All types of human temperament. Even in difficult and unforeseen circumstances I do not lose my composure

Types of temperament are a combination of subjective characteristics of an individual’s personality, which have stability and a certain degree of innateness, associated with dynamic manifestations rather than meaningful ones. They are the basis for the development of the subjective character of the individual. Types of temperament are determined by the typology of higher nervous activity of subjects and reflect the emotional sphere of individuals.

Temperament types reflect all psychological and physiological activities of a person. The ancient physician K. Galen was the first to identify types of temperament. He divided four main types of temperament, depending on the predominance of one or another juice (for example, bile) in the human body.

Types of human temperament

Today there is the following division into personality temperament types: choleric type; melancholic type; sanguine type; phlegmatic type.

♦ People of the choleric type of temperament are usually not very balanced, they are characterized by intemperance, hot temper, and sometimes unbridled temper. Choleric people are characterized by a rather hot-tempered character along with quick release after expressing violent emotions. They are easy to piss off. They say about them that they flash like a torch. However, just like a torch, they are easy to extinguish. In such a person, all emotional experiences are clearly expressed, characterized by great intensity and transience.

Cholerics are ardent and passionate people, characterized by a sharp change in feelings that differ in depth. Such feelings capture the choleric person completely and completely for a while. He can experience both sorrows and joys equally deeply. All his experiences are expressed in facial expressions and gestures, sometimes even very violently. Choleric is characterized by strength and speed of reactions. Such a person is simply not able to do monotonous work. He often takes on work with great enthusiasm, but is prone to quickly cooling down the fuse. Then he may treat the work with disregard, “carelessly.”

In communication it is characterized by harshness and impatience. His gestures and facial expressions are quite energetic, and the pace of his work is quite fast. Often teenagers with a choleric type of temperament during puberty bring a lot of trouble to teachers and parents. They can disrupt lessons, be rude, get into fights, and the like. They can be characterized as children prone to activity and mobility. Such children are perky and militant leaders, capable of involving their peers in various adventures.

♦ Individuals of the melancholic type of temperament are characterized by unbalanced character, the depth of experience of absolutely any event with a completely weak and sluggish external manifestation. The reaction of such people is slow. Melancholic people are easy to notice by their facial expressions and movements. They are characterized by inexpressiveness, slowness, monotony, restraint, and poverty.

People of the melancholic type have an inexpressive and quiet voice. Such people are characterized by excessive sensitivity and vulnerability. A melancholic person is always afraid of difficulties and is characterized by high anxiety. Such people try to avoid any difficulties and unforeseen situations. For them, it is preferable to perform actions that do not require mental stress.

His moods and feelings are quite monotonous, but they are stable. Their character is rather asthenic. Therefore, when they talk about a melancholic person, they always imagine a rather gloomy and eternally sad person. Melancholic people are very vulnerable, they react painfully to external stimuli, and have a very hard time experiencing any difficulties in life. They are unsociable and reserved.

Melancholic people are quite characterized by a lack of determination and strength, constant decadence, and frequent hesitation. In a deeper manifestation, melancholic manifests itself in passivity, lethargy, and disinterest in affairs. Melancholic people are usually represented as people “not of this world,” airy and ephemeral creatures, people who are not very adapted to life.

Children of a melancholic type of temperament cannot and do not know how to resist injustice, they are often teased and offended, and they tend to fall under the influence of other people or children. It is quite difficult for such children to work in a group. In adolescence, the melancholic type manifests itself in timidity and shyness, often tearfulness.

♦ The sanguine type of temperament is characterized by balance, speed and moderate strength of reactions, along with the relative weakness of the intensity of mental processes. This type of temperament is distinguished by the rapid transition of one mental process to another. A sanguine person tends to work for a long time without getting tired; if the activity is varied, he quickly learns new professional skills and knowledge. It is characterized by the ease and rapidity of the emergence of new emotional states, which do not differ in depth, as they quickly replace each other.

Sanguine people can easily be identified by their expressive and rich facial expressions, by emotional manifestations, which are always accompanied by various expressive movements. Such people are characterized by cheerfulness and mobility. A sanguine person is quite impressionable, his brain quickly responds to any external stimuli and has much less concentration and depth in his subjective experiences.

People with this type of temperament can easily cope with solving problems that require quick thinking, provided that such a decision is not particularly serious or difficult. Sanguine people easily take on all sorts of things, but also quickly abandon them when interest in others appears; they are often hasty in making decisions.

A person of the sanguine type is quite sociable and easily makes contact. However, his relationships with other people are often characterized by superficiality, since a sanguine person calmly and easily partes with attachments, and quite quickly forgets joys and sorrows, reconciliations and resentments. Their gestures, facial expressions and other movements are very expressive, and their speech is fast. Sanguine people are prone to leadership and can take responsibility and command. They love to be in front, in the spotlight.

♦ People of the phlegmatic type of temperament are, first of all, characterized by low mobility, their gestures and movements are quite slow, even sluggish. You should not expect quick actions from such people, as they are not energetic. Such people have weak emotional excitability. Phlegmatic people are distinguished by their evenness of feelings and moods, which change rather slowly. They are characterized by equanimity, regularity, and calmness. It is quite difficult to get such a person out of his calm and even temperament. emotional state. He is rarely excited and emotional manifestations are far from him.

In external manifestation it is characterized by monotony, inexpressiveness of facial expressions and gestures. His speech is slow, not lively, and not accompanied by expressiveness or gestures.

Before doing anything, phlegmatic people can think about future actions for a long time and very thoroughly. However, if a phlegmatic person has made a decision, he will carry it out calmly and purposefully. Such people usually become very attached to work that is more familiar to them, and with great difficulty they can switch to other types of activities. They are able to change lanes only if they are warned in advance, and they can comprehend, think through and get used to this idea. When a phlegmatic person has gotten used to and thought about the upcoming change of activity, such a change itself will be much simpler and easier for him.

But you should not think that any person can be classified into one of these four types of temperament. The types of personality temperament described above are in real life They are quite rare in their pure form. Typically, each person combines different traits of these types. This is called a mixed type of temperament. Only if a person has clearly expressed certain traits of temperament, then he can be classified as one of the above types of temperament.

Psychological types of temperament

Psychological main types of temperament are characterized by the following characteristics: sensitivity, reactivity, activity, the ratio of activity and reactivity, rigidity and plasticity, rate of reactions, introversion, extraversion, emotional excitability.

Sensitivity is characterized by the amount of the smallest forces of external actions that are necessary for the appearance of any, even the most insignificant, mental reaction.

Reactivity is determined by the level of unintentionality of reactions or manifestations to internal or external actions of equal force (for example, offensive words, critical remarks, etc.).

Activity shows how energetically (intensively) a person can influence the world and overcome obstacles in achieving various goals (for example, determination, perseverance, focus, etc.).

The ratio of activity and reactivity characterizes the degree of dependence of people's activities. Activity can depend both on external stimuli and on internal ones (for example, random events).

Rigidity and plasticity show the degree of a person’s adaptability to external stimuli, circumstances (plasticity) or the inertia and rigidity of a person’s behavior.

The pace of reactions determines the speed of various reactions and mental processes, such as the pace of speech or the dynamism of gestures, the speed of the mind.

Introversion and extraversion show the predominant dependence of people's reactions and activities. The reactions and activities of subjects may depend either on external manifestations that arise precisely at this moment (extroversion), or on ideas, images, thoughts that are directly related either to the future or to the past, but not to the present (introversion).

Emotional arousal is determined by the required amount of weak influence for the occurrence of any emotional reaction, and with what speed it can occur.

Based on all of the above properties, Strelyau gave psychological characteristics to the main classic types temperament identified by Galen.

So, according to his theory, a sanguine person is a person characterized by increased reactivity and balanced activity and reactivity. His movements are fast, his mind is flexible, he has resourcefulness and a fast pace of speech, as well as quick involvement in work. It is distinguished by high plasticity, which manifests itself in changes in feelings, interests, mood and aspirations. The sanguine type of temperament is characterized by extraversion.

A choleric person is a person who is characterized by rather low sensitivity, along with increased activity and reactivity. Since in such people reactivity clearly prevails over activity, they stand out for their unbridled temper, lack of restraint, impatience, and hot temper. The choleric person is not particularly flexible and is rather inert when compared with the sanguine person. Therefore, he has a fairly greater stability of interests and aspirations, and perseverance. He has difficulty switching attention. Choleric refers more to extroverts than introverts.

A phlegmatic person is a person with high activity, which greatly prevails over slight reactivity, sensitivity and emotionality. Characterized by slow speech and movements. A phlegmatic person is also quite difficult to switch attention and adapt to new situations. Along with this, he is distinguished by his efficiency and energy. A phlegmatic person may respond rather weakly to external stimuli. Refers to introverts.

A melancholic person is a person who has very high sensitivity along with very little reactivity. It is also characterized by inexpressiveness of gestures, facial expressions, movements, a quiet voice, and poverty of movements. He is not energetic and does not have persistence, and is characterized by fairly rapid fatigue and low performance. His attention is easily distracted and unstable. The pace of absolutely all mental processes is characterized by slowness. Melancholic is an introvert.

Pavlov derived and proved the theory that the basis of the physiology of temperament is precisely the type of higher nervous activity, which is determined directly by the relationship of the defining properties nervous system, such as: strength, mobility and balance of the processes of inhibition and excitation occurring in the nervous system. But the typology of the nervous system depends on the genotype, i.e. heredity. He identified four subtypes of the nervous system:

The weak subtype consists in the weakness of both inhibitory and excitatory processes; melancholic belongs to it;

The unbalanced strong subtype consists of the strength of the irritable process and the comparative strength of inhibition; this subtype includes the choleric person or the “uncontrollable type”;

Balanced, agile and strong type– this is a sanguine person or “living type”;

Balanced and strong, along with the inertia of nervous processes, is a phlegmatic person or a “calm type.”

Wundt admitted that fundamental in those psychological properties, the combinations of which form different types of temperament, are two main (basic, main) characteristics that are associated with the dynamics of the emotional sphere of subjects. These included: the strength of emotional reactions, on the one hand, and the degree of stability of emotional manifestations, on the other. It is precisely strong emotional manifestations, along with emotional instability, that contribute to the formation of those mental properties that can usually be attributed to an individual with a choleric type of temperament. But instability, along with insignificant strength of emotional manifestations, is characteristic of owners of the sanguine type of temperament.

It was in this way that Wundt moved away from specifically descriptive typological characteristics of temperament and introduced two characteristics that can serve as the object of experimental analysis and research. And since the stability of emotional manifestations and their strength can be measured empirically, then the assignment of a personality to one or another typological characteristic of temperament can be based on objective information and research data.

A distinctive feature of Wundt’s theory is that the typology is no longer tied only to those extreme manifestations of psychological characteristics characteristic of various types temperament. According to his theory, people who have different emotional strength can be equally classified as both the choleric type and the melancholic type. The main thing is that they maintain a balance between weakness and strength, emotion towards strength.

Determining the type of temperament

Different types of temperament can be determined using specialized techniques based on the use of tests and questionnaires. There are a huge variety of such methods. They consist in the fact that each person who wants to determine his typological characteristics of temperament is asked to answer a number of questions that are aimed at recognizing in him his usual way of responding to internal and external stimuli, as well as his behavior. Basically, the questions are quite simple and relate to the personal qualities of the subjects, behavior in specific situations in life.

The main recommendations for passing the tests are that the individual is asked to answer clearly, accurately, quickly, trying not to think too much, whatever comes to mind first is the answer. In such tests there are no known good or bad answers. Therefore, subjects are advised not to be afraid to answer correctly or incorrectly, bad or good. After all, determining the type of temperament largely depends on the honesty of the answers.

