A patriot who suffered from Dumas. The real story of Cardinal Richelieu
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Armand's mother, Suzanne de La Porte, was by no means of aristocratic origin. She was the daughter of the lawyer of the Parisian Parliament, François de La Porte, that is, in essence, the daughter of a bourgeois, who was granted nobility only for his length of service.
Childhood
Armand was born in Paris, in the parish of Saint-Eustache, on the Rue Boulois (or Bouloir). Was youngest son in family. He was baptized only on May 5, 1586, six months after his birth, due to his “frail, sickly” health.
- From the baptismal certificate in the registers of the parish of St. Eustace in Paris: “1586, fifth day of May. Armand Jean, son of Messire François du Plessis, Seigneur de Richelieu...member of the Council of State, Provost of the Royal House and Chief Provost of France, and Dame Suzanne de La Porte, his wife, was baptized...The baby was born on the ninth of September 1585.”
Godfathers Armand had two marshals of France - Armand de Gonto-Biron and Jean d'Aumont, who gave him their names. His godmother was his grandmother, Françoise de Richelieu, née Rochechouart.
Armand's father died of fever on July 19, 1590, aged 42. The mother, left a widow with five children in her arms, soon left Paris and settled in family estate late husband in Poitou. The family experienced significant financial difficulties. Suzanne was even forced to lay down the chain of the Order of the Holy Spirit, of which her late husband was a knight.
Back in Paris
A few years later, Armand returns to Paris, where he is enrolled at the College of Navarre, where both Henry III and Henry IV studied. At college, Armand studied grammar, art and philosophy. After graduating from college, Arman, by family decision, enters military academy. But suddenly circumstances change, since Armand Richelieu must now take the place of Bishop of Luzon, an ecclesiastical diocese granted to the Richelieu family by Henry III. Arman is forced to change his military uniform to a cassock, since this diocese is the only source of income for his family. At this time he is 17 years old. Armand, with his characteristic ebullient energy, begins to study theology.
Bishop of Luzon
Soon, Marie de' Medici appointed Richelieu as confessor to Anne of Austria. A little later, in November 1616, she appointed him to the post of Minister of War. Richelieu was strongly opposed to the government's then-existing policy aimed at an unequal alliance with Spain and neglect of the national interests of France, but then the Bishop of Luzon did not dare to openly confront the government. The state's finances were also in a deplorable state, and there was a constant threat of further riots and civil war.
In his “Political Testament” Richelieu writes about the situation in France at that time:
“When Your Majesty deigned to call me to your Council, I can certify that the Huguenots shared power in the state with you, the nobles behaved as if they were not your subjects, and the governors felt themselves sovereigns of their lands... alliances with foreign countries were in a state of disrepair, and self-interest was preferred to personal benefit"
Richelieu understood that the main enemies in the international arena were the Habsburg monarchies of Austria and Spain. But France was not yet ready for open conflict. Richelieu knew that the state lacked the necessary resources for this, it was necessary to decide internal problems. Meanwhile, he rejects an alliance with England and its first minister and, according to Richelieu, a great charlatan and adventurer, the Duke of Buckingham.
Inside the country, Richelieu successfully uncovers a conspiracy against the king, aimed at eliminating the monarch and enthroning him younger brother Gaston. Many noble nobles and the queen herself participate in the conspiracy. The assassination of the cardinal was also planned. It is after this that the cardinal gets a personal guard, which will later become the cardinal’s guard regiment.
War with England and the siege of La Rochelle
- in 1631 in France, with the support of Richelieu, the publication of the first periodical “Gazettes” began, which was published every week. Gazet becomes the official mouthpiece of the government. So Richelieu begins powerful propaganda of his policies. Sometimes the cardinal himself writes articles for the newspaper. The literary life of France was not limited to the work of pamphleteers and newspapermen. During his reign, Richelieu did a lot for the development of literature, culture and art. Under Richelieu the Sorbonne is revived
- in 1635, Richelieu founded the French Academy and awarded pensions to the most outstanding and talented artists, writers, and architects.
