General idea of the theory. Features of psychological theory

The experiment is carried out in order to test theoretical predictions.

Theoryis an internally consistent system of knowledge about a partreality (subject of theory). The elements of the theory logically depend on each other. Its content is displayed by certain rules from some initial set of judgments and concepts - the basis of the theory.

There are many forms neampy ric (theoretical) knowledge:

*laws,

*classifications and typologies,
*models, diagrams,
*hypotheses, etc.

Theory acts as the highest form of scientific knowledge.

Each theory includes the following main components.

1) the initial empirical basis (facts, empirical patterns);

2) basis is a set of primary conditional assumptions (axioms, postulates, hypotheses) that describe the idealized object of the theory;

3) logic of the theory - a set of rules of logical inference that are permissible within the framework of the theory;

4) a set of statements derived in theory that constitute basic theoretical knowledge.

Idealized object of theory represents a symbolica symbolic model of a part of reality.Laws formed in theory, in factThey describe not reality, but an idealized object.

By method P buildings are distinguished:

*axiomatic and *hypothetico-deductive theories.

First are built on a system of axioms, necessary and sufficient, unprovable within the framework of the theory;

second - on assumptions that have an empirical, inductive basis.

There are theories:

1.high-quality, constructed without the use of mathematical apparatus;

2. formalized;

3. formal.

Towards qualitative theories in psychology include:

The concept of motivation by A. Maslow,

The theory of cognitive dissonance by L. Festinger,

Ecological concept of perception by J. Gibson, etc.

Formalized theories in the structure of which the mathematical apparatus is used:

is the theory of cognitive balance by D. Homans,

— theory of intelligence by J. Piaget,

— theory of motivation by K. Lewin,

— theory of personal constructs by J. Kelly.

Formal theory (there are few of them in psychology) is, for example:

Stochastic theory of the test by D. Rush (S.T - theory of item selection), widely used in scaling the results of psychological and pedagogical testing.

- “The model of a subject with free will” by V. L. Lefebvre (with certain reservations) can be classified as a highly formalized theory.

Distinguish between the empirical basis and the predictive power of a theory . Theory is created not only for , to describe the reality that served as the basis for its construction: the value of a theory lies in what phenomena of reality it can predict and to what extent this forecast will be accurate.

The theories are considered the weakestad hoc(for this case), allowing us to understand only those phenomena and patterns for which they were developed.

As a rule, at a certain time there is not one, but two or more theories that equally successfully explain experimental results (within the experimental error).

The famous methodologist P. Feyerabend puts forward:

* "principle of perseverance": do not abandon the old theory, ignore even facts that clearly contradict it.

* His second principle— methodological anarchism:“Science is an essentially anarchist enterprise: theoretical anarchism is more humane and progressive than its law and order alternatives... This is also proven by the analysis of specific historical events, and an abstract analysis of the relationship between the idea And action.

* The only principle not impeding progress is called "everything is acceptable" (anything goes)...

For example, we may use hypotheses that contradict well-supported theories or valid experimental results. You can develop science by acting constructively" [Feyerabend P., 1986].

A theory is an internally consistent system of knowledge about a part of reality; it is the highest form of scientific knowledge. According to K. Popper, “theories are networks designed to capture what we call the “world” in order to understand, explain and master it. We strive to make the cells of these networks ever smaller.

Each theory includes the following components:

Initial empirical basis;

Many assumptions (postulates, hypotheses);

Logic - rules of logical inference;

Theoretical statements, which are basic theoretical knowledge.

There are qualitative theories that are built without mathematical apparatus (psychoanalysis by S. Freud, theory of self-actualization by A. Maslow) and formalized theories in which the main conclusions are based on mathematical analysis data (field theory by K. Lewin, theory of cognitive development by J. Piaget).
A theory is created not only to describe, but also to explain and predict reality. It is considered scientific if there is a possibility of rejecting it (recognizing it as false) in the process of empirical testing. Such verification is carried out not on the entire volume of objects under study - the general population, but on a part or subset of this population, which has all its properties. This part of the population is called a sample.

The basic rules for sampling are:

2) the criterion of equivalence (criterion of internal validity), according to which the subjects must be equalized according to other (as opposed to the independent variable) characteristics;

3) the criterion of representativeness (criterion of external validity), which determines the compliance of the subjects with that part of the population to which the results of the study will then be transferred.

1) an explanation of the occurrence of certain phenomena (for example, anxiety), or a retro-story;

2) prediction of their occurrence;

3) detection and proof of connections between several determinants and a mental phenomenon.

The features of psychological theory are: explanation of the causality of mental phenomena, justification of the variety of factors influencing a mental phenomenon, differentiation of everyday and scientific concepts.