Why is it necessary to determine types of temperament? Psychologists still recommend determining your typological characteristics of temperament in order to know your strengths and weak sides, and have the opportunity to correct them throughout life. It is also good to understand temperaments in order not to demand the impossible from the people around us or from children. So, for example, you cannot demand that a phlegmatic person do his work quickly. You should not rush a slow phlegmatic person, as this will not add speed to execution, but will only cause his aggression towards you.

Knowing temperaments will greatly help in family life. For example, let’s take a phlegmatic person again; before any work, he needs to first tune in, so it’s better to inform him in advance about the upcoming spring cleaning or shopping trip. It takes him some time to get used to the thoughts of the upcoming, albeit small, but still changes in his life. But, over time, he will create the right mood for himself, and all changes will be more comfortable.

Also, the type of temperament can be determined by activity, appearance, facial expressions and gestures.

If there is a person among you who easily adapts to an unfamiliar environment, easily communicates with other people and can quickly switch from one type of activity to another, and does not like monotony at work, then most likely this is a person of a sanguine type of temperament.

If you see in front of you a person who is characterized by excitability and imbalance, increased irritability, rapidity of action, often under the influence of impulse, then this will be a choleric person.

If your colleague annoys you with his slowness, unhurriedness and amazes you with his calmness, then most likely a phlegmatic person works with you.

If you meet a person who seems to always be within himself, is overly touchy, prone to strong feelings over the slightest troubles, does not get along well with others, is withdrawn, then this is a melancholic person.

However, in real life, identifying a true melancholic person or, for example, a sanguine person is quite difficult. We are mostly surrounded by mixed people. A slow person may well have the excitability of a choleric person and vice versa.

Temperament type test

As already written above, there are many tests and techniques that determine the types of temperament and their properties. Basically, the study of personality temperament can be aimed at either general characteristics, or aimed at in-depth study its properties.

Using Rusalov's questionnaire, one can determine the formal dynamic properties of individuality. The questionnaire consists of 150 questions that are aimed at clarifying the individual’s usual behavior. The subjects are presented with a series of typical situations where they need to give one answer, the first one that comes to mind.

The method for determining the type of temperament that predominates in a particular individual is presented by Belov and consists of sequentially presenting four cards to the subject. Each of the proposed cards contains twenty properties that are characteristic of a particular type of temperament. The subject will need to mark on each card those features that are most characteristic of him.

The most popular method for determining temperament types is a test in the form of questions developed by Eysenck. It involves diagnosing the types and properties of temperament. This technique consists in the fact that subjects are given 100 test questions, which characterize the characteristics of their behavior and feelings. In cases where a feature or property described in the test coincides with the subjects’ ideas about themselves, then they are recommended to put a “plus” sign; if it does not correspond, then a “minus” sign. These questions should also be answered quickly, honestly and without thinking. This questionnaire is designed to determine the level of neuroticism, introversion and extraversion, and psychoticism.

Study psychological structure temperament according to the Smirnov questionnaire allows you to detect polar properties of temperament, such as: extraversion and introversion, balance and excitability, rate of reactions - slow and fast, activity - low and high. This questionnaire additionally developed a sincerity scale, which allows one to assess the truthfulness and reliability of the answers received and the results in general.

Using the Smishek questionnaire, you can diagnose types and identify accentuations of temperament and character traits. This questionnaire is based on Leonhard's theory of accentuated personalities. Accented personalities are those who have individual features having a high degree of severity. Leonhard identified 10 such types of accentuations: demonstrative, emotive, excitable, pedantic, affective-exalted, stuck, cyclothymic, hyperthymic, anxious-fearful, dysthymic.

In psychology, along with the term “temperament,” the term “character” is widely used, which literally means a sign, trait, seal. Character is a set of subjective characteristics of an individual that are stable, develop and manifest themselves in the process of communication and activity, thereby determining typical behavior patterns. Among the variety of character traits, a distinction is made between leading and secondary traits. If these traits are in harmony with each other, then such a person can be considered the owner of such a quality as integrity of character. And if such traits sharply contrast with each other, then this means the presence of inconsistency in character.

In the process of socialization, an individual, in addition to such personality traits as honesty, deceitfulness, rudeness, politeness, tactfulness, also acquires such temperamental properties as introversion and extroversion. This is why psychologists raise the question of the relationship between character and temperament. That is why many questionnaires are also equipped with a scale of introversion and extraversion (for example, the Eysenck test).

There is also a method for determining the type of temperament according to Obozov. It uses fifteen empirical characteristics in which temperament manifests itself. This technique allows you to determine the type of temperament even without the participation of the subject. To determine its type, a line-by-line selection of the level of manifestation of each of the given fifteen characterological characteristics is made. So, for example, in the “balanced behavior” scale, the line “well balanced” is more appropriate for the subject, and the line “excellently balanced” is slightly less suitable. In this case, the first line is assigned two points, and the second line is assigned one point. The remaining lines in this scale are marked with “0” points. Other indicators are also assessed for all remaining characterological characteristics. Next, you should calculate the number of points for each column separately. The type of personality that scored the most points is the main one for the subject.

You must always remember that it is impossible to completely calculate the type of temperament using one or another of the above methods. Temperament is not 100% innate. Also, temperamental traits can be strengthened and reduced in the process of human life. After all, temperament is just the biological basis of all personal qualities, which a person educates and develops in himself in the course of his life. And knowing your personal characteristics and yourself as a whole will allow you to choose a style of interaction with others and an activity that will bring even greater success and the realization of your personal potential.

Many years of work with people have allowed psychologists to identify the main types of temperament. This is a combination of subjective personality traits and characteristics, which allows us to understand human behavior and ongoing mental processes.

Not only the development of psychological processes and features of worldview depend on the type of temperament. It will also affect the following aspects of life.

1. Assessment of individual activity.
2. The ability and speed of psychological processes - thinking, perception of the world and new information, concentration and consolidation of skills.
3. Rhythm and tempo of activity, its direction.
4. Discipline.
5. The ease or difficulty of interacting with other people.

Different types of temperaments will affect the development of a person as an individual, his professional qualities, on psychological growth, behavior and way of communicating with people around you and the whole world.

Study of temperament by foreign psychologists, philosophers, thinkers

Studying psychological characteristics Humanity has been studying individuals for a long time. Characteristics of temperament types were also developed in ancient times by Hippocrates and Galen, ancient Greek scientists. From there came the 4-type classification of temperaments, which was based on the concept of liquids: sangva, phlegm, chole, melanchole.

Interesting works for the study of man were proposed by C. G. Jung, who differentiated humanity into introverts and extroverts. There is a third concept introduced by scientists - neuroticism.

Carl Gustaf Jung was a psychologist from Switzerland who lived from 1875 to 1961. The founder of analytical psychology, the task of which the doctor considered to be the interpretation of archetypal images in patients. He developed and promoted the doctrine of the collective unconscious; some historians also classify the psychiatrist as a mystic.

Jung's three-factor theory of personality is based on the processes of excitation and inhibition.

It turned out that among the characteristic features:

• extroverts – slow development of excitement, as well as rapid formation of stability and strength;
• introverts – high degree excitability, which allows you to develop certain conditioned reflexes, learn quickly, but slowly slow down any processes.

Another type has been identified - neuroticism, which is characterized by pronounced conditioned reflex irritability and the prevalence of a constant feeling of danger, suppression of anxiety. The development and final formulation of the three-factor theory of personality was undertaken by the British scientist Eysenck.

Hans Jurgen Eysenck is a British psychologist who formulated a popular intelligence test. Lived from 1916 to 1997, became the creator of the factor theory of personality.

The psychiatrist interpreted two personality factors: a high degree of introversion in response to stimuli and a high degree of neuroticism with increased emotional reactivity.

In the course of research, foreign psychiatrists and scientists noted that introversion is characterized by modesty and persistence, stubbornness and irritability. For extroversion characteristic features become lively and interested, excitable and easy to learn, active and sociable.

Domestic research on temperament

Many domestic scientists, psychiatrists, and scientific figures have studied psychotypes and personal characteristics. Characteristics of temperament were identified by scientists I. P. Pavlov and B. M. Teplova. Rusalov V.M. and Nebylitsyna V.D. and others proposed their theories.

Pavlov's concept identifies three main characteristics of the nervous system.

1. Mobility.
2. Force.
3. Equilibrium.

Combination various factors and give an idea of ​​character. The scientist believed that a phlegmatic person is slow; sanguine – fast, balanced; melancholic – weak, choleric – strong, emotional. Taking into account the combination different properties character can be divided into 4 types: balanced, excitable, inert, inhibitory.

The basis for the distinction between the dynamic side of the psyche was laid by the psychologists V. D. Nebylitsyna and B. M. Teplova (in the 50s and 60s of the 20th century). The development of science has made it possible to discover new properties of the nervous system and activity, as well as the work of the brain, subcortex and cortex.

Rusalov proposed a modern interpretation of the properties of temperament based on the theory of the functional system of Anokhin P.K. It is he who proposes the properties of temperament that are responsible for speed, ease of switching from one program to another, the breadth and narrowness of afferent synthesis, as well as the degree of sensitivity to discrepancies in the result.

Temperament: analysis of the main types

These are mobile, often uncontrollable and even unbalanced people who have a thirst for activity. They cannot sit in one place, they need a change of activity.

A choleric person is a workaholic, he works with complete dedication, but reacts violently and hysterically to failures. Often takes on many tasks without completing the rest.

pros

Among the important advantages of this temperament, the following features are noted.

1. Mobility and activity.
2. Quick reaction and good learning ability.
3. Directness and determination, especially in the field of science, work, study.
4. Violent reaction to criticism, but quick response. Such people do not hold grudges for long and forgive quickly.
5. In a dispute, he is resourceful, constantly strives for something new, and is ready to learn almost all his life.
6. Ability to make quick decisions.
7. Emotionality and excellent facial expressions. Often it is the choleric person who becomes a good speaker, capable of raising the masses and preaching various ideas.
8. A quick “ignition” of feelings, but which die out just as quickly.

Cholerics do not complain about lack of sleep. They fall asleep quickly, wake up just as quickly, and sleep soundly. This is a special character trait.

Minuses

Among the negative aspects there are such features.

1. Risk-taking and haste.
2. Lack of patience and loss of interest in endeavors; for a long time a person is unable to concentrate on one thing.
3. Aggressiveness and hot temper, poor reaction to criticism, even fair ones.
4. Impetuosity and harshness in statements.
5. Stubbornness and whims.
6. Mood changes and nervous breakdowns.
7. Impatience with other people's shortcomings, mistakes and failures.

You should not look for all these traits in one person. Psychology takes an individual approach to determining temperament. It often happens that in one person the traits and properties of different temperaments are intertwined.

A choleric person is able to quickly react to various life situations, he is ready to make decisions with lightning speed, and often devotes all his strength to a cause in which he believes. This leads to emotional emptiness and poor health. Conflicts with people may also occur, but one should not forget that a choleric person is an easygoing person, and therefore he will not be angry or offended for a long time.

He is a reliable and reliable person with a calm, easy-going, and often cheerful disposition. Moreover, the nervous system of such a person is often mobile, and his actions are deliberate. A cheerful sanguine person easily and simply endures the hardships of life, solves problems as they arise, does not panic and is not eager to fight. He must think everything over carefully in order to make the only right decision.

pros

Among the character advantages of a sanguine person are the following traits.

1. Sociability and cheerfulness.
2. Constantly fueled interest in different aspects of life.
3. High degree of affection and devotion.
4. An easy attitude towards losses and failures.
5. Quick adaptation to new conditions.
6. Fast learner.
7. The opportunity to quickly join a new team and find friends there.
8. Lack of despondency even in difficult life circumstances.
9. The presence of enthusiasm in a new business.
10. The presence of fortitude and determination.

Sanguine - in many ways positive person who does not cause trouble to others, he becomes a support. Cheerfulness can captivate many, and therefore a sanguine person often becomes the life of the party. This also happens because this person is a good organizer.