Development of the fleet, trade, foreign economic relations, finance
By the time Richelieu began his reign, the navy was in a deplorable state: in total it consisted of 10 galleys in the Mediterranean Sea, and there was not a single warship in the Atlantic. By 1635, thanks to Richelieu, France already had three squadrons on the Atlantic and one - maritime trade was also developing in the Mediterranean. Here Richelieu established direct foreign economic relations, which made it possible to do without intermediaries. As a rule, Richelieu concluded trade agreements along with political treaties. During his reign, Richelieu concluded 74 trade agreements with various countries, including Russia. The cardinal contributed greatly to improving the financial situation of the population and improving the health of the treasury. To make life easier for the population, some indirect taxes were abolished, and laws were introduced to stimulate entrepreneurship and the construction of factories. Under Richelieu, the active development of Canada - New France began. In the field of finance and taxation, Richelieu failed to achieve such success. Even before the cardinal came to power financial position the country was deplorable. Richelieu advocated lowering taxes, but his position did not find support, and after France entered the Thirty Years' War, the first minister himself was forced to raise taxes.
Embassy to Russia
At the end of the 1620s, a trade and ambassadorial expedition to Moscow was organized. Two issues were discussed: Russia's joining the anti-Habsburg coalition and granting French merchants the right to land transit to Persia. On political issues, the parties managed to come to an agreement - Russia entered the Thirty Years' War on the side of France, although purely nominally. But no decision was made on trade issues. The French were allowed to trade in Moscow, Novgorod, Arkhangelsk; transit to Persia was not provided.
Thirty Years' War
The Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs laid claim to world domination. Having become first minister, Richelieu made it very clear that from now on France was not becoming a victim of Spanish hegemony, but independent state with an independent policy. Richelieu tried to avoid direct French involvement in the conflict as long as possible. Let others fight and die for the interests of France. Moreover, the country’s finances and army were not ready for large-scale actions. France would not enter the war until 1635. Before this, France's ally Sweden, which Richelieu willingly financed, was actively fighting. In September 1634, the Swedes suffer a crushing defeat at Nördlingen. Soon after this, part of France's allies in the anti-Habsburg coalition signed peace with the Empire. Sweden was forced to retreat from Germany to Poland. In March 1635, the Spaniards captured Trier and destroyed the French garrison. In April, Richelieu sent a protest to Spain demanding that Trier leave and release the Elector of Trier. The protest was rejected. It was this event that became decisive - France entered the war.
- in May 1635, Europe gets the opportunity to see a forgotten ceremony that has not been used for a couple of centuries. Heralds in medieval attire with the coats of arms of France and Navarre leave Paris. One of them presents the act of declaration of war to Philip IV in Madrid.
On December 29, 1629, the cardinal, having received the title of His Majesty's lieutenant general, went to command an army in Italy, where he confirmed his military talents and met Giulio Mazarin. On December 5, 1642, King Louis XIII appointed Giulio Mazarin as chief minister. About this man, who in an intimate circle was called “Brother Broadsword (Colmardo),” Richelieu himself said this:
Richelieu based his policy on the implementation of the program of Henry IV: strengthening the state, its centralization, ensuring the primacy of secular power over the church and the center over the provinces, eliminating the aristocratic opposition, and countering Spanish-Austrian hegemony in Europe. The main result of Richelieu's state activities was the establishment of absolutism in France. Cold, calculating, often very stern to the point of cruelty, subordinating feelings to reason, Cardinal Richelieu firmly held the reins of government in his hands and, with remarkable vigilance and foresight, noticing the impending danger, warned it at its very appearance.
Facts and memory
- The cardinal, with his charter of January 29, 1635, founded the famous French Academy, which still exists today and has 40 “immortal” members. As stated in the charter, the Academy was created “to make the French language not only elegant, but also capable of interpreting all the arts and sciences.”
- Cardinal Richelieu founded a city named after himself. Nowadays this city is called Richelieu. The city is located in the Center region, in the Indre-et-Loire department.
- In France there was a type of Richelieu battleship named after the cardinal.
Works and phrases of Richelieu
- Le testament politique ou les maximes d'etat.
- Memoires (ed.).
Richelieu in art
Fiction
The Cardinal is one of the heroes of the popular novel
In Paris, on September 9, 1585, a son appeared in the family of an important government official, who was named Armand Jean du Plessis. He received his education at the Navarre College.
In 1607, in April, after his ordination, the young man became a bishop.
Six months later at the Sorbonne, having defended his dissertation on the subject of theology, he became a Doctor of Philosophy. In 1608, in December, he was entrusted with the leadership of the episcopate in Luzon.
In 1614, the bishop arrived in Paris. There he is elected from the clergy as a Deputy to the States General.
Since 1615, Richelieu has been the mentor of Anne of Austria. In November 1616, he began working as Secretary of State of France and dealt with the country's issues affecting foreign and military policy.