Implicit and Explicit Concepts

In a certain sense of the word, all people are researchers, and like true researchers, they strive to construct their own system of ideas about a part of reality, to create their own theory. This concept is called ordinary or implicit. In comparison, a scientific theory is called explicit. What distinguishes a scientific theory from an implicit one is that it can be explicated, verified, and made explicit. Implicit theories are considered not explicit, not articulated, and not tested in experiment.

The concept of “implicit personality theory” was proposed by J. Bruner and R. Tagiuri in 1954 and is still used to designate an unconscious hierarchical system of ideas about the mental organization of other people. Its content consists of ideas about personality qualities. In the study of implicit theories of personality, there are two main approaches - traditional and alternative (psychosemantic). The traditional direction is represented by the works of J. Bruner and R. Tagiuri, as well as the psychology of “common sense” by L. Ross, the theory of causal attribution by G. Kelly, D. Scheider, etc. An alternative approach, thus named by its founder J. Kelly, arose in in line with the theory of personal constructs and was developed in the psychosemantic direction (P. Vernon, V.F. Petrenko, A.G. Shmelev, etc.). Representatives of the latter approach, in addition to identifying the substantive components of the implicit theory of personality, carry out factor analysis, which allows you to evaluate and combine the qualities and connections between individual components into a personal semantic space.

A theory is considered explicit if it is articulated, understood and tested empirically, or, more strictly, experimentally. The criteria for an explicit theory are breadth of scope, parsimony, and relevance to empirical research. Let's consider the most famous explicit theories of personality.

Theory is the most developed form scientific knowledge, giving a holistic reflection of the natural and significant connections of a certain area of reality. Examples of this form of knowledge are Newton’s classical mechanics, Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory, A. Einstein’s theory of relativity, etc.

Any theory is an integral developing system of true knowledge (including elements of error), which has a complex structure and performs a number of functions.

In modern scientific methodology, the following are distinguished: main elements of the theory structure:

1) Initial foundations - fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms, etc.

2) An idealized object is an abstract model of the essential properties and connections of the objects being studied (for example, “absolutely black body”, “ideal gas”, etc.).

3) The logic of the theory is a set of certain rules and methods of proof aimed at clarifying the structure and changing knowledge.

4) Philosophical attitudes, sociocultural and value factors.

5) A set of laws and statements derived as consequences from the principles of a given theory in accordance with specific principles.

The variety of forms of idealization and, accordingly, types of idealized objects corresponds to variety of types (types) of theories, which can be classified on different grounds (criteria). Depending on this, theories can be distinguished: descriptive, mathematical, deductive and inductive, fundamental and applied, formal and substantive, “open” and “closed”, explanatory and descriptive (phenomenological), physical, chemical, sociological, psychological, etc. d.

Modern (post-non-classical) science is characterized by the increasing mathematization of its theories (especially natural science) and the increasing level of their abstraction and complexity.

The general structure of the theory is specifically expressed in different types(types of) theories.

So, mathematical theories are characterized high degree abstractness. They rely on set theory as their foundation. Deduction is of decisive importance in all constructions of mathematics.

Theories of experimental (empirical) sciences- physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, history - according to the depth of penetration into the essence of the phenomena being studied, they can be divided into two large classes: phenomenological and non-phenomenological.

With development scientific knowledge theories of phenomenological type give way to non-phenomenological ones(they are also called explanatory). They not only display the connections between phenomena and their properties, but also reveal the deep internal mechanism of the phenomena and processes being studied, their necessary interrelations, essential relationships, i.e. their laws.

One of important criteria, by which theories can be classified, is the accuracy of predictions. Based on this criterion, two large classes of theories can be distinguished.

The first of these includes theories in which the prediction is reliable.

In theories of the second class, prediction has a probabilistic character, which is determined by the cumulative action large number random factors. This kind of stochastic (from the Greek - guess) theories are found not only in modern physics but also in large quantities in biology and social sciences and humanities due to the specificity and complexity of the very object of their research

A. Einstein distinguished two main types of theories in physics - constructive and fundamental. Majority physical theories, in his opinion, are constructive, i.e. their task is to construct a picture of complex phenomena based on some relatively simple assumptions. The starting point and basis of fundamental theories are not hypothetical propositions, but empirically found ones. general properties phenomena, principles from which mathematically formulated criteria that have universal applicability follow.

They have a specific structure theories of social sciences and humanities.

Theory- an internally consistent system of knowledge about a part of reality, this is the highest form of scientific knowledge. According to K. Popper, “theories are networks designed to capture what we call “the world” in order to understand, explain and master it. We strive to make the cells of these networks ever smaller.

Each theory includes the following components:

original empirical basis;
many assumptions (postulates, hypotheses);
logic - rules of logical inference;
theoretical statements, which are basic theoretical knowledge.