Minuses

Among the negative qualities there are such shortcomings.

1. Lack of perseverance, especially if you have to do tedious work.
2. Tendency to overestimate one's own strengths.
3. Mood instability.
4. The possibility of making a mistake due to an easy nature and not fully thought-out decisions.
5. Difficulty in developing strong-willed qualities.
6. Lack of accuracy and determination.

However, a sanguine person easily turns even his negative character traits into positive ones. He has the drive to overcome himself if he wants to.

Among the main qualities of such a person is inertia, which often seems to others to be a manifestation of callousness and indifference. A phlegmatic person is not ready to talk for a long time, to have conversations on various topics - long-term communication is a burden for him, he tries to retire away from the bustle and noise.

A phlegmatic person has increased efficiency; he will cope with those tasks in which choleric and sanguine people will not succeed. Under any circumstances, he remains calm, which is not always clear and acceptable to the people around him.

pros

Among the advantages of a phlegmatic character are the following traits.

1. Calmness in the most difficult life situations.
2. Diligence and stress resistance.
3. Consistency and thoroughness in actions.
4. Perseverance and perseverance, which is especially important for achieving important goals.
5. Ability to perform tedious, boring, and often difficult work. This quality is preserved even in cases where the task is complex and the processes are monotonous.
6. Lack of inclination to affect: impulsiveness and acting under the influence of feelings are not about phlegmatic people.
7. Systematicity in work.
8. No excessive talkativeness.

A phlegmatic person is a person for whom it will be easy and simple to comply with any work schedule or regime. It has excellent endurance.

Minuses

Among the disadvantages of this temperament are the following features.

1. Inability to take criticism. It is useless to scold and criticize such a person.
2. Stubbornness. Although the phlegmatic is an excellent worker, he is still famous for his tediousness.
3. Stinginess with emotions, which is why loved ones often suffer.
4. Weak response to stimuli.
5. Slow adaptation to new circumstances.
6. Constantly following the stereotypes and patterns established for oneself or by society.
7. Lack of ingenuity and resourcefulness.

There is an opinion that phlegmatic people are diligent “bees”, but not inventors and engines of progress.

This is an unbalanced psychotype who is quite sensitive to criticism and changes in circumstances. A melancholic person tends to find negative information for himself even in insignificant facts. Increased sensitivity negatively affects performance, stress tolerance leads to the need for long rest.

Even a minor reason can cause long-term resentment and cause for tears.

pros

The advantages of this character include the following traits.

1. Sensitivity, which affects intellectual and artistic qualities. There are a great many creators among melancholic people.
2. High demands placed on yourself.
3. Excellent understanding of the feelings and desires of loved ones and relatives.
4. Restraint and tact, but these qualities will have to be developed in a melancholic person.
5. Depth of thought and consistency. Among such people there are many thinkers and philosophers.

Minuses

Among the disadvantages are the following features.

1. Excessive emotionality, touchiness.
2. Pessimism.
3. Rare manifestations Have a good mood, which negatively affects people's attitudes.
4. Tearfulness and difficult adaptation to a new team.
5. Difficulty in coping with even rare failures.
6. Minimum circle of close people.

Melancholic people should develop positive character traits, spend more time in public, and remain immune to the words of strangers.

Temperament Tests

Many methods have been created to determine a person’s character and temperament. Scientists are still looking for answers to questions about the human soul. In modern practice, psychologists have taken as a basis several tests to determine the psychotype.

1. According to Rusanov is a questionnaire with 150 questions. They help determine the characteristics of human behavior in various life situations. It is recommended to give an answer quickly and without thinking.
2. According to Belov– involves the demonstration (sequential) of cards, which indicate only 20 qualities inherent in a particular temperament. After reading it, the person himself determines his own.
3. According to Eysenck– 100 questions were proposed that will characterize the peculiarities of a person’s behavior in various situations, his thoughts and feelings.

These tests are not the only ones. Among the popular ones are testing using questionnaires from Shmishek with the theory of Leonhard, Obozov with empirical characteristics personalities and a number of others.

Conclusion

Temperament is not limited to the four psychotypes. Often the traits of one are intertwined with the characteristics of others. At the same time, socially conditioned character traits are superimposed on individual innate characteristics. Over time, the latter may undergo a number of changes under the influence external factors, which also needs to be taken into account.

In addition, it is important to understand that there are no good and bad temperament types. Each of them is unique and positive in its own way, and each has certain disadvantages. You just need to fight bad qualities and develop successful personality traits.

So, temperament should be understood as individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in various activities regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and in their mutual connection characterize the type of temperament. Specific manifestations of the type of temperament are diverse. They are not only noticeable in the external behavior, but seem to permeate all aspects of the psyche, significantly manifesting themselves in cognitive activity, the sphere of feelings, motives and actions of a person, as well as in the nature of mental work, speech characteristics, etc.

Currently, science has enough facts to give a complete psychological description of all types of temperament according to a certain harmonious program. However, to compile the psychological characteristics of the traditional 4 types, the following basic properties of temperament are usually distinguished:

Sensitivity determined by what the smallest force is external influences, necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction in a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.

Reactivity characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of equal strength (a critical remark, an offensive word, a harsh tone - even sound).

Activism indicates how intensely (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (perseverance, focus, concentration).

The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what a person’s activity depends on to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (moods, random events) or on goals, intentions, beliefs.

Plasticity and rigidity indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is.

The pace of reactions characterizes the speed of various mental reactions and processes, the pace of speech, the dynamics of gestures, and the speed of the mind.

Extraversion and introversion determine what a person’s reactions and activities primarily depend on - on external impressions arising at the moment (extrovert), or on images, ideas and thoughts associated with the past and future (introvert).

Emotional excitability is characterized by how weak an impact is necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction and at what speed it occurs.

Taking into account all the listed properties, J. Strelyau gives the following psychological characteristics of the main classical types of temperament:

Sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time his activity and reactivity are balanced. He responds vividly, excitedly to everything that attracts his attention, has lively facial expressions and expressive movements. He laughs loudly for a minor reason, but an insignificant fact can make him very angry. From his face it is easy to guess his mood, attitude towards an object or person. He has a high sensitivity threshold, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes on new work and can work for a long time without getting tired. He is able to concentrate quickly, is disciplined, and, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, fast pace of speech, quick inclusion in new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. A sanguine person easily gets along with new people and quickly gets used to new requirements and surroundings. Without effort, he not only switches from one job to another, but also relearns, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds to a greater extent to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future, an extrovert.

Choleric. Like a sanguine person, he is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, and quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than a sanguine person. Hence - greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater perseverance, difficulties in switching attention are possible, he is more of an extrovert.

Phlegmatic person has high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sadden - when people laugh loudly around him, he can remain calm. In big troubles he remains calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, his movements are inexpressive and slow, just like his speech. He is unresourceful, has difficulty switching attention and adapting to a new environment, and slowly rebuilds skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Characterized by patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he has difficulty meeting new people, responds poorly to external impressions, and is an introvert.

Melancholic. A person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant reason can cause him to cry, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is unsure of himself, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. A melancholic person is not energetic, unstable, gets tired easily and is not very productive. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention and a slow pace of all mental processes. Most melancholic people are introverts.

Temperament and activity

The dynamic traits of a person’s personality appear not only in the external manner of behavior, not only in movements - they also appear in the mental sphere, in the sphere of motivation, in general performance. Naturally, the characteristics of temperament affect educational activities and work activities. But the main thing is that differences in temperament are differences not in the level of mental capabilities, but in the originality of its manifestations.

It has been established that there is no relationship between the level of achievement, i.e. the end result of actions, and characteristics of temperament, if the activity takes place under conditions that can be defined as normal. Thus, regardless of the degree of mobility or reactivity of an individual in a normal, non-stressful situation, performance results will in principle be the same, since the level of achievement will depend mainly on other factors, especially the level of motivation and ability. At the same time, studies establishing this pattern show that depending on the characteristics of temperament, the way of carrying out the activity itself changes.

B.M. Teplov also drew attention to the fact that, depending on the characteristics of their temperament, people differ not in the final result of their actions, but in the way they achieve results. Developing this idea, a number of domestic researchers conducted studies to establish the relationship between the method of performing actions and the characteristics of temperament. These studies examined individual performance style as a path to achieving results or a way of solving a certain task, determined mainly by the type of nervous system. The results of studies by the vast majority of authors, regardless of the characteristics of the groups studied and the experimental situations in which the typical way of performing actions for these individuals was studied, show that it is the type of nervous activity, and above all the strength and mobility of nervous processes, that has a significant impact on the formation of a certain style activities.

Innate characteristics of temperament are manifested in a person in such mental processes that depend on upbringing, social environment and the ability to control one’s reactions. Therefore, according to R.M. Granovskaya, a specific reaction to a situation can be determined both by the influence of characteristic differences in the nervous system and as a result of training and professional experience. For example, a high reaction speed in an experienced driver, pilot, or boxer is not necessarily a natural property of their nervous system; it can also be achieved as a result of training and education. However, the limits of the possible development of reaction speed are determined by the innate properties of the nervous system.

Professional selection helps to select applicants with the most suitable psychophysiological qualities for a given specialty, since some of the qualities required by some professions are difficult to train and are limited by the properties of temperament. For example, it is known that a poorly developed sense of time or a low speed of motor reaction can be developed through individual training only within certain limits. For the purpose of professional selection, tests have been developed to assess the characteristics of attention, the accuracy of time estimation, the speed of motor reaction, etc. in relation to various specialties. Not only professional selection is important, but also career guidance, i.e. the choice by each person of a work activity that would correspond not only to his interests, but also to his individual characteristics and capabilities. Research shows that individuals who have undergone professional specialization taking into account their psychophysiological characteristics experience great satisfaction from their work, which has the most favorable effect on their productivity.

A person’s work productivity is closely related to the characteristics of his temperament. Thus, the special mobility (reactivity) of a sanguine person can bring an additional effect if the work requires a change in objects of communication, type of occupation, or frequent transition from one rhythm of life to another. A false impression may be created that inert people (phlegmatic people) do not have advantages in any type of activity, but this is not true: it is they who carry out slow and smooth movements especially easily, they show a preference for stereotypical methods of action, punctually observing the once accepted order. People with a weak nervous system - melancholic people - are more motivated to perform simpler actions than others, they are less tired and irritated from their repetition. It has been experimentally shown that sanguine and choleric people show less resistance and reduced productivity in situations where conditions and methods of activity are strictly regulated and do not allow the inclusion of individual techniques.

In order to optimize training and education, it is important for a teacher to take into account the possible type of temperament of his students in his activities. Here is the advice R.M. Granovskaya gives: it is useful to control the activities of a choleric person as often as possible; when working with him, harshness and lack of restraint are unacceptable, as they can cause a negative response. At the same time, any of his actions must be demanding; and fairly priced. At the same time, negative assessments are necessary only in a very vigorous form and as often as necessary to improve the results of his work or study. A sanguine person should be constantly given new, if possible interesting, tasks that require concentration and tension from him. It is necessary to constantly include him in active activities and systematically encourage his efforts.

A phlegmatic person needs to be involved in active activities and interested. It requires systematic attention. It cannot be quickly switched from one task to another. In relation to a melancholic person, not only harshness and rudeness are unacceptable, but also simply a raised tone and irony. It is better to talk to him alone about the offense committed by a melancholic person. He demands special attention, you should praise him in time for his demonstrated success, determination and will. Negative assessment should be used as carefully as possible, mitigating its negative effect in every possible way. Melancholic is the most sensitive and vulnerable type. You have to be extremely soft and friendly with him.