In 1617 he became a leader in the Queen's Council.
From 1617 to 1624, Bishop Richelieu, while outside Paris, wrote his main works on theology.
In 1622 he was awarded the title of cardinal.
From 1624 until the end of his life, Richelieu was under the king as first minister.
In 1629 he was awarded the rank of lieutenant general, a special title of His Majesty.
In 1631 he received another title - Duke.
The cardinal died in winter in Paris, December 5, 1642.
Biography by dates and interesting facts. The most important.
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Born September 5, 1585 Armand-Jean du Plessis de Richelieu- the same “red cardinal” whom we remember from the famous novel by Alexandre Dumas “The Three Musketeers”. A most remarkable personality, but completely different from his literary character. The portal offers 10 interesting facts from the life of the “red cardinal”, which show the amazing character and strength of this man.
1. Instead of a sword - a cassock. Because of the interests of the family, Richelieu had to say goodbye to the dream of a military career and put on a cassock. His father died early, leaving his wife with five small children and many debts. The only source of funds was income from the position of Catholic clergyman of the diocese in the La Rochelle area. It so happened that accept monastic rank had to young Arman. Having gone to Pope Paul V in Rome for a blessing, he initially hid his too young age, and after the ceremony he repented. The Pope's conclusion was: "It is fair that a young man who has discovered wisdom beyond his age should be promoted early." On April 17, 1607, 22-year-old Armand-Jean du Plessis took the name Richelieu and the rank of Bishop of Luzon.
2. Charming kings. The rank of bishop gave him the opportunity to appear at the royal court, and soon he charmed King Henry IV with his intelligence, erudition and eloquence. However, due to palace intrigues, he was forced to leave the court. After the murder of the king, Richelieu managed to charm the Queen Mother Marie de' Medici, who appointed him confessor to Queen Anne of Austria, the young wife of Louis XIII. So gradually Richelieu becomes the main character in the political arena of France.
3. The greatness of France. Richelieu was indeed a very smart and talented politician. But, unlike his “evil” literary character, he did a lot for the greatness of France. In particular, he founded the French Academy of Sciences, stopped religious wars, and put an end to feudal fragmentation and in every possible way contributed to the strengthening of the monarchy. Peter 1, who visited Richelieu’s grave, said that he would give such a minister half his kingdom to help him manage the other half.
4. Chief of intrigue. Dumas is absolutely right when he portrays Richelieu as a lover of espionage intrigue. The real cardinal really became the founder of Europe's first serious espionage network. In the fight against his enemies, the “red cardinal” did not disdain anything: denunciations, espionage, gross forgeries, previously unheard of deceit - everything was used. At the same time, he himself did not trust anyone, and this caused additional horror in those who had to deal with him. “Anyone who knows my thoughts must die,” said the cardinal.
5. Books and migraines. Since childhood, Richelieu was a rather sick person. He was even baptized only six months after birth - they feared that he would die. All free time Richelieu educated himself and read a lot. Doctors of that time even assured that the severe headaches that plagued the cardinal all his life were associated with his love of reading.
6. Cardinal's cats. Cardinal Richelieu loved cats. Perhaps these were the only creatures who were sincerely attached to him. History even preserves the names of the cardinal’s favorite cats. The most beloved was a snow-white cat named Miriam. Another favorite was Sumiz (“a person of easy virtue,” translated). And, by the way, it was Richelieu who became one of the first owners of Angora cats in Europe. A friend brought him a kitten from Ankara. The Angora cat's name was Mimi-Paillon. Also famous is the cardinal's black cat named Lucifer.
7. Against duels and duelists. Richelieu strongly opposed duels. And he even issued an edict in 1626. However, if, according to Dumas, this ban is an attempt to deprive noble people of the opportunity to defend their honor in a fair fight, then the cardinal has a completely different view of these things. Richelieu considers duels to be “street stabbings” that claimed hundreds of lives of young people and deprived the army of its best fighters.
8. Enlightener. Thanks to Richelieu, the French Academy was founded in 1635. The Cardinal granted pensions to the most talented artists, writers, and architects. Also with his support, the first periodical publication in France, "Gazette", appeared. Richelieu made the Gazette the mouthpiece of his politics. Here the cardinal also published his own articles.
9. Fleet support. Richelieu increased the French fleet from 10 galleys in the Mediterranean to three full-fledged squadrons in the Atlantic and one in the Mediterranean. He contributed to the development international trade, having concluded 74 trade agreements with different countries. It was under Richelieu that the development of French Canada began.