There are qualitative theories that are constructed without a mathematical apparatus (psychoanalysis of S. Freud, theory of self-actualization by A. Maslow) and formalized theories in which the main conclusions are based on mathematical analysis of data (field theory of K. Lewin, theory cognitive development of J. Piaget).
A theory is created not only to describe, but also to explain and predict reality. It is considered scientific if there is a possibility of rejecting it (recognizing it as false) in the process of empirical testing. Such verification is carried out not on the entire volume of objects under study - the general population, but on a part or subset of this population, which has all its properties. This part of the population is called a sample

The basic rules for sampling are:

1) substantive criterion (criterion of operational validity), according to which the selection of subjects is determined by the subject and hypothesis of the study;
2) the criterion of equivalence (criterion of internal validity), according to which the subjects must be equalized according to other (as opposed to the independent variable) characteristics;
3) the criterion of representativeness (criterion of external validity), which determines the compliance of the subjects with that part of the population to which the results of the study will then be transferred.

The theory, according to S.L. Rubinstein, “this is a circle of phenomena that develop and function according to their internal laws. Each discipline that rises to the level of science must reveal the specific laws of determination of the phenomena being studied.” The main task of any science, including psychological science, is to reveal the basic specific patterns of the phenomena being studied.
The theoretical foundation of psychological theory is the principle of determinism, i.e. the principle of causality of mental phenomena, aimed at explaining and revealing these causes. The functions of psychological theory are: 1) explanation of the occurrence of certain phenomena (for example, anxiety), or retro-narration; 2) prediction of their occurrence; 3) detection and proof of connections between several determinants and a mental phenomenon.
The features of psychological theory are: explanation of the causality of mental phenomena, justification of the variety of factors influencing a mental phenomenon, differentiation of everyday and scientific concepts.

Under theory as highest form organizations of scientific knowledge understand a holistic, schematically structured idea of the universal and necessary laws of a certain area of reality - the object of a theory, existing in the form of a system of logically interconnected and deducible propositions.

The basis of the existing theory is a mutually agreed upon network of abstract objects that determines the specifics of this theory, called the fundamental theoretical scheme and the particular schemes associated with it. Based on them and the corresponding mathematical apparatus, the researcher can obtain new characteristics of reality, without always turning directly to empirical research.

The following main elements of the theory structure are identified:

1) Initial foundations - fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms, etc.

2) An idealized object is an abstract model of the essential properties and connections of the objects being studied (for example, “absolutely black body”, “ideal gas”, etc.).

3) The logic of the theory is a set of certain rules and methods of proof aimed at clarifying the structure and changing knowledge.

4) Philosophical attitudes, sociocultural and value factors.

5) A set of laws and statements derived as consequences from the fundamentals of the theory in accordance with specific principles.

For example, in physical theories two main parts can be distinguished: formal calculus (mathematical equations, logical symbols, rules, etc.) and meaningful interpretation (categories, laws, principles). The unity of the substantive and formal aspects of the theory is one of the sources of its improvement and development.

A. Einstein noted that “the theory has two goals:

1. To cover, if possible, all phenomena in their interrelation (completeness).

2. To achieve this by taking as a basis as few logically mutually related logical concepts and arbitrarily established relationships between them (basic laws and axioms). I will call this goal "logical uniqueness"

Types of theories

The variety of forms of idealization and, accordingly, types of idealized objects corresponds to the variety of types (types) of theories that can be classified on different grounds (criteria). Depending on this, theories can be distinguished:

mathematical and empirical,

deductive and inductive,

fundamental and applied,

formal and substantive,

"open" and "closed"

explaining and describing (phenomenological),

physical, chemical, sociological, psychological, etc.

1. Modern (post-non-classical) science is characterized by the increasing mathematization of its theories (especially natural science) and the increasing level of their abstraction and complexity. The importance of computational mathematics (which has become an independent branch of mathematics) has sharply increased, since the answer to a given problem often needs to be given in numerical form, and mathematical modeling.

Most mathematical theories rely on set theory as their foundation. But in last years They are increasingly turning to the relatively recently emerged algebraic theory of categories, considering it as a new foundation for all mathematics.

Many mathematical theories arise through the combination, the synthesis, of several basic, or generative, structures. The needs of science (including mathematics itself) have led to Lately to the emergence of a number of new mathematical disciplines: graph theory, game theory, information theory, discrete mathematics, optimal control theory, etc.

The theories of experimental (empirical) sciences - physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, history - according to the depth of penetration into the essence of the phenomena being studied can be divided into two large classes: phenomenological and non-phenomenological.