Thus, the way a person implements his actions depends on temperament, but their content does not depend on it. Temperament is manifested in the peculiarities of the course of mental processes, affecting the speed of recollection and the strength of memorization, the fluency of mental operations, the stability and switchability of attention.

CHARACTER

In psychology, the concept character(from the Greek charakter - “seal”, “minting”), means a set of stable individual characteristics of a person that develop and manifest themselves in activity and communication, determining typical modes of behavior for it.

When determining the character of a person, they do not say that such and such a person showed courage, truthfulness, frankness, that this person is courageous, truthful, frank, i.e. the named qualities are the properties of a given person, his character traits that can manifest themselves under appropriate circumstances. Knowing a person’s character makes it possible, with a significant degree of probability, to anticipate and thereby correct expected actions and actions. They often say about a person with character: “He had to do exactly this, he could not have acted this way, he could not have acted differently - that’s his character.”

However, not all human features can be considered characteristic, but only significant and stable ones. If a person, for example, is not polite enough in a stressful situation, this does not mean that rudeness and intemperance are a property of his character. Sometimes even very cheerful people can feel sad, but this will not make them whiners and pessimists.

Acting as a person’s lifetime education, character is determined and formed throughout a person’s life. The way of life includes the way of thoughts, feelings, motives, actions in their unity. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, the person himself is formed. A big role here is played by social conditions and specific life circumstances in which a person’s life path takes place, based on his natural properties and as a result of his actions and actions. However, the actual formation of character occurs in groups of different levels of development (family, friendly company, class, sports team, work team, etc.). Depending on which group is the reference group for the individual and what values ​​it supports and cultivates in its environment, the corresponding character traits will develop in its members. Character traits will also depend on the individual’s position in the group, on how he integrates into it. In a team as a group high level development, the most favorable opportunities are created for the development of better character traits. This process is mutual, and thanks to the development of the individual, the team itself develops.

The content of character, reflecting social influences, constitutes the life orientation of the individual, i.e. her material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc. The orientation of the individual determines the goals, life plan person, the degree of his vital activity. The character of a person presupposes the presence of something significant for him in the world, in life, something on which the motives of his actions, the goals of his actions, the tasks that he sets for himself depend.

Crucial to understanding character is the relationship between what is socially and personally significant for a person. Every society has its own most important and essential tasks. It is on them that the character of people is formed and tested. Therefore, the concept of “character” refers to a greater extent to the relationship of these objectively existing tasks. Therefore, character is not just any manifestation of firmness, perseverance, etc. (formal persistence may simply be stubbornness), but a focus on socially significant activities. It is the orientation of the individual that underlies unity, integrity, and strength of character. Possessing goals in life is the main condition for the formation of character. A spineless person is characterized by the absence or scattering of goals. However, the character and orientation of a person are not the same thing. Both a decent, highly moral person and a person with low, unscrupulous thoughts can be good-natured and cheerful. The orientation of the individual leaves an imprint on all human behavior. And although behavior is determined not by one impulse, but by an integral system of relationships, in this system something always comes to the fore, dominating it, giving a person’s character a unique flavor.

In a formed character, the leading component is a belief system. Conviction determines the long-term direction of a person’s behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals, confidence in the justice and importance of the work he is doing. Character traits are closely related to a person’s interests, provided that these interests are stable and deep. Superficiality and instability of interests are often associated with great imitation, with a lack of independence and integrity of a person’s personality. And, conversely, the depth and content of interests indicate the purposefulness and perseverance of the individual. Similarity of interests does not imply similar character traits. Thus, among rationalizers one can find cheerful and sad people, modest and obsessive people, egoists and altruists.

Indicative for understanding character can also be a person’s attachments and interests associated with his leisure time. They reveal new features, facets of character: for example, L.N. Tolstoy was fond of playing chess, I.P. Pavlov - small towns, D.I. Mendeleev - reading adventure novels. Whether a person’s spiritual and material needs and interests dominate is determined not only by the thoughts and feelings of the individual, but also by the direction of his activity. No less important is the correspondence of a person’s actions to the goals set, since a person is characterized not only by what he does, but also by how he does it. Character can only be understood as a certain unity of direction and course of action.

People with similar orientations can take completely different paths to achieving goals, using their own special techniques and methods to achieve this. This dissimilarity also determines the specific character of the individual. Character traits, having a certain motivating force, are clearly manifested in the situation of choosing actions or methods of behavior. From this point of view, the degree of expression of an individual's achievement motivation - his need to achieve success - can be considered as a character trait. Depending on this, some people are characterized by a choice of actions that ensure success (showing initiative, competitive activity, risk-taking, etc.), while others are more likely to simply avoid failures (deviation from risk and responsibility, avoidance manifestations of activity, initiative, etc.).

Teaching about character - characterology has a long history of development. The most important problems of characterology for centuries have been the establishment of character types and their definition by their manifestations in order to predict human behavior in various situations. Since character is the lifetime formation of a personality, most of its existing classifications are based on grounds that are external, indirect factors in personality development.

One of the most ancient attempts to predict human behavior is to explain his character by his date of birth. Various ways of predicting the fate and character of a person are called horoscopes. Practically, all horoscopes are compiled in the same way: the generally accepted time period is divided into certain intervals, each of which is assigned a specific sign or symbol. A description of a person’s character is given through the prism of the various properties of this symbol. However, the characters of people born at the same time, according to different horoscopes turn out to be different. So, for example, in accordance with the horoscope of the Druids, who connect human characters with trees, a person born between December 22 and January 1 is an apple tree. According to the horoscope, the apple tree is rarely tall, there is a lot of cuteness in it, a lot of charm, and warmth. Inspires the idea of ​​love, even when she herself doesn’t think about it. By astrological signs The zodiac sign of a person born between December 22 and January 20 is Capricorn. According to this horoscope, this suggests a stubborn character, the most persistent, hardy, hidden, secretly proud. Lives in reality, overcoming troubles and obstacles. Eastern horoscopes establish 12-year cycles, each of which passes under the sign of an animal. A person born in a certain year receives a number of innate properties, according to which his character is formed. However, comparison of the characteristics of similar animals in the Japanese or, say, Chinese horoscopes also differs significantly.

No less popular are attempts to connect a person’s character with his name. Recently, this branch of characterology has received a new impetus for development. Theorists of this direction believe that the determining influence of a person’s name on his character is caused by the following factors. On the one hand, the maximum rate of muscle tissue growth in a child is observed in the first months of life, on the other hand, at the same time, the most frequent range of sounds that the child observes is his own name. The baby does not imitate heard sounds, but imitates voiced facial expressions. As a result, the child’s nerve impulses are reflexively excited in precisely those muscle groups - facial, articulatory and respiratory - that are involved in pronouncing the name. Metabolism in the muscles where the impulse occurs accelerates against the backdrop of already rapid growth. In the end, these small, but noticeable in their influence on the structure of facial muscles, facial muscles will be accentuatedly developed. This is why people with same names similar to each other. The character of Antonov is formed in a similar way - contradictory, stubborn, persistent; Vladimirov's is thinner and more solid; Boris, on the other hand, is prone to leadership, proud, balanced, but not without ardor, etc.

A significant influence on the development of characterology was exerted by physiognomy (from the Greek physis - “nature”, gnomon - “knowing”) - the doctrine of the connection between the external appearance of a person and his belonging to a certain type of personality, thanks to which the psychological characteristics of this person can be established by external signs type. Aristotle and Plato already proposed to determine a person’s character by looking for similarities in his appearance with some animal, and then identifying his character, as in the eastern horoscope, with the character of this animal. So, according to Aristotle, a thick nose like a bull’s meant laziness, a wide nose with large nostrils like a pig’s - stupidity, a nose like a lion’s - importance, thin hair like the wool of goats, sheep and hares - timidity, coarse hair, like lions and boars - courage.

The most famous was the physiognomic system of Johann Kasper Lavater, who considered the main way to understand human character to be the study of the structure of the head, the configuration of the skull, facial expressions, etc. Thus, Goethe’s genius, according to Lavater, is best evidenced by his nose, which “marks productivity, taste and love - in a word, poetry.”

When determining a person’s character, physiognomists used a variety of characteristics as defining characteristics. So, in addition to the nose, attention was paid to the person’s mouth. Lavater in his “physiognomy” wrote: “Everything that human nature contains is put into his mouth. Both in their calm state and in the endless variety of their movements, they contain a whole world of characters. They are the main residence of reason and madness, strength and weakness, virtue and vice, the delicacy of human rudeness, they are the residence of love and hatred, sincerity and hypocrisy, humility and pride, truth and lies.” And Delestre noted that the degree of pursing of the lips is directly proportional to the strength of character; relaxed lips are a sign of possessing “feminine” character traits (gentleness, courtesy), and the more, the more pronounced (in a stupid person, for example, the mouth is generally open). This was explained by the fact that even when a person laughs, a certain mask reflexively appears on his face, correspondingly associated with character. A smile can be complacent, sweet, happy, bright, cold, mocking, meek, stupid, etc. A person’s characteristic attitudes are manifested not only in the facial expressions of his mouth, but also in his speech. A person’s character is revealed both in the content of speech, i.e. in what a given person mainly talks about, and in the form of speech, in the way he speaks. Great writers often emphasized the character of the heroes of their works through their speech. Prostakova’s shout: “Lie down!” Oh, she's a beast! Lying down! As if she were noble!..” - testifies to the heartlessness, rudeness, and cruelty of the “noble” noblewoman towards her devoted Eremeevna.

However, the most important indicator character were the man's eyes. Even the ancients said: “The eyes are the mirror of the soul.” Aristotle pointed out that large, good-natured, but bulging eyes are a sign of stupidity. L.N. Tolstoy distinguished, for example, cunning eyes, radiant, bright eyes, sad, cold, lifeless. He wrote: “There are people whose only eyes laugh - these are cunning and selfish people. There are people whose mouth laughs without eyes - these are weak, indecisive people, and both of these laughter are unpleasant.”

Currently, they are trying to provide scientific evidence for these purely fictional facts. American psychologists J. Glaive and E. Clery, after a five-year study of the character traits of approximately 10 thousand children, proved that children with dark eyes have more life, initiative and a more restless character than children with light eyes. In adults, some deviations are possible. The authors claim that people with dark blue eyes are very assertive, but tend to be sentimental. They are easily moody, remember grievances for a long time, are capricious, and sometimes their actions are unpredictable. People with dark gray eyes are stubborn and courageous, they are persistent and achieve their goals, despite various difficulties. They can be quick-tempered and vindictive. Jealous for the most part monogamous. Those who have dark brown eyes are cheerful, witty, quick-tempered, but easy-going. They are amorous, but not very constant. As a rule, they are sociable, love humor, and get along with people easily. They often act rashly, after which they are tormented by remorse. Owners of light brown eyes are shy, prone to solitude, dreamy, and have a hard time bearing the insult inflicted on them. They are hardworking, diligent, you can rely on them - they will not let you down. Blue eyes indicate romantic inclinations, but at the same time, selfishness and conceit. Blue-eyed people easily give in to impulses, but quickly cool down. Their undoubtedly positive feature is truthfulness. As for people with green and gray-green eyes, as J. Glaive and E. Clery assure, in most cases they have a strong will, are decisive and strictly follow their goal. They are characterized by consistency. They can be tough and intractable.

As a separate area of ​​characterology, one can distinguish the determination of the individual characteristics of a person by his posture and body position. According to some psychologists, character is most clearly revealed in a person’s posture: how he stands, how he walks, how he sits, and even in what position he falls asleep. In ordinary consciousness, for example, there is an opinion that arrogant people more often tilt their body back, stick out their chest, throwing their head back. The sycophant leans forward with an ingratiating gaze, although there is a barely noticeable sly laugh in the corners of his eyes, and a wide, obsequious smile on his face.