10. Cardinal's Guards. After several assassination attempts on the cardinal, the king insisted that Richelieu have his own personal guard. Over time, it grew to a whole regiment. And today everyone who served there is known as the "Cardinal's Guards." Moreover, Richelieu paid the guardsmen's salaries from own funds and on time, to the great envy of the musketeers, whose salaries were often delayed.
Armand Jean du Plessis, duc de Richelieu, Cardinal Richelieu, nickname "Red Duke" (French: Armand-Jean du Plessis, duc de Richelieu). Born September 9, 1585 in Paris - died December 4, 1642 in Paris. Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, aristocrat and statesman of France.
Cardinal Richelieu was Secretary of State from 1616 and head of government ("chief minister of the king") from 1624 until his death.
The father's family belonged to the noble nobility of Poitou. Father, François du Plessis de Richelieu, was a prominent statesman during the reign of Henry III, and after his tragic death he served Henry IV.
Armand's mother, Suzanne de La Porte, was by no means of aristocratic origin. She was the daughter of the lawyer of the Parisian Parliament, François de La Porte, that is, in essence, the daughter of a bourgeois, who was granted nobility only for his length of service.
Armand was born in Paris, in the parish of Saint-Eustache, on the Rue Boulois (or Bouloir). He was the youngest son in the family. He was baptized only on May 5, 1586, six months after his birth, due to his “frail, sickly” health.
Armand's godfathers were two marshals of France - Armand de Gonto-Biron and Jean d'Aumont, who gave him their names. His godmother was his grandmother, Françoise de Richelieu, née Rochechouart.
In 1588, Armand's father became one of the organizers of the flight of Henry III from the rebellious Paris. The mother and children also left Paris and settled in the family estate of Richelieu's husband in Poitou. After the assassination of the king, Armand's father continued to successfully serve the new king Henry IV of Bourbon. François du Plessis-Richelieu died unexpectedly of a fever on July 19, 1590 at the age of 42, leaving behind only debts. The family began to experience significant financial difficulties. To organize a worthy funeral, Suzanne was even forced to lay the chain of the Order of the Holy Spirit, of which her late husband was a holder. King Henry IV, in recognition of the merits of the late provost, twice allocated funds to the widow totaling 36 thousand livres.
A few years later, Armand returned to Paris, where he was enrolled in the College of Navarre, where both Henry III and Henry IV studied. At college, Armand studied grammar, art and philosophy. After graduating from college, Arman, by family decision, entered the Pluvinel Military Academy. But suddenly circumstances change, since Armand Richelieu must now take the place of Bishop of Luzon, an ecclesiastical diocese granted to the Richelieu family by Henry III. Arman is forced to change his military uniform to a cassock, since this diocese is the only source of income for his family. At this time he is 17 years old. Armand, with his characteristic ebullient energy, begins to study theology.
He was consecrated Bishop of Luzon on April 17, 1607 by Cardinal Givry. Henry IV personally interceded for Richelieu with the Pope, asking permission to be ordained a bishop. Thus, Armand became a bishop at a very early age, which caused a storm of fables and gossip. He defended his dissertation at the Sorbonne for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Theology on October 29, 1607.
On December 21, 1608, he assumed the office of bishop in Luzon. The diocese of Luzon was one of the poorest in France. Richelieu made great efforts to correct this situation. Under his leadership it was restored Cathedral Luzon, the bishop's residence has been restored, he personally considers the requests of his flock and, to the best of his ability, helps those who turn to him.
The time of his stay in Luzon also included the writing of a number of interesting theological works addressed to the common people - “Admonitions to the Christian,” where Richelieu sets out the main aspects of Christian teaching in a form accessible to the people.
Other works include: "Fundamentals catholic faith", "Treatise on the Perfection of a Christian", "On the Conversion of Heretics", "Synodal Ordinances".
In Luzon, Richelieu’s first meeting took place with Father Joseph du Tremblay, a Capuchin monk; subsequently Father Joseph would receive the nickname “gray cardinal” and would play a huge role in the internal and especially foreign policy Richelieu.
