Enlightenment in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. In the second half of the 18th century

In today's lesson we will look at the economic processes that took place in the second half of the 18th century.

Topic: Russia in the XVII-XVIII centuries

Lesson: Russian Economy in the Second HalfXVIIIV.

In the second half of the 18th century. The territory of Russia expanded due to the annexation of lands ceded as a result of the partitions of Poland, the annexation of the Northern Black Sea and Azov regions, as well as Crimea. Thus, Russia reached the coast of the Black and Azov Seas in the south, and in the west the lands of the Upper Dnieper, Podvina and parts of Livonia were transferred to it.

The population from the time of the first audit to the end of the 18th century. increased by approximately 2.25 times and amounted to in 1794-1796. 36 million people.

As in previous times, the country's rural population predominated: at the end of the century, out of every 100 inhabitants, only 4 people lived in cities. Among the villagers, the majority were landowner peasants (51.3%), followed by state and palace peasants. The bulk of the population was located in the central provinces of the non-chernozem and chernozem zones, where the average density per square mile in 1800 was 24 people, while in the provinces of the Middle Volga and Urals - 4.3 people, and in the northern provinces - 0.7 person. The fertile lands of the Urals and Middle Volga region, as we see, had enormous resources for development.

Agriculture continued its extensive development path. The recommendations of the Free Economic Society on the use of more advanced farming systems and soil cultivation tools for the most part remained unimplemented, since they required costs and a desire for rationalization from the landowner. Landowners, as a rule, did not delve into economic concerns and continued to run their household in the old fashioned way, relying on the experience of their clerks.

Rice. 1. Journal "Proceedings" of the Free Economic Society ()

And yet, throughout the second half of the 18th century. There was a significant increase in the production of grain, livestock products and industrial crops. This was achieved mainly through the introduction of new lands into economic circulation, that is, an extensive form of development. These primarily include the black soil-rich lands of the Northern Black Sea region, which were previously empty and called the Wild Field. Agriculture was introduced into the economy of the Don Cossacks, as well as in the territory of the North Caucasus, the Urals, the Middle Volga region, and some peoples of Siberia.

Particular attention was paid to the development of Novorossiya, as the territory of the Northern Black Sea region began to be called. The government allocated plots ranging from 1,500 to 12,000 dessiatines to landowners who pledged to resettle their serfs here. In order to populate the region, land of 60 dessiatines could be received by “people of every rank,” with the exception of serfs. German colonists were invited to the lands of the Middle Volga region.

The territories where agriculture began to be practiced also include the Urals and Siberia. There, the local population, communicating with the Russians, started arable land. The Bashkirs, Buryats, and Yakuts partially transitioned from extensive cattle breeding to agriculture, from nomadic life to sedentary life, from primitive methods of hunting to the use of more advanced methods of fur extraction.

New crops appeared, among which was potatoes, which, although known in Russia since the end of the 17th century, were introduced so slowly that at the end of the 18th century. The “earth apple” was considered a garden vegetable. Another new culture there was sunflower, cultivated mainly in Ukraine and Novorossiya.

Industry in its development was ahead of agriculture. The mining riches of the Urals were developed at a particularly rapid pace, where by the end of the century there were many iron and copper smelting plants operating. In iron smelting, Russia ranked in the second half of the 18th century. first place in the world.

Large industrial enterprises were formed in the Urals, owned by such magnates as the Yakovlevs, Demidovs, Pokhodyashins, Tverdyshev and Myasnikov, etc. They owned not only industrial enterprises, but also thousands of serfs they bought for factories. Ural industry in the 18th century. developed and flourished on the basis of the widespread use of serf labor.

Rice. 3. Nevyansk plant of the Demidovs ()

The most important branches of light industry were cloth, sail-linen and silk production. The geography of enterprise location has changed. If in the first quarter of the 18th century. Moscow concentrated the bulk of enterprises, but in subsequent decades the old capital retained a predominant role only in silk production. The sailing and linen industry developed intensively in the periphery, in Yaroslavl and Kostroma, where flax and hemp had long been cultivated. Cloth factories, on the contrary, arose in the southern regions, where there were favorable conditions for sheep breeding - in the Voronezh province and in Ukraine.