And here is how women are characterized by the position in which they sit on a chair, modern characterologies. If a woman prefers to sit on the edge of a chair, squeezing her knees, then she is very active, cheerful, and restless. Constantly grabs onto everything without finishing what he starts. They are too impatient, but they involve in any undertaking even those who do not like this or that work. Their whole day passes in troubles, but there is no end in sight for them in the following days. A criss-cross position at the knees, legs extended forward, and hands resting on the knees - the type of selfish, self-righteous, narcissistic women. She tries to attract attention to herself at any cost and strives to show herself smarter than others in all matters. If she fails, she becomes aggressive or retires to a dark corner. Too curious. Legs stretched forward, one slightly in front of the other, “speak” of an unstable, quarrelsome character. These women believe that they know everything, and only in exceptional cases admit their mistakes. Their persistence in convincing their interlocutor that they are right quickly becomes boring. Despite this, their arguments are often irresistible, and in many issues logic is on their side.

No less famous and rich history Palmistry has a different direction than the physiognomic direction in characterology. Palmistry (from the Greek cheir - “hand” and manteia - “fortune telling”, “prophecy”) is a system for predicting a person’s character traits and his fate based on the skin texture of the palms. Palmistry has been known since ancient times, but its greatest flourishing occurred in the 16th-18th centuries, when many universities in Europe had departments of palmistry. In its origins, palmistry is closely related to astrology, since the main signs of the hand that are taken into account are the “7 hills” on the palm, called by the names of the Sun and planets: Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Mars and the Moon.

Until recently, scientific psychology invariably rejected palmistry, but the study of the embryonic development of finger patterns in connection with heredity gave impetus to the emergence of a new branch of knowledge - dermatoglyphics. In particular, it was shown that the formation of the pattern of the palms of each person, as well as the development of the brain, occurs at 3-4 months intrauterine development and is caused by the same influence of the gene set of the parents or chromosomal abnormalities of the fetus. Therefore, palmistry should be considered rather as an anatomical or physiological feature of the body, and it can be put on a par with the constitutional direction of characterology, of which E. Kretschmer was a prominent representative. Kretschmer considered character in connection with the structure of the body as the mental constitution of a person corresponding to his bodily constitution, and explained character, ultimately, by innate, primarily endocrine factors.

However, at present, neither anthropology, nor anatomy, nor psychology has any reliable data that a person’s character depends on the structure of the body, facial configuration, eye color, etc. Does it follow from this that determining a person’s character based on studying his appearance is impossible? It probably makes sense to recall the statement of Charles Darwin that it is essential for a physiognomist to know that “... each individual primarily contracts only certain muscles of the face, following his personal inclinations. These muscles may be more developed, and therefore the lines and wrinkles of the face formed by their habitual contraction may become deeper and more visible.” The connection between a person’s appearance and his character is clearly visible in literary works, and in the depiction of the great masters of portraiture. However, scientific psychology proceeds from the position that the relationship between a person’s habitual facial expression and his character is not unambiguous. This or that facial expression, folds, wrinkles can have a variety of causes. And here one cannot but agree with A.V. Petrovsky that the reason for a slightly open mouth can be not only a person’s stupidity, but also deafness, a sore nasopharynx, and intense attention.

The most vivid, clear idea of ​​a person’s character can be obtained by knowing the specifics of his actions, behavior, and activities. Movements and actions, the implementation of which becomes a need under certain conditions, are known as habits. Here it is appropriate to recall the Eastern proverb: “Sow an action and you will reap a habit, sow a habit and you will reap a character, sow a character and you will reap a destiny.” The emphasis in it is on the habitual actions of a person, which, when repeated, become character traits, making up his being, influencing a person’s position in public life and the attitude towards him from other people. This was also pointed out by Andre and Gaston Durville, according to whom, expression is a gesture consolidated by long repetition. The idea and its external image are closely related. That is why the movements of musicians are beautiful and harmonious, but weak-minded people are usually awkward in their movements. Fearful people, as the Durvilles believe, betray themselves with discordant gestures. This is caused by “the irrational fears that rush through their minds. Their eyebrows, foreheads, lips, arms, legs also gesticulate randomly. If they want to say something, they cannot because of their stuttering. It is common for them to break a chair, sit on someone’s hat, spill tea, etc.”

In this regard, graphology can be considered more valuable in diagnostic terms compared to, say, physiognomy - a science that considers handwriting as a type of expressive movements that reflect the psychological properties of the writer. Graphological information, accumulated over centuries, established a connection between two series of facts - features of handwriting and character. Some connections were quite obvious: “The eccentric (original) writes in a unique way, so it’s easy to recognize him.” Others are not so clear: “A strong slope expresses great impressionability.”

In those days when writing was a professional art - calligraphy, it seemed obvious that writing was connected not only with the technique, skills and abilities of the author, but also with his spiritual and moral character. The calligrapher was presented with the most severe demands of asceticism, because for pure writing a person was needed, endowed with enormous self-control, with a rigid internal organization, in order to completely master the handwriting, so that nothing superfluous would penetrate from the psyche into the letter, nothing distorting the form. At present, unambiguous connections between the graphic features of writing and the supposedly corresponding character traits have not been confirmed. The dependence of handwriting on the emotional state and some typological properties of higher nervous activity has been most reliably established. Specific features of handwriting are used to diagnose certain mental illnesses. For example, the handwriting of patients with schizophrenia is often pretentious and deliberately stylized.

Even N.A. Bernstein noted that what distinguishes the mechanics of the movement of a living organism most of all from the movement of a machine is the “redundancy of the degree of freedom.” The same action can be performed in many ways, so in each action it is possible to identify something that can be associated with the personal meaning of this action. Thanks to this, writers can convey the character of their hero very accurately. So, for example, M. Yuler-montov wrote in the story “A Hero of Our Time”: “His gait was careless, lazy, but I noticed that he did not wave his arms - a sure sign of some secrecy.”

The most objective and irrefutable data about a person’s character is provided not by his passport data, not by his external appearance, not by his involuntary actions, but by his conscious behavior. It is by the choice of possible actions that a person chooses in a given situation that his character is assessed. Human character is quite multifaceted. This can be seen already in the process of activity: one does everything quickly, the other - slowly and thoroughly, thinks carefully, acting for sure, and the third immediately gets to work without thinking, and only after a certain period of time, without solving the problem at once, looks around and coordinates its actions taking into account the circumstances. These features identified in human behavior are called traits, or aspects, of character. Any trait is some stable stereotype of behavior.

However, character traits cannot be extracted from the typical situations in which they appear, and, as noted above, in some situations even a polite person can be rude. Therefore, any character trait is a stable form of behavior in connection with specific situations typical for a given type of behavior.

According to Yu.M. Orlov, along with situations in which a certain human trait is revealed, its essential characteristic is the likelihood that this type of behavior will take place in a given situation. A trait can be spoken of as a stable characteristic of a person if the probability of its manifestation in a certain situation is quite high. However, probability means that this trait does not always appear, otherwise it would simply be a matter of mechanical behavior. This understanding of character traits is very similar to the manifestation of a person’s habit: under certain conditions, to act in a certain way. A trait such as altruism can manifest itself in the habit of providing help to everyone who needs it. A habit cannot always become a character trait; it is only a predisposition to act accordingly. A character trait includes a certain way of thinking and understanding. When performing a characteristic act, volitional mechanisms are included, and feelings are involved. Habit does not include these components. At the same time, by conditioning a person’s behavior, character traits are formed in behavior. To become an altruist, you must constantly help people, although the first altruistic act could be caused by a random impulse. The formation of character traits cannot be separated from the formation of behavioral motives. Motives of behavior, realized in action, consolidated in it, are fixed in character. Every effective motive; which acquires stability, according to S.L. Rubinstein, is potentially a future character trait in its genesis. In motives, character traits first appear in the form of tendencies; action then leads them into stable properties. The path to the formation of character traits therefore lies through the formation of appropriate motives of behavior and the organization of actions aimed at consolidating them.

The most common character properties are located along the axes: strength - weakness; hardness - softness; integrity - inconsistency; breadth - narrowness. If strength of character is understood as the energy with which a person pursues his goals, his ability to become passionately carried away and develop great tension when encountering difficulties, the ability to overcome them, then weakness of character is associated with the manifestation of cowardice, indecision, “asthenicity” in achieving a goal, instability of views, cowardice, etc. Strength of character means strict consistency, perseverance in achieving goals, defending views, etc., while softness of character is manifested in flexible adaptation to changing conditions, achieving goals through some concessions, and finding reasonable compromises. The integrity or inconsistency of character is determined by the degree of combination of leading and secondary character traits. If the leading and secondary traits are in harmony, if there are no contradictions in aspirations and interests, then such a character is called integral, but if they sharply contrast, then it is contradictory. When they want to highlight a property that indicates the versatility of a person’s aspirations and hobbies, the diversity of his activities, they talk about the breadth or completeness of character. About such a person we can say that nothing human is alien to them. As a rule, these are expansive people who are always able to give of themselves with great spiritual generosity in such a way that they do not lose, but are enriched by becoming familiar with ever new spiritual content. In contrast, people with a “narrow” character are prone to self-restraint, narrowing the scope of their interests, claims, and activities.

At the same time, unity and versatility of character do not exclude the fact that in different situations the same person exhibits different and even opposite properties. A person can be at the same time very gentle and very demanding, soft and compliant and at the same time firm to the point of inflexibility. And the unity of his character can not only be preserved, despite this, but it is precisely in this that it can be manifested.

Character is often compared with temperament, and in some cases these concepts are replaced with each other. In science, among the dominant views on the relationship between character and temperament, four main ones can be distinguished:

Identification of character and temperament (E. Kretschmer, A. Ruzhitsky);

Contrasting character and temperament, emphasizing the antagonism between them (P. Viktorov, V. Virenius);

Recognition of temperament as an element of character, its core, an unchangeable part (S.L. Rubinstein, S. Gorodetsky);

Recognition of temperament as the natural basis of character (L.S. Vygotsky, B. Gananiev).

Based on the materialistic understanding of human phenomena, it should be noted that what character and temperament have in common is dependence on the physiological characteristics of a person, and above all on the type of nervous system. The formation of character significantly depends on the properties of temperament, which is more closely related to the properties of the nervous system. In addition, character traits arise when temperament is already sufficiently developed. Character develops on the basis of temperament. Temperament determines such traits in character as balanced or unbalanced behavior, ease or difficulty of entering a new situation, mobility or inertia of reaction, etc. However, temperament does not determine character. People with the same temperamental properties can have completely different characters. Features of temperament can promote or counteract the formation of certain character traits. Thus, it is more difficult for a melancholic person to develop courage and determination than for a choleric person. It is more difficult for a choleric person to develop restraint than for a phlegmatic person; a phlegmatic person needs to spend more effort to become sociable than a sanguine person, etc.

However, according to B.G. Ananiev, if education consisted only of improving and strengthening natural properties, this would lead to a monstrous uniformity of development. The specialization of education, for example, of a melancholic person, could only lead to the fact that he would turn into a hypermelancholic person, into a mimosa-like creature. Cultivating the properties of a phlegmatic person could be a consequence of creating a difficult style of mental activity, lack of flexibility, etc. This does not happen, because as the personality develops and the influence of the social environment increases, the relationship between character and temperament changes. By mastering his needs, feelings, and thoughts on the basis of the development of character and will, a person begins to influence the manifestation of his temperament and transform it. Probably, I.P. Pavlov had this in mind when he distinguished active phlegmatic people from lazy phlegmatic people.

The properties of temperament may, to some extent, even come into conflict with character. In P.I. Tchaikovsky, the tendency to melancholic experiences was overcome by one of the main features of his character - his ability to work. “You always need to work,” he said, “and every honest artist cannot sit with folded hands under the pretext that he is not in the mood. If you wait for favor and do not try to meet it halfway, you can easily fall into laziness and apathy. Dislikes very rarely happen to me. I attribute this to the fact that I am gifted with patience, and I train myself never to give in to reluctance. I learned to conquer myself."