Richelieu became a member of the clergy at the Estates General of 1614, convened in Paris. He advocated strengthening royal power. This was the time of the regency of Marie de Medici. The Queen Mother actually ruled together with her favorite Concino Concini, and Louis XIII, the King of France, did not participate in governance due to his youth. Richelieu actively spoke at meetings of the States, and his activities were noticed. He became popular. True, Arman himself was disappointed by the States: in his opinion, they were useless, because the orders of the estates and representatives were not studied and taken into account, and economic issues and issues of government were not resolved at all. The court and the Queen Mother were busy preparing marriages: the French princess Elizabeth was given in marriage to the Spanish heir, and the Spanish Infanta Anna was planned to marry Louis XIII.
Soon, Marie de Medici appointed Richelieu as confessor to Anne of Austria. A little later, in November 1616, she appointed him to the post of Minister of War. Richelieu was resolutely opposed to the government's then-existing policy aimed at an unequal alliance with Spain and neglect of the national interests of France, but then the Bishop of Luzon did not dare to openly confront the government. The state's finances were also in a deplorable state, and there was a constant threat of further riots and civil war.
On April 24, 1617, the queen's favorite K. Concini was killed. The presumptuous favorite is defeated, and King Louis XIII, who was at the head of this conspiracy, enters into his legal rights. The Bishop of Luson has been removed from his post; Louis does not want to see anyone associated with his mother.
Richelieu will follow Marie de' Medici, who was exiled to the castle of Blois. In Blois, Richelieu begins his most famous written work - Political Testament (French testament politique), which is a work of genius and a textbook on government. The bishop soon returned to Luzon, from where he was then exiled to Avignon in April 1618. But soon the king orders him to follow Maria de Medici in order to reason with her (the queen mother wanted to rebel against her own son). Richelieu copes brilliantly with this mission. Peace has been restored in the kingdom. The bishop's disgrace has been lifted.
In 1622 he was elevated to the rank of cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He began to actively appear at court and participate in political intrigues. Meanwhile, the situation in the state remained deplorable. King Louis XIII needed a man who could find a way out of the impasse, and Richelieu turned out to be that man. On August 13, 1624, Armand de Richelieu became the first minister of Louis XIII.
In his “Political Testament” Richelieu writes about the situation in France at that time: “When Your Majesty deigned to call me to your Council, I can certify that the Huguenots shared power in the state with you, the nobles behaved as if they were not your subjects, and the governors felt like sovereigns of their lands... alliances with foreign states were in a state of disrepair , and self-interest was preferred to personal benefit.”
Richelieu understood that the main enemies in the international arena were the Habsburg monarchies of Austria and Spain. But France was not yet ready for open conflict. Richelieu knew that the state lacked the necessary resources for this; it was necessary to solve internal problems. Meanwhile, he rejects an alliance with England and its first minister and, according to Richelieu, a great charlatan and adventurer, the Duke of Buckingham.
Inside the country, Richelieu successfully uncovers a conspiracy against the king, aimed at eliminating the monarch and placing his younger brother Gaston on the throne. Many noble nobles and the queen herself participate in the conspiracy. The assassination of the cardinal was also planned. It is after this that the cardinal gets a personal guard, which will later become the cardinal’s guard regiment.
War with England and the siege of La Rochelle:
According to the Edict of Nantes, the Huguenots had their own organization, their own fortresses (the garrisons of which were paid by the king) and their own cities. This allowed the Huguenots to very effectively defend their privileges; for example, La Rochelle not only had self-government, but also paid practically no taxes.
The presence in the kingdom of such an independent organization as the Huguenots contradicted Richelieu's ideas about the centralization of the country. Therefore, the Cardinal began a fight against the Huguenots, including laying siege to La Rochelle.
In 1627, the English fleet captured the island of Re. The attack was led by the Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham seeks to incite a Huguenot uprising in France, the center of which is located in the fortified fortress of La Rochelle, and the Duke also incites the Duke de Rohan, the leader of the Huguenot opposition in France, to revolt. De Rohan managed to create a “state within a state” in the west of the country, where Huguenots predominated. In London, where the main goal was to prevent France from becoming a strong maritime power, they hoped to take advantage of this situation. La Rochelle demanded exceptional tax privileges for itself. Richelieu wanted to place all ports and all trade under strict control to ensure transparent control over taxes; special control was to be introduced in La Rochelle. These were the main reasons for the conflict, which should not be called religious: Richelieu acted exclusively as a statesman seeking to suppress internal opposition and unite the kingdom.