Phenomenological (they are also called descriptive, empirical) describe the experimentally observed properties and quantities of objects and processes, but do not delve deeply into their internal mechanisms (for example, geometric optics, thermodynamics, many pedagogical, psychological and sociological theories, etc.). Such theories solve, first of all, the problem of ordering and primary generalization of the facts related to them. They are formulated in ordinary natural languages using special terminology of the relevant field of knowledge and are predominantly qualitative in nature.

With the development of scientific knowledge, theories of the phenomenological type give way to non-phenomenological ones (they are also called explanatory). Along with observable empirical facts, concepts and quantities, very complex and unobservable, including very abstract concepts, are introduced here.

One of the important criteria by which theories can be classified is the accuracy of predictions. Based on this criterion, two large classes of theories can be distinguished. The first of these includes theories in which the prediction is reliable (for example, many theories classical mechanics, classical physics and chemistry). In theories of the second class, prediction is probabilistic in nature, which is determined by the combined action of a large number of random factors. This kind of stochastic (from the Greek - guess) theories are found in modern physics, biology and social sciences and humanities due to the specificity and complexity of the very object of their research.

A. Einstein distinguished two main types of theories in physics - constructive and fundamental:

Most physical theories are constructive, i.e. their task is to construct a picture of complex phenomena on the basis of some relatively simple assumptions (such as, for example, the kinetic theory of gases).

The basis of fundamental theories is not hypothetical provisions, but empirically found general properties of phenomena, principles from which mathematically formulated criteria that have universal applicability follow (this is the theory of relativity).

V. Heisenberg believed that a scientific theory should be consistent (in the formal logical sense), have simplicity, beauty, compactness, a defined (always limited) scope of its application, integrity and “final completeness.” But the strongest argument in favor of the correctness of the theory is its “multiple experimental confirmation.”

The theories of social sciences and humanities have a specific structure. Thus, in modern sociology, since the work of the great American sociologist Robert Merton (i.e., since the beginning of the 20th century), it has been customary to distinguish three levels of substantive study of social phenomena and, accordingly, three types of theories.

general sociological theory ("general sociology"),

· private ("middle rank") sociological theories - special theories (sociology of gender, age, ethnicity, family, city, education, etc.)

· sectoral theories (sociology of labor, politics, culture, organization, management, etc.)

Ontologically, all sociological theories are divided into three main types:

1) theories of social dynamics (or theories of social evolution, development);

2) theories of social action;

3) theories of social interaction.

The theory (regardless of its type) has the main features:

1. Theory is not individual, reliable scientific propositions, but their totality, an integral organic developing system. The unification of knowledge into a theory is carried out primarily by the subject of research itself, by its laws.

2. Not every set of provisions about the subject being studied is a theory. To turn into a theory, knowledge must reach a certain degree of maturity in its development. Namely, when it not only describes a certain set of facts, but also explains them, i.e. when knowledge reveals the causes and patterns of phenomena.

3. For a theory, justification and proof of the provisions included in it are mandatory: if there is no justification, there is no theory.

4. Theoretical knowledge should strive to explain the widest possible range of phenomena and to continuously deepen knowledge about them.

5. The nature of the theory determines the degree of validity of its defining principle, reflecting the fundamental regularity of a given subject.

6. The structure of scientific theories is meaningfully “determined by the systemic organization of idealized (abstract) objects (theoretical constructs). Statements of theoretical language are directly formulated in relation to theoretical constructs and only indirectly, thanks to their relationship to extralinguistic reality, describe this reality.”

7. Theory is not only ready-made, established knowledge, but also the process of obtaining it, therefore it is not a “bare result”, but must be considered together with its emergence and development.

The main functions of the theory include the following:

1. Synthetic function - combining individual reliable knowledge into a single, holistic system.

2. Explanatory function - identifying causal and other dependencies, the variety of connections of a given phenomenon, its essential characteristics, the laws of its origin and development, etc.

3. Methodological function- on the basis of theory, various methods, methods and techniques of research activity are formulated.

4. Predictive - the function of foresight. Based on theoretical ideas about the “present” state of known phenomena, conclusions are drawn about the existence of previously unknown facts, objects or their properties, connections between phenomena, etc. Prediction about the future state of phenomena (as opposed to those that exist but have not yet been identified) is called scientific foresight.

5. Practical function. The ultimate purpose of any theory is to be translated into practice, to be a “guide to action” for changing reality. Therefore, it is quite fair to say that there is nothing more practical than a good theory.

How to choose a good one from many competing theories?

K. Popper introduced the "criterion of relative acceptability." The best theory is the one that:

a) reports greatest number information, i.e. has deeper content;

b) is logically more strict;

c) has greater explanatory and predictive power;

D) can be more accurately verified by comparing predicted facts with observations.

General idea of the theory. Features of psychological theory

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General idea of ​​the theory. Features of psychological theory

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You need to know this

General idea of the theory. Features of psychological theory