In a person with a formed character, temperament ceases to be an independent form of personality manifestation, but becomes its dynamic side, consisting in a certain emotional orientation of character properties, a certain speed of mental processes and personality manifestations, a certain characteristic of expressive movements and actions of the individual. Here it should be noted the influence exerted on the formation of character by a dynamic stereotype, i.e. a system of conditioned reflexes that form in response to a steadily repeating system of stimuli. The formation of dynamic stereotypes in a person in various repeated situations is influenced by his attitude to the situation, as a result of which excitation, inhibition, mobility of nervous processes, and, consequently, the general functional state of the nervous system can change. It is also necessary to note the decisive role in the formation of dynamic stereotypes of the second signaling system, through which social influences are carried out.

Ultimately, the traits of temperament and character are organically connected and interact with each other in a single holistic appearance of a person, forming an inseparable alloy - an integral characteristic of his individuality.

Character has long been identified with a person’s will; the expression “a person of character” was considered as a synonym for the expression “a strong-willed person.” Will is associated primarily with strength of character, its firmness, determination, and perseverance. When they say that a person has a strong character, they seem to want to emphasize his determination, his strong-willed qualities. In this sense, a person’s character is best manifested in overcoming difficulties, in struggle, i.e. in those conditions where human will is most manifested. But character is not limited to strength; it has content that guides it, determining how the will will function under different conditions. On the one hand, character is formed in volitional actions and is manifested in them: volitional actions in situations that are significant for the individual pass into a person’s character, becoming fixed in him as his relatively stable properties; these properties, in turn, determine human behavior and his volitional actions. The strong-willed character is distinguished by certainty, constancy and independence, firmness in achieving the intended goal. On the other hand, there are often cases when a weak-willed person was called “spineless.” From a psychological point of view, this is not entirely true - and a weak-willed person has certain character traits, such as, for example, timidity, indecisiveness, etc. The use of the concept “characterless” means the unpredictability of a person’s behavior, indicates that he lacks his own direction, an internal core that would determine his behavior. His actions are caused by external influences and do not depend on himself.

The originality of character is also reflected in the peculiarities of the flow of a person’s feelings. K.D. Ushinsky pointed out this: “Nothing, neither words, nor thoughts, nor even our actions express ourselves and our attitude to the world so clearly and truly as our feelings: in them one can hear the character of not a separate thought, not a separate decisions, but the entire content of our soul and its structure.” The connection between feelings and character traits of a person is also reciprocal. On the one hand, the level of development of moral, aesthetic, and intellectual feelings depends on the nature of a person’s activity and communication and on the character traits formed on this basis. On the other hand, these feelings themselves become characteristic, stable personality traits, thus constituting a person’s character. The level of development of a sense of duty, a sense of humor and other complex feelings is a rather indicative characteristic of a person.

The relationship between a person’s intellectual traits is especially important for characterological manifestations. The depth and sharpness of thought, the unusual way of posing a question and its solution, intellectual initiative, confidence and independence of thinking - all this constitutes the originality of the mind as one of the aspects of character. However, how a person uses his mental abilities will depend significantly on character. It is not uncommon to encounter people who have high intellectual abilities, but who do not provide anything valuable precisely because of their characterological characteristics. An example of this is the numerous literary images of superfluous people (Pechorin, Rudin, Beltov, etc.). As I. S. Turgenev said well through the mouth of one of the characters in the novel about Rudin: “Perhaps there is genius in him, but there is no nature.” Thus, a person’s real achievements depend not on abstract mental capabilities alone, but on a specific combination of his characteristics and characterological properties.

In the very general view All character traits can be divided into basic, leading, setting the general direction for the development of the entire complex of its manifestations, and secondary, determined by the main ones. Thus, if we consider such traits as indecisiveness, fearfulness and altruism, then when the former predominate, a person is first of all constantly afraid that “something might not work out” and all attempts to help his neighbor usually end in internal experiences and searches for justification. If the leading trait is the second one - altruism, then the person does not outwardly show any hesitation, immediately goes to help, controlling his behavior with his intellect, but at the same time he may sometimes have doubts about the correctness of the actions taken.

Knowledge of the leading traits allows you to reflect the basic essence of character and show its main manifestations. Writers and artists, wanting to give an idea of ​​the character of the hero, first of all describe his leading, core features. Thus, A.S. Pushkin put into the mouth of Vorotynsky (in the tragedy “Boris Godunov”) an exhaustive description of Shuisky - “a crafty courtier.” Some heroes of literary works reflect certain typical character traits so deeply and correctly that their names become household names (Khlestakov, Manilov, Oblomov, Korchagin, etc.).

Although every character trait reflects one of the manifestations of a person’s attitude to reality, this does not mean that every attitude will be a character trait. Only some attitudes, depending on the conditions, become character traits. From the totality of a person’s relationships to the surrounding reality, character-building forms of relationships should be distinguished. The most important distinctive feature Such relationships are decisive, primary and general vital significance of those objects to which a person belongs. These relationships simultaneously serve as the basis for the classification of the most important character traits. A person’s character is manifested in a system of relationships:

1. In relation to other people (in this case, one can distinguish such character traits as sociability - isolation, truthfulness - deceit, tactfulness - rudeness, etc.).

2. In relation to business (responsibility - dishonesty, hard work - laziness, etc.).

3. In relation to oneself (modesty - narcissism, self-criticism - self-confidence, pride - humiliation, etc.).

4. In relation to property (generosity - greed, frugality - wastefulness, neatness - sloppiness, etc.). It should be noted that this classification is somewhat conventional and there is a close relationship and interpenetration of these aspects of the relationship. So, for example, if a person is rude, then this concerns his relationship with people; but if at the same time he works as a teacher, then here it is already necessary to talk about his attitude to the matter (dishonesty), about his attitude towards himself (narcissism).

Despite the fact that these relationships are the most important from the point of view of character formation, they do not simultaneously and immediately become character traits. There is a certain sequence in the transition of these relationships into character properties, and in this sense it is impossible to put, for example, the attitude towards other people and the attitude towards property, since their very content plays a different role in the real existence of a person. A person’s attitude towards society and people plays a decisive role in the formation of character. The character of a person cannot be revealed and understood outside the team, without taking into account his attachments in the form of camaraderie, friendship, love, etc.

In characterological terms, the most significant is not so much the quantitative characteristic as its qualitative aspects: on what basis and how does a person establish contact with other people, how does he relate to people of different social status - higher and lower, older and younger, people of the other sex . During long-term communication, the mutual influence of people on each other often leaves a significant imprint on their character, and both mutual assimilation is possible, when people, as a result of a long life together, become similar to each other, and the emergence of traits that are opposite, but complementary. However, the leading ones are such relationships, such forms of communication that are formed in work and activity.

A person’s relationships with other people are decisive in relation to activity, generating increased activity, tension, rationalization or, on the contrary, complacency and lack of initiative. The attitude towards other people and towards activity, in turn, determines the person’s attitude towards his own personality, towards himself. A correct, evaluative attitude towards another person is the main condition for self-esteem. It follows that the attitude towards other people is not only an important part of character, but also forms the basis for the formation of a person’s self-awareness, necessarily including the attitude towards oneself as an actor, which depends primarily on the very form of activity. When an activity changes, not only the subject, methods and operations of this activity change, but at the same time a restructuring of the attitude towards oneself as an actor occurs.

Despite the fact that character refers to individual characteristics of a person, in the structure of character it is possible to identify traits common to a certain group of people. Even in the most original person you can find some trait (for example, unusualness, unpredictability of behavior), the possession of which allows you to classify him into a group of people with similar behavior. In this case, we should talk about typical character traits. N.D. Levitov believes that a character type is a specific expression in the individual character of traits common to a certain group of people. Indeed, as noted, character is not innate - it is formed in the life and activity of a person as a representative of a certain group, a certain society. Therefore, a person’s character is always a product of society, which explains the similarities and differences in the characters of people belonging to different groups.

Individual character reflects a variety of typical traits: national, professional, age. Thus, people of the same nationality are in living conditions that have developed over many generations and experience the specific features of national life; develop under the influence of the existing national structure and language. Therefore, people of one nationality differ from people of another in their lifestyle, habits, rights, and character. These typical features are often recorded by everyday consciousness in various installations and stereotypes. Most people have a formed image of a representative of one country or another: an American, a Scot, an Italian, a Chinese, etc. Refracting in a unique way, national characteristics reveal typical features inherent in preschoolers, adolescents, elderly people, etc. It is not difficult to describe the typical character of a teacher, doctor, or military man; at the same time, each typical character has its own individual traits. Thus, in literature there are many images of misers, i.e. people in whose minds the passion for hoarding is sharply expressed (Plyushkin, Gobsek, Stingy Knight etc.), but each of them is an individual.

Despite its stability, the character type has a certain plasticity. Under the influence of life circumstances of upbringing, the demands of society, the type of character changes and develops. It is enough to trace the dynamics of the development of the character of a person who has devoted himself to the teaching profession. Consistently going through the stages, they become professional by accentuation of character. In practice, accentuation is a limiting value, an extreme variant of the manifestation of the norm. Accentuation of character is characterized by increased vulnerability only to a certain kind of psychotraumatic influences, addressed to the so-called “place of least resistance” of this type of character while maintaining resistance to others. This weak link in a person’s character manifests itself only in situations that place increased demands on the functioning of this particular link. In all other situations that do not affect vulnerable points of character, the individual behaves without breakdowns, without causing trouble either to others or to himself.

Depending on the degree of expression, a distinction is made between overt and covert (latent) character accentuations. Explicit, or pronounced, accentuations are considered to be at the extreme limit of the norm and are distinguished by permanent features of a certain type of character. Hidden accentuation is a common variant of the norm, weakly expressed or not expressed at all. Such accentuations can appear unexpectedly under the influence of situations and traumas that place demands on the place of least resistance, while psychogenic factors of a different kind, even severe ones, not only do not cause mental disorders, but may not even reveal the type of character. Both types of accentuations can transform into each other under the influence of various factors, among which the characteristics of family upbringing, social environment, professional activity, etc. play an important role.

Since character accentuations border on the corresponding types of psychopathic disorders, their typology is based on a detailed classification of such disorders in psychiatry, nevertheless reflecting the mental properties of character healthy person. Due to the fact that most character accentuations take shape by adolescence and are often most clearly manifested there, it is advisable to consider the classification of accentuation using the example of adolescents. This typology, proposed by A.E. Lichko [Lichko A.E. Adolescent psychiatry. L., 1979], includes the following accentuations:

1. Hyperthymic type. Teenagers of this type are distinguished by their mobility, sociability, and a penchant for mischief. They always make a lot of noise into the events happening around them, and they love the restless company of their peers. Despite good general abilities, they show restlessness, lack of discipline, and study unevenly. Their mood is always good and upbeat. They often have conflicts with adults, parents, and teachers. Such teenagers have many different hobbies, but these hobbies, as a rule, are superficial and quickly pass. Teenagers of the hyperthymic type often overestimate their abilities, are too self-confident, strive to show off, boast, and impress others.

2. Cyclocdytic type. It is characterized by increased irritability and a tendency to apathy. Teenagers of this type prefer to be at home alone instead of being somewhere with their peers. They have a hard time with even minor troubles and react extremely irritably to comments. Their mood periodically changes from elated to depressed (hence the name of this type) with periods of approximately two to three weeks.

3. Labile type. This type is extremely changeable in mood, and it is often unpredictable. The reasons for an unexpected change in mood can be the most insignificant, for example, someone accidentally dropped an offensive word, someone’s unfriendly look. All of them “are capable of sinking into despondency and a gloomy mood in the absence of any serious troubles or failures.” Much in their psychology and behavior depends on the momentary mood of these teenagers. According to this mood, the present and future for them can be colored either with rosy or gloomy colors. Such teenagers, when they are in a depressed mood, are in dire need of help and support from those who could improve their mood, who can distract them, cheer them up and entertain them. They understand and feel the attitude of the people around them well.