In September 1627, La Rochelle opposes the king's army. The siege of the city begins, commanded by the king and the cardinal. But attempts to storm lead nowhere - the city is heavily fortified, especially since the British supply food and supplies by sea. Then Richelieu proposes a method, which then seems crazy. A similar method, however, was used almost two thousand years earlier by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. e. during the siege of Tire: a dam was built from the mainland to the island, and so the city was taken. It was this experience that the cardinal decided to repeat. By March 1628, the dam was built, and La Rochelle was blocked from the sea. The English fleet tried unsuccessfully to destroy the dam. Buckingham was eager to continue the war, but in August 1628 he was killed by the fanatic John Felton. In October 1628, La Rochelle fell. The capture of the city played a role important role in suppressing political opposition.
Richelieu's actions in resolving the conflict with the rebellious Huguenots of La Rochelle led to accusations against the cardinal of neglecting his interests Catholic Church and unjustified connivance with heretics, many of whom were pardoned by the cardinal after they took an oath of allegiance to the King of France. Remaining a sincere Catholic, Richelieu clearly distinguished between political Huguenots, that is, those who advocated the existence of a political party independent from the center, and religious ones, whom he sought to convince through persuasion. The idea of religious freedom, which Richelieu defended, was not supported by everyone. The First Minister is awarded the nickname “Cardinal of the Huguenots” and “Cardinal of the State.” Undoubtedly, Richelieu never made distinctions between the subjects of the state on religious grounds, but this gave many reasons to consider him a bad Catholic. It can be noted that by 1630 the problem of religious tension in France was resolved thanks to Richelieu, who put forward the idea of unity along national and civil lines. Religious conflicts in the country have ceased. Their resumption will occur only after the death of the cardinal. At the same time, Catholics occupied all key positions, and Protestants were in the position of an oppressed minority.
The main opponent of creation centralized state, former target Richelieu, the French aristocracy spoke.
The cardinal sought unconditional submission from the nobility to royal power, and wanted to abolish a number of privileges that infringed on the power of the monarch and harmed other classes and the interests of the state. It was mainly in the upper strata of society that the cardinal’s reforms provoked protest.
In 1626, the famous edict was issued prohibiting duels between nobles, on pain of deprivation title of nobility duelists. The nobility perceived this as a violation of their right to defend their honor. But Richelieu proceeds from pure pragmatism: many nobles die in duels every year - strong, smart, healthy! Those who are fit to serve in the army and public service. And besides, it is the nobility that is the support of the monarchy, and this edict was only an attempt to save the class from self-destruction. Soon after the edict was issued, dueling statistics began to decline.
In the same year, another well-known edict was issued, according to which the rebellious aristocrats and many nobles of the non-border territories of France were ordered to tear down the fortifications of their castles in order to prevent the further transformation of these castles into strongholds of the opposition. This aroused the hatred of the nobility, which was deprived of fortified bases, but was nevertheless implemented.
Richelieu introduces the intendant system. These persons sent from the center did not buy their positions, like other officials, but received them from the hands of the king. Consequently, unlike officiers (officials who bought their posts), intendants could always be fired if they failed to cope with their duties. This turned them into reliable instruments of power. The support of the crown allowed the intendants to gradually subjugate the entire administrative apparatus of the provinces, strengthening the power of the center and thereby infringing upon representatives of the traditional local elite (the aristocracy and the office).
In the army, Richelieu strengthens control of the center. Firstly, he introduced duplication of military leaders, where each army was essentially assigned two generals. This system improved the crown's control over the army, but proved to be extremely ineffective and contributed to defeats in the initial period of the Thirty Years' War, so it was abolished. But the system of military quartermasters has been preserved. From now on, salaries for soldiers and officers are received not by unit commanders, but by the servicemen themselves from the hands of military quartermasters. This weakened the power of the creators of these units (aristocrats) over their subordinates and strengthened the position of the king.
In the central administrative apparatus, the importance of secretaries, each of whom controlled certain issues, and the superintendent is increasing. All of them were directly appointed by the king, that is, the positions of the aristocracy were weakened.
Increased control over the provinces allowed Richelieu to significantly increase the growth of the crown's income. But the increase in taxes aroused hatred against innovation, which led to uprisings and struggles against them, both during the life of the cardinal and after.
Representatives of the highest aristocracy sought to maintain their political independence, declaring themselves equal to the king - in the spirit of feudal traditions. The cardinal's understanding of the essence of the state was completely different from how the grandees imagined it. The cardinal deprives them of sovereignty on their lands in favor of the king, deprives them of the right to justice and appointment officials, publication of laws in one’s own (noble) name.
