the child indicates that defense mechanisms are working, and thus it becomes possible to penetrate into the child’s self. Rich material on the formation of defense mechanisms at specific phases child development presents an analysis of animal phobias, characteristics of school and family behavior of children. Thus, A. Freud attached importance to children's play, believing that,

fascinated by the game, the child will also become interested in the interpretations offered to him by the analyst regarding defense mechanisms and the unconscious emotions hiding behind them.

A psychoanalyst, according to A. Freud, to be successful in child therapy must have authority with the child, since the child’s Super-Ego is relatively weak and unable to cope with the impulses released as a result of psychotherapy without outside help. Of particular importance is the nature of the child’s communication with an adult: “Whatever we begin to do with a child, whether we teach him arithmetic or geography, whether we educate him or subject him to analysis, we must first of all establish a certain emotional relationship between ourselves and the child. The more difficult the work that lies ahead of us, the stronger this connection should be,” emphasized A. Freud1. When organizing research and correctional work with difficult children (aggressive, anxious), the main efforts should be aimed at forming attachment and developing libido, and not at directly overcoming negative reactions. The influence of adults, which gives the child, on the one hand, hope for love, and on the other hand, makes him fear punishment, allows him to develop over the course of several years his own ability to control his inner instinctual life. Moreover, part of the achievements belongs to the forces of the child’s self, and the rest to the pressure of external forces; the relationship between influences cannot be determined.

When psychoanalyzing a child, A. Freud emphasizes, the external world has a much stronger influence on the mechanism of neurosis than in an adult. The child psychoanalyst must necessarily work to transform the environment. The outside world and its educational influences are a powerful ally of the child’s weak self in the fight against instinctive tendencies.

The English psychoanalyst M. Klein (1882-1960) developed her approach to organizing psychoanalysis at an early age2. The main attention was paid to the child's spontaneous play activity. M. Klein, unlike A. Freud, insisted on the possibility of direct access to the content of the child’s unconscious. She believed that action is more characteristic of a child than speech, and free play is the equivalent of the flow of associations of an adult; stages of the game are analogues of the associative production of an adult.

Psychoanalysis with children, according to Klein, was based primarily on spontaneous children's play, which was helped to manifest itself by specially created conditions1.

The therapist provides the child with a lot of small toys, “a whole world in miniature,” and gives him the opportunity to act freely for an hour.

The most suitable for psychoanalytic play techniques are simple non-mechanical toys: wooden male and female figurines different sizes, animals, houses, hedges, trees, various vehicles, cubes, balls and sets of balls, plasticine, paper, scissors, a mild knife, pencils, crayons, paints, glue and rope. The variety, quantity, and miniature sizes of toys allow the child to widely express his fantasies and use his existing experience. conflict situations. The simplicity of toys and human figures ensures their easy inclusion in plots, fictional or prompted by the child’s real experience.

The game room should also be equipped very simply, but provide maximum freedom of action. For play therapy, you need a table, several chairs, small sofa, several pillows, washable floor, running water and a chest of drawers with drawers. Each child's play materials are kept separately, locked in a specific drawer. This condition is intended to convince the child that his toys and playing with them will be known only to himself and the psychoanalyst.

Observation of the child’s various reactions, the “flow of children’s play” (and especially manifestations of aggressiveness or compassion) becomes the main method of studying the structure of the child’s experiences. The undisturbed flow of the game corresponds to the free flow of associations; interruptions and inhibitions in games are equivalent to interruptions in free association. A break in play is seen as a defensive action on the part of the ego, comparable to resistance in free association. The game may show various emotional states: feelings of frustration and rejection, jealousy of family members and accompanying aggressiveness, feelings of love or hatred for the newborn, pleasure in playing with a friend, confrontation with parents, feelings of anxiety, guilt and the desire to improve the situation.

Prior knowledge of the child's developmental history and presenting symptoms and impairments assists the therapist in interpreting the meaning of children's play. As a rule, the psychoanalyst tries to explain to the child the unconscious roots of his play, for which he has to use great ingenuity to help the child realize which of the real members of his family are represented by the figures used in the game. At the same time, the psychoanalyst does not insist that the interpretation accurately reflects the experience. psychic reality, it is rather a metaphorical explanation or interpretative proposal put forward for testing purposes.

The child begins to understand that there is something unknown ("unconscious") in his own head and that the analyst is also participating in his game. M. Klein leads detailed description details of psychoanalytic gaming techniques using specific examples.

Thus, at the request of her parents, M. Klein conducted psychotherapeutic treatment of a seven-year-old girl with normal intelligence, but with a negative attitude towards school and academic failure, with some neurotic disorders and poor contact with her mother. The girl did not want to draw or actively communicate in the therapist’s office. However, when she was given a set of toys, she began to act out the relationship that had excited her with her classmate. It was they who became the subject of interpretation by the psychoanalyst. Having heard the therapist's interpretation of her game, the girl began to trust him more. Gradually, during further treatment, her relationship with her mother and her school situation improved.

Sometimes the child refuses to accept the therapist's interpretation and may even stop playing and throw away toys when told that his aggression is directed at his father or brother. Such reactions, in turn, also become the subject of interpretation by the psychoanalyst.

Changes in the nature of the child’s play can directly confirm the correctness of the proposed interpretation of the game. For example, a child finds a dirty figurine in a toy box, which symbolized him in the previous game. younger brother, and washes it in a basin from traces of his previous aggressive intentions.

So, penetration into the depths of the unconscious, according to M. Klein, is possible using gaming techniques, through the analysis of the child’s anxiety and defense mechanisms. Regularly expressing interpretations of his behavior to the child patient helps him cope with emerging difficulties and conflicts.

Some psychologists believe that the game itself is healing. So, D.V. Winnicott emphasizes the creative power of free play (play) in comparison with play according to the rules (game)1.