4. Asthenoneurotic type. This type is characterized by increased suspiciousness and capriciousness, fatigue and irritability. Fatigue is especially common when performing a difficult mental task.

5. Sensitive type. He is characterized by increased sensitivity to everything: to what pleases and to what upsets or frightens. These teenagers don't like big companies, too gambling, active and naughty games. They are usually shy and timid in front of strangers and therefore often give the impression of being withdrawn. They are open and sociable only with those whom they know well; they prefer communication with children and adults to communication with peers. They are obedient and show great affection for their parents. In adolescence, such adolescents may experience difficulties adapting to their peer circle, as well as an “inferiority complex.” At the same time, these same teenagers develop a sense of duty quite early and display high moral demands on themselves and the people around them. They often compensate for deficiencies in their abilities by choosing complex activities and increased diligence. These teenagers are picky about finding friends and acquaintances for themselves, show great affection in friendships, and adore friends who are older than them.

6. Psychasthenic type. These teenagers are characterized by early intellectual development, a tendency to think and reason, to introspect and evaluate the behavior of other people. Such teenagers, however, are often stronger in words than in deeds. Their self-confidence is combined with indecision, and categorical judgments are combined with hasty actions taken precisely at those moments when caution and prudence are required.

7. Schizoid type. Its most significant feature is isolation. These teenagers are not very drawn to their peers; they prefer to be alone, in the company of adults. “Spiritual loneliness does not even burden the schizoid teenager, who lives in his own world, with his interests, which are unusual for children of this age.” Such teenagers often demonstrate outward indifference to other people and lack of interest in them. They do not understand well the conditions of other people, their experiences, and do not know how to sympathize. Their inner world is often filled with various fantasies and special hobbies. In the external manifestation of their feelings, they are quite restrained, not always understandable to others, especially to their peers, who, as a rule, do not like them very much.

8. Epileptoid type. These teenagers often cry and harass others, especially in early childhood. “Such children,” writes A.E. Lichko, they love to torture animals, ...beat and tease the younger and weaker, mock the helpless and unable to fight back. In a children’s company, they aspire not just to leadership, but to the role of ruler.” Their typical traits are cruelty, selfishness, and power. In the group of children they control, such teenagers establish their own strict, almost terroristic orders, and their personal power in such groups rests mainly on the voluntary obedience of other children or on fear. Under conditions of a strict disciplinary regime, they often feel at their best, “they know how to please their superiors, achieve certain advantages, take possession of... posts that give them... power, and establish dictatorship over others.”

9. Hysterical type. The main feature of this type is egocentrism, a thirst for constant attention to one’s own person. Adolescents of this type have a tendency towards theatricality, posing, and panache. Such children can hardly stand it when their friend is praised in their presence, when others are given more attention than themselves. “The desire to attract attention, to listen to admiration and praise becomes an urgent need for them.” Such teenagers are characterized by claims to an exclusive position among their peers, and in order to influence others and attract their attention, they often act in groups as instigators and ringleaders. At the same time, being unable to act as real leaders and organizers of the cause, or to gain informal authority, they often and quickly fail.

10. Unstable type. He is sometimes mischaracterized as weak-willed and going with the flow. Teenagers of this type show an increased tendency and craving for entertainment, indiscriminately, as well as for idleness and idleness. They do not have any serious, including professional, interests; they almost never think about their future.

11. Conformal type. This type demonstrates thoughtless, uncritical, and often opportunistic submission to any authority, to the majority in the group. Such teenagers are usually prone to moralizing and conservatism, and their main life credo is “to be like everyone else.” This is a type of opportunist who, for the sake of his own interests, is ready to betray a comrade, to leave him in difficult times, but no matter what he does, he will always find an excuse for his action, and often more than one.

To better understand the essence of the noted accentuations, we can consider their literary analogues. Thus, Gavroche from the novel “Les Miserables” by V. Hugo has a hyperthymic type; for Sonya Marmeladova from the novel “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky - emotive; in Shakespeare's Othello - stuck; in Milady from the novel “The Three Musketeers” by A. Dumas and Moliere’s Tartuffe - hysterical; in Dmitry Karamazov - pronounced excitability (close to psychopathy); in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet - exalted; in Sancho Panzo from Cervantes' Don Quixote - extroverted. In contrast to “pure” types, mixed forms of accentuations are much more common as a result of the simultaneous development of several typical traits or as a layering of new character traits on its existing structure.

As a rule, with proper educational work, character accentuations are smoothed out and compensated over time. But in complex psychogenic situations that have a long-term impact on the “weak link” of character, accentuations can not only become the basis for acute affective reactions, but also be a condition for the development of psychopathy. Accentuation of character when exposed to unfavorable conditions can lead to pathological disorders and changes in personality behavior, to psychopathy.

Psychopathy (from the Greek psyche - “soul” and pathos - “disease”)- pathology of character, in which the subject has an almost irreversible expression of properties that prevent his adequate adaptation in the social environment. In contrast to the 6t accentuations of psychopathy, as can be seen from the definition, they are permanent, manifest themselves in all situations and interfere with the social adaptation of the individual. The reactions of a person with sharpened character traits, compared to the reactions of a psychopath, are more closely related to traumatic factors, while maintaining a certain self-control. So, a cheeky, rude teenager with an accentuated character in the family understands that this cannot be done in front of unfamiliar people. He drinks with his peers, however, if drunkenness is not encouraged in the family, he tries to come home sober. For a psychopath, such restrictions do not exist.

Since psychopathy develops on the basis of character accentuation, the differences between certain types psychopathy has names corresponding to accentuations (cycloids, schizoids, epileptoids, asthenics, etc.). The causes of psychopathy can be divided into two large groups: 1) diseases (brain injury, infection, intoxication, psychotrauma, etc.); 2) congenital inferiority of the nervous system, caused by hereditary factors, birth trauma, etc. Such psychopathy is called constitutional, or true. They manifest themselves already in childhood in the form of various disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere, although intelligence can be preserved. The study of various forms of psychopathy indicates the absence of clear criteria for pathology. According to P.B. Gannushkin, the difference between psychopathic characteristics and the corresponding “simple human shortcomings” is mostly only quantitative [Gannushkin P.B. Favorite works. M., 1964]. When they talk about the presence of a certain character in someone, they thereby indicate a certain one-sidedness of his mental organization, a certain disharmony of the psyche. In fact, it is impossible to say about a normal “ideal” person what his character is, since all his behavior is a simple reaction to external influences.

It should also be noted that the boundaries between individual psychopathy are vague and unclear. The identified forms of psychopathy are for the most part an artificial product of schematic processing of what is observed in reality. At the same time, the behavior of psychopaths of the same type can be different: one paranoid can be different: one paranoid can be a universally recognized scientist, another can be mentally ill; an individual can be a beloved and popular poet, or he can be a useless slacker. Here it is necessary to raise the question of the connection between psychopathy and human genius. Based on the fact that, in a mild form, certain psychopathic features are inherent in all “normal” people, it is clear that the more sharply an individuality is expressed, the brighter the psychopathic features characteristic of it become. This is probably why among highly gifted people, with a richly developed emotional life and easily excitable imagination, there is a significant number of undoubted psychopaths. In the prevention of psychopathy, the most essential means is education, but it often turns out to be helpless in the face of the complete absence of volitional delays in some and the powerful pressure of drives that destroy the personality in others.

Character is not a frozen formation; it is formed throughout a person’s life path. Anatomical and physiological inclinations, as has been shown, do not absolutely predetermine the development of a particular character. Recognition of the dependence of character on such factors as appearance, body constitution, date of birth, name, etc., leads to the recognition of the impossibility of changing and cultivating character in any significant way. However, the entire practice of education refutes the thesis about the constancy of character; such cases are possible only in the case of personality pathology.

Character, despite its versatility, is only one of the sides, but not the whole personality. A person is capable of rising above his character, capable of changing it. Therefore, when they talk about predicting behavior, they do not forget that it has a certain probability and cannot be absolute. A person can challenge circumstances and become different (unless, of course, she hides her powerlessness behind the phrase “That’s just my character”).

The development of character over time is, of course, determined by what he was like before. Even with the most drastic changes in life, character usually still retains a certain unity in its basic, most general features. But character is not fatally predetermined, although it is determined by the objective circumstances of a person’s life path, but these circumstances themselves change under the influence of a person’s actions. A person himself is the creator of his character, since character develops depending on his worldview, on the beliefs and habits of moral behavior that he develops, on the deeds and actions that he performs, depending on all his conscious activities.

Self-education of character presupposes that a person is able to free himself from excessive conceit, can look critically at himself, and see his shortcomings. This will allow him to determine the goal of working on himself, i.e. those character traits that he would like to get rid of or, conversely, develop in himself. Probably, in order for the character not to become contradictory, so that new traits take root more easily, it is necessary to provide for an organic connection between new and existing traits, their harmonious interaction.

More experienced people provide great assistance in character development, and here it is important to find an example worthy of imitation. In the East they say: “If there is a student, a teacher will be found.” There is a deep meaning here. No teacher can teach someone who does not want to learn. Anyone who wants to learn will always find someone to look up to, someone to follow as an example. A person's character is formed through interaction with others. But anyone who undertakes to help others must first himself demonstrate an example of determination, activity, organization, perseverance and other character traits that he must form in his students. Here we must not forget about the mechanisms of imitation, which primarily apply to negative manifestations of behavior. First mother, father, other family members, then kindergarten teachers, peers, teachers, etc. are potential mentors. However, a real impact on character is possible only if the teacher is self-referential to the student.

A role model does not have to be real. This could be a movie hero or a hero of a literary work, distinguished by deep integrity and exceptional strength of character, a war hero, an advanced scientist. The centuries-old history of Russia provides vivid images of persistent, purposeful characters. For example, it is enough to point to M.V.Lomonosov and A.V.Suvorov, whose life is a kind of school for character education.

Of particular importance in the formation of character belongs to the social activities of a person, Active participation in which it develops a sense of responsibility to the team, promotes the development of organization, endurance, and a sense of duty. The most effective means of character formation is work. Strong characters are people who set themselves big tasks in their work, persistently achieve their solution, overcome all the obstacles that stand in the way of achieving these goals, and systematically monitor the implementation of what is planned. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of N. Ostrovsky: “Courage is born in struggle. Courage is cultivated day after day, in persistent resistance to difficulties.” A simple and effective way to build character is to engage in physical education and sports, which make people more resilient and courageous. Sport provides the opportunity for competition, where everyone goes to the maximum of their strength, shows what a person is capable of.

In accordance with the developed goals, a person accepts self-commitment. It should be feasible and doable at the level of optimal difficulty. This commitment can be recorded in a self-education program with an approximate time frame for completion. If it is difficult for a person to formulate such a program himself, then his relatives can come to the rescue, but it is better to turn to a psychologist. This is the self-education program that the famous psychologist Dale Carnegie recommends in his book “How to Win Friends and Influence People” [Minsk, 1990].

1. Today I will be happy. This means that I will be guided by the words of Abraham Lincoln, who said that “most people are about as happy as they resolve to be happy.” Happiness lies within us; it is not the result of external circumstances.

2. Today I will try to adapt to the life that surrounds me, and not try to adapt everything to my desires. I will accept my family, my job and the circumstances of my life as they are and try to adapt to them.

3. Today I will take care of my body. I will exercise, take care of my body, eat right, try not to harm or neglect my health, so that my body becomes the perfect machine to fulfill my requirements.

4. Today I will try to pay attention to the development of my mind. I'll learn something useful. I will not be mentally lazy. I will read something that requires effort, thought and focus.