A few years after taking office as first minister, the cardinal managed to win the almost universal hatred of the highest aristocracy, which put his life in serious danger. But for him, the interests of France were above all. King Louis XIII, realizing that he himself cannot cope with all the problems, completely trusts the cardinal and protects him from all attacks of the queen and the highest nobility. In 1632, Richelieu uncovered another conspiracy against the king, in which Gaston d'Orléans and the Duke of Montmorency participated.
In 1631, in France, with the support of Richelieu, the publication of the first periodical “Gazettes” began, which was published every week. Gazet becomes the official mouthpiece of the government. So Richelieu begins powerful propaganda of his policies. Sometimes the cardinal himself writes articles for the newspaper. The literary life of France was not limited to the work of pamphleteers and newspapermen. During his reign, Richelieu did a lot for the development of literature, culture and art. Under Richelieu, the Sorbonne was revived.
In 1635, Richelieu founded the French Academy and awarded pensions to the most outstanding and talented artists, writers, and architects.
By the time Richelieu began his reign, the navy was in a deplorable state: in total it consisted of 10 galleys in the Mediterranean Sea, and there was not a single warship in the Atlantic. By 1635, thanks to Richelieu, France already had three squadrons on the Atlantic and one in the Mediterranean. Maritime trade also developed. Here Richelieu established direct foreign economic relations, which made it possible to do without intermediaries. As a rule, Richelieu, along with political treaties, concluded trade agreements. During his reign, Richelieu concluded 74 trade agreements with various countries, including Russia. The cardinal contributed greatly to improving the financial situation of the population and improving the health of the treasury. To make life easier for the population, some indirect taxes were abolished, and laws were introduced to stimulate entrepreneurship and the construction of factories. Under Richelieu, the active development of Canada - New France - began. In the field of finance and taxation, Richelieu failed to achieve such success. Even before the cardinal came to power, the country's financial situation was deplorable. Richelieu advocated lowering taxes, but his position did not find support, and after France entered the Thirty Years' War, the first minister himself was forced to raise taxes.
At the end of the 1620s, a trade and ambassadorial expedition to Moscow was organized. Two issues were discussed: Russia's joining the anti-Habsburg coalition and granting French merchants the right to land transit to Persia. On political issues, the parties managed to come to an agreement - Russia entered the Thirty Years' War on the side of France, although purely nominally. But no decision was made on trade issues. The French were allowed to trade in Moscow, Novgorod, Arkhangelsk; transit to Persia was not provided. But Russia, fighting Catholic Poland (an ally of the Habsburgs), with the help of the French, improved relations with Sweden and actually subsidized it (by providing permits for the export of grain at low prices), which contributed to the latter’s involvement in the Thirty Years’ War. At the same time, Russia itself averted the threat of Polish intervention against the Swedes by starting the Smolensk War. The role of French diplomacy in these matters remains controversial.
Thirty Years' War:
The Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs laid claim to world domination. Having become first minister, Richelieu made it very clear that from now on France was not becoming a victim of Spanish hegemony, but an independent state with an independent policy. Richelieu tried to avoid direct French involvement in the conflict as long as possible, so that others would fight and die for France's interests. Moreover, the country’s finances and army were not ready for large-scale actions. France would not enter the war until 1635. Before this, France's ally Sweden, which Richelieu willingly financed, was actively fighting. In September 1634, the Swedes suffered a crushing defeat at Nördlingen. Soon after this, part of France's allies in the anti-Habsburg coalition signed peace with the Empire. Sweden was forced to retreat from Germany to Poland. In March 1635, the Spaniards captured Trier and destroyed the French garrison. In April, Richelieu sent a protest to Spain demanding that Trier leave and release the Elector of Trier. The protest was rejected. It was this event that became decisive - France entered the war.
In May 1635, Europe gets the opportunity to see a forgotten ceremony that has not been used for a couple of centuries. Heralds in medieval attire with the coats of arms of France and Navarre leave Paris. One of them presents the act of declaration of war to Philip IV in Madrid.
On December 29, 1629, the cardinal, having received the title of Lieutenant General of His Majesty, went to command an army in Italy, where he confirmed his military talents and met Giulio Mazarin. On December 5, 1642, King Louis XIII appointed Giulio Mazarin as chief minister. About this man, who in an intimate circle was called “Brother Broadsword (Colmardo),” Richelieu himself said this: “I know only one person capable of becoming my successor, although he is a foreigner.”.