5. Today I will engage in moral self-improvement. To do this, I expect to accomplish three things: I will do something useful for someone without him knowing about it; I'll do at least two things I don't feel like doing - just for exercise.

6. Today I will be friendly to everyone. I'll try to look my best; If possible, I will wear what suits me best, I will speak in a low voice, I will behave kindly, I will be generous with praise, I will try not to criticize anyone, not to find fault with anyone, and not to try to lead or correct anyone.

7. Today I will try to live only for the present day, I will not strive to solve the problem of my entire life at once. In twelve hours I can do things that would horrify me if I had to do them all my life.

8. Today I will outline the program of my affairs. I'll write down what I'm going to do every hour. I may not be able to follow this program exactly, but I will put it together. This will save me from two evils - haste and indecision.

9. Today I will spend half an hour in peace and solitude and try to relax.

10. It is today that I will not be afraid, especially I will not be afraid to be happy, enjoy beauty, love and believe that those I love love me.

One of the positive aspects of this program is the emphasis on the fact that character is formed not so much in difficult moments of life (although there are such turning points in everyone’s life), but rather in everyday, everyday activities. And here the daily routine, adherence to discipline, and adherence to norms of behavior are essential. Even small actions, if they serve good deed and are carried out systematically, cultivate positive character traits, and ennoble a person.

Temperament characterizes the human body from the point of view of the characteristics of the course and intensity of nervous processes, metabolism, as well as body type. That is, it is quite possible, based only on external signs, determine what type of temperament he belongs to, and what behavior is characteristic of him.

Temperament types

Currently under type of temperament implies a certain set of psychological properties that are naturally interconnected - they are common to one group of people.

Today, psychologists distinguish four types of temperament, which describe in detail a person’s behavioral preferences, and they are characterized by the following basic properties:

• Sensitivity - reveals the least strength of external influences necessary for the occurrence of a mental reaction and the speed of this reaction;
• Reactivity is the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of equal strength;

• Activity is the degree to which a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving a goal;
• The ratio of reactivity and activity is what human activity largely depends on: on random external and internal circumstances;
• Reaction rate - the speed of various mental reactions and processes

After completing the characteristics, you can determine which of the four types of temperament the individual belongs to.

Melancholic

Who are melancholic people? These are very subtle and sensitive natures, often such people have creative abilities. Their inner world is very complex and incredibly diverse, so they often prefer loneliness to the company of friends and acquaintances, which indicates their social passivity.

Melancholic people are very modest and shy; the self-esteem of such people is rather low and does not correspond to reality, and all because of their excessive passion for introspection. To achieve success and cope with difficulties, melancholic people need to constantly assert themselves and raise their self-esteem. They depend on mood swings, so the support of loved ones is very important.

You won't find a better friend than a melancholic person. He is a devoted and reliable friend, he knows the value of his word. If he fails to keep his promise, he sincerely worries, even when circumstances are beyond his control.

Among the famous people who were melancholic were Nikolai Gumilyov, Sergei Yesenin, Elvis Presley, Nikolai I.

Melancholic people get tired easily, they simply need breaks from work, the slightest difficulties and external stimuli can distract their attention. In general, these are people who are not suitable for leadership positions, they perform much better when in subordination.

Phlegmatic person

Those who need peace of mind are phlegmatic people. Their emotional background is calm, like the surface of water in calm weather. It is very difficult to get them out of their usual emotional balance, but if this happens, then stopping the raging phlegmatic person is not so easy. However, often excessive calm deprives them of the opportunity to express strong emotions, such as joy or any other emotional upheaval.

Phlegmatic people are reasonable, attentive, consistent and do not like to rush things; they prefer to do work in a certain sequence. They are not able to focus their attention on several things at once, considering it more rational to complete one task, but do it well.

Because of their love for everything permanent and stable, phlegmatic people do not have a very wide circle of friends, limiting themselves to only the closest, most reliable and trusted friends. But they are quite capable of getting along with the people around them, due to their peacefulness and balance, therefore they are quite capable of adapting to new people, although with difficulty. Such properties of phlegmatic people can contribute to rapid advancement on the career ladder.

Among the famous people who were phlegmatic were: M. I. Kutuzov, I. A. Krylov.

Sanguine

Sanguine people are very active and energetic people with a light, sparkling disposition. These are easily excitable individuals who can incredibly quickly get excited about an idea, but sanguine people can lose any interest so quickly. The ability to adapt to circumstances is determined by the flexibility of their nervous system, this often helps to avoid various difficult situations.

The soul of the company is definitely about people belonging to the sanguine type. Due to their natural craving for communication and general attention, they have well-developed speech and love to speak in public, which makes them excellent speakers and organizers. A sanguine person is characterized by such qualities as kindness, friendliness, sensitivity, he can even be a workaholic.

But in addition to positive qualities, there are also those that can significantly spoil the reputation of such a person, for example, carelessness, superficiality, irresponsibility. They can easily promise mountains of gold, but never keep their word.

However, it is sanguine people who are least susceptible to depression. They are able to enjoy the pleasures of life much better than other types of people, which means they are happier. Indeed, thanks to their incredible ability to easily make new acquaintances, sanguine people have a huge number of friends and acquaintances, so they definitely have no time to be bored and sad!

Famous sanguine people: M. Yu. Lermontov, Winnie the Pooh, W. A. ​​Mozart.

Choleric

By nature, choleric people are easily excitable and very temperamental people. In some ways they even resemble the ardent Spaniards, for whom expressing violent emotions is far from the least important thing. Cholerics are incredibly impulsive people for whom hot temper, uncontrollability and aggressiveness are the most characteristic traits.

Cholerics can be distinguished from all types as the owners of the highest self-esteem. They are leaders by nature, accustomed to being in the center of everyone's attention. Showing someone your weakness is simply unacceptable for choleric people; it can greatly hurt their self-esteem and pride.

Choleric people are able to easily find a common language with others, but they cannot boast of a large number of friends. In communication they prefer to take a dominant position as a leader; at any opportunity they are ready to compete, because they see rivals in everyone who surrounds them.

In love, people of this temperament will again strive for dominance. Choleric people become attached to and value those they love, but this does not prevent them from demonstrating frequent outbursts of anger and jealousy. In a fit of anger and irritation, they are able to break off relationships a huge number of times, and after letting off steam, everything returns to normal again.

It is better to try to avoid arguments with choleric people in order to save your own nerves, because they will not have peace until you give up and capitulate. But as soon as the choleric person realizes that he has won, he immediately calms down.

Important persons were choleric people: A. V. Suvorov, Peter I, A. S. Pushkin.

Afterword

To all of the above, it is necessary to add the following: representatives of temperament types that are absolutely identical to the descriptions in life cannot be found very often. For the most part, people combine several types at once, that is, they are representatives of adjacent or mixed types. So don’t be upset if you couldn’t try on a complete description of any temperament. In addition, a person is quite capable of cultivating the necessary qualities; this requires only patience and considerable willpower.

An example of self-education is Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, who appears before us in the image of a completely calm and balanced person. However, from his correspondence with his wife, you can find out something interesting, for example, Anton Pavlovich made a confession: “You write that you envy my character. I must tell you that by nature I am sharp, I am quick-tempered, and so on. But I am used to restraining myself, because it is not proper for a decent person to let himself go. In the past, I did the devil knows what.”

Good day! Today I will tell you about the types of human temperament and their characteristics. Each of you has probably come across this observation more than once in your life - we are all different: in character, we react differently to the same events, each in our own way reflects our attitude to the upcoming difficulties and joys. Why are we like this? A simple evolutionary game of consciousness? Maybe! But we'll look at it more simply.

As I said above, we will talk about temperament, which is characteristic of each individual individually and is repeatable between species in general terms.

What is temperament?

First, you need to figure out what this notorious human temperament is? First, let's turn to official psychology.

Temperament– a stable combination of individual, emotional and physical characteristics of a person’s personality, based on his life activity. In other words, temperament is the forms of behavior of each of us, both within certain limits and outside them.

Exist 4 types of psychological temperament, I already talked about this in an article where I touched on points about who he is, as well as techniques for communicating with a temperamental person and controlling emotions.

So, there are 4 types: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic. As a rule, it is very difficult to find them in their pure form, since the world does not stand still, different bloods mix, and with them different genes, but still, according to the dominant-recessive law of genetics, individual characteristics will be in the lead.

Characteristics of 4 types of temperament

Sanguine

A person of high energy, nevertheless, his levels of activity and reactivity are clearly balanced. This is an emotionally alive person, capable of laughing at any, even the most insignificant, reason. This is a typical “great boss”: he is able to work long and hard. He easily gets along with new people, is sociable, and comes to terms with failures relatively easily.

Advantages of temperament:

• liveliness;
• energy;
• loves people and gets along with them easily;
• easy adaptability to the situation;
• high sensitivity defect;
• long tireless performance;
• discipline;
• fast type of speech;
• extrovert.

Temperament flaws:

• often carries all his experiences within himself, for fear of offending others;
• it is not possible to force him to do something uninteresting to him, even if there is a vital necessity;
• sometimes is inconsistent (both in the choice of sexual partners and in the choice of activities);
• impatience;
• It is rare to find it in the same place.

The zodiac sign to which this type is most typical: Gemini, Aries, Sagittarius.

Choleric

Hot-tempered, often aggressive, easily falls into a state of passion. Reactivity prevails over activity by a wide margin. People of this type are typical adrenaline junkies: their whole life is a pursuit of all kinds of risks, especially those associated with danger to life.

Cholerics have a weak ability to remember in any area compared to other temperaments. This type is in many ways similar to a sanguine person, but he is more impulsive and is aimed at inevitably achieving the most absurd result.

Advantages of temperament:

• low sensitivity;
• easily adapts to the situation if it is in his interests;
• active;
• quick-witted;
• not vindictive.

Temperament flaws:

• hot-tempered;
• aggressive;
• easily goes into a state of passion;
• not capable of long monotonous work;
• does not finish the job he started.

The zodiac signs most suitable for this type of temperament are: Taurus, Scorpio, Leo.

Phlegmatic person

The complete opposite of the first two categories. Low-emotional people are often indifferent to other people's manifestations of feelings, at first glance they are restrained, but many carry them within themselves. They are distinguished by some physical slowness, which manifests itself in movements and gestures. They are not characterized by sharpness even where it is necessary. It is about this type that the definition “ Sleeping on the go».

Advantages of temperament:

• slowness;
• penchant for exact sciences;
• capable of monotonous work;
• meticulous;
• picky;
• restrained in emotions.

Temperament flaws:

• laziness;
• indifference;
• sloppiness;
• indifference;
• tendency to be late;
• absent-mindedness.

Zodiac sign: Capricorn, Pisces, Libra.

Melancholic

Emotionally active people, capable of shedding tears even where at first glance there is no reason for this. The level of sensitivity and reactivity in this category is disproportionate towards sensitivity. These are constant whiners, they are rarely truly satisfied with anything in life, they are picky, and remember unimportant little things well. They are very superstitious and see signs from above in every event.

Advantages of temperament:

• do not keep emotions to themselves;
• creative talent;
• attentiveness;
• the ability to perceive colors and sounds more vividly;

Temperament flaws:

• low performance;
• high emotional lability;
• distractibility;
• impressionability;
• lack of expression in voice and movements;
• easy fatigue.

Zodiac sign: Aquarius, Cancer, Virgo.

Conclusion

As we see, each of us has one or another type of temperament, but nevertheless, in its pure form, no one below us can recognize themselves in any of them.

The formation of a person’s psychotype is influenced by:

• genetics;
• life circumstances;
• childhood;
• the character of the parents.

How do you like these temperament characteristics? And what type of temperament are you? And I’ll probably finish it and work on new material. Subscribe so you don't miss it. Bye everyone!