Richelieu based his policy on the implementation of the program of Henry IV: strengthening the state, its centralization, ensuring the primacy of secular power over the church and the center over the provinces, eliminating the aristocratic opposition, and countering Spanish-Austrian hegemony in Europe. The main result of Richelieu's state activities was the establishment of absolutism in France. Cold, calculating, often very stern to the point of cruelty, subordinating feelings to reason, Cardinal Richelieu firmly held the reins of government in his hands and, with remarkable vigilance and foresight, noticing the impending danger, warned it at its very appearance.
The cardinal, with his grant of January 29, 1635, founded the famous French Academy, which still exists today and has 40 “immortal” members. As stated in the charter, the Academy was created “to make French not only elegant, but also capable of interpreting all the arts and sciences.”
Richelieu Armand Jean du Plessis (1585-1642), cardinal (from 1622), first minister of France (from 1624).
Born on September 5, 1585 in Paris. Father - Francois du Plessis, close associate of King Henry III, chief provost (judge) of France. In 1594, Richelieu entered the capital's Collège de Navarre, and then studied at the Pluvinel Academy, a higher school for the scions of noble families.
In 1606 Richelieu was appointed Bishop of Luzon. He went to Poitou and immersed himself in the affairs of his diocese. After the death of Henry IV (1610), Richelieu returned to Paris to join one of the political factions fighting at court. Soon he made acquaintance with the favorite of the Dowager Queen Maria de Medici, the Italian Concino Concini. Appreciating Richelieu's intelligence and education, Concini became the patron of the young bishop, who in turn joined the ranks of the so-called Spanish party. Soon the regent could no longer do without his advice.
At the end of 1615, young Louis XIII was married to the Spanish infanta Anne of Austria, and Richelieu was chosen as the confessor of the young queen. A year later he is already Secretary of State, entrusted with responsibility for military and foreign affairs.
The matured Louis wanted to get rid of Concini and gave the order to kill him.
That same evening, paid agents of the Secretary of State informed Richelieu about the impending conspiracy. But instead of warning his former patron and arresting the potential killers, Richelieu calmly went to bed. The next morning he went to the king with congratulations, but the monarch greeted him with the words: “So I got rid of your tyranny. Leave this house." This was Richelieu's biggest political blunder. He was removed first to Blois, where the Queen Mother was in exile, and then to Luzon.
Seven long years passed before Richelieu returned to court. Mary's reconciliation with her son was accompanied by a pardon for her supporters. The Queen Mother made the condition of her entry into Paris the return of Richelieu from exile. The future cardinal had to start his career at court virtually from scratch. Richelieu showed himself to be a master of intrigue, skillfully maneuvering between the interests of the king and his domineering mother.
In 1622, on the proposal of the monarch, the Pope granted Richelieu the title of cardinal. Richelieu proposed to Louis a program of reforms that would strengthen state power in France and undermined the influence of the feudal nobility. With the tacit consent of the king, the cardinal concentrated all government of the country in his hands. “I promised the king to use all my abilities ... to destroy the Huguenots as political party, to weaken the illegal power of the aristocracy, to establish obedience to royal power throughout France and to exalt France among foreign powers” - this is how Richelieu described his program.
The first blows fell on the aristocrats, who were accustomed to rebel with impunity. The execution of the Duke of Montmorency and the destruction of the feudal castles showed the rebellious princes that the times of feudal wars were over. Richelieu believed that nobles should shed blood only for their king, and therefore banned duels. For personal protection, he brought in his own musketeers (and not “guardsmen”, as in the novel by A. Dumas), who wore red cloaks in contrast to the royal blue ones.
Having taken the Huguenot stronghold - the fortress of La Rochelle (1627) after a stubborn siege and repelled a military landing from England, the cardinal deprived the Huguenots of the privileges (1629) they had received under Henry.
heh IV. It was no less difficult to limit the rights of city parliaments. “Both Huguenots and Catholics were equally French in my eyes,” said Richelieu.
He made a serious turn in French foreign policy from an alliance with Spain to the fight against the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.
With generous subsidies, the cardinal helped the Protestant princes of Germany to withstand the Holy Roman Emperor. In the war with Spain (1635-1659), he managed to return Alsace, Lorraine and Roussillon to France. Wars and taxes explain the dissatisfaction with the cardinal of ordinary Frenchmen, peasants and bourgeois, who repeatedly rebelled (1636-1637, 1639).
Cardinal Richelieu died on December 4, 1642 in Paris from pleurisy. Dying, he joked: “I had no other enemies except the enemies of the state.”