The most important innovation in the textile industry was the emergence of cotton production. In terms of the pace of development, it was far ahead of all other sectors of light industry. If in the late 1760s. There were only 7 cotton enterprises, but at the end of the century there were 249 of them. The village of Ivanovo became the center of cotton production.

However, the country's market was saturated with industrial products not only by large enterprises, but by hundreds and thousands of small establishments in peasant crafts that produced linen, tape, various products made of metal, clay, wood, etc.

The number of manufactories where only hired labor was used was constantly growing. Even peasants with capital (“capitalist” peasants) were allowed to create their own enterprises in 1775. At the same time, the surviving serfdom hampered the development of the market for free labor. The landowner could at any time recall from the city the peasant otkhodniks who were hired to work for the owners of the manufactories.

To meet the flows of industrial goods flowing from the fishing areas to the black earth regions, agricultural goods came from the black earth region: bread, meat, leather, wool, honey, wax. St. Petersburg was a major consumer of imported food. Industrial goods of Western European production followed from St. Petersburg to the periphery. Moscow was an even larger consumer of imported food: if 220 thousand people lived in St. Petersburg at the end of the century, then in Moscow - up to 400 thousand.

Domestic trade, as before, was divided into stationary and temporary. Stationary trade was carried out in cities either daily or certain days weeks. For the rural population, the main points of exchange were markets and fairs, the number of which also increased, indicating that peasants were being drawn into market relations.

The structure of foreign trade was affected by successes in the development of domestic industry: the share of Ural iron in exports increased from 800 thousand poods in 1760 to 3840 thousand poods in 1783. Linen and linen fabrics were also exported. What was new in Russian exports was the increasing sale of grain abroad from decade to decade.

This was the result of the development of the black soil of the Don, the North Caucasus and Novorossia. The upward trend in grain exports did not exclude its instability - in lean years it decreased significantly.

The main consumer of Russian goods was England. At the end of the century, it purchased up to 80% iron, 58% hemp, 60% flax.

Imports, as in previous decades, were dominated by sugar, cloth, paints, silk fabrics, and wines.

Foreign trade continued to be in the hands of predominantly foreign merchants, especially imports. Foreign trade relations were carried out mainly through St. Petersburg and the Baltic ports: Riga, Revel, Narva. Trade with the East was dominated by products from Russian manufactories. Russian merchants also acted as intermediaries, selling industrial products of Western European countries.

The continuous wars waged by the state during the reign of Catherine II required large expenditures from the treasury. The government increased taxes from peasants and ordinary townspeople.

Bibliography

1. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XVI-XVIII centuries - M.: Bustard, 2003

2. Anisimov E.V. Russia in the middle of the 18th century. The fight for Peter's legacy. - M., 1986

3. Anisimov E.V. Women on the Russian throne. - M., 1997

4. Valishevsky K. Successors of Peter. - M., 1992

Homework

1. What hindered the development of capitalist relations in Russia?

2. Which development path prevailed in agriculture?

3. Where was free labor used?

4. What changes have occurred in the development of domestic and foreign trade?

Domestic policy.

The palace coup on June 28, 1762 brought Peter III's wife Catherine II, née Princess of Zerbst, to the throne. Educated and wise Catherine managed to win over not only those close to her, but also foreign monarchs, diplomats, and scientists. Having come to power as a result of a palace coup, Catherine II was forced to pursue a flexible policy, taking into account public opinion and the interests of the nobles. At the same time, she faced the most difficult task of strengthening the regime of personal power and increasing its authority. For this, the empress called upon the French Enlightenment (ideas of the philosophers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot).

In this regard, the reign of Catherine is called the period of enlightened absolutism, that is, the period when the supreme power was strengthened through the use of advanced ideas, and, in addition, sought to correct the barbaric remnants of the feudal system. The Russian version of enlightened absolutism represented a special stage of state-political development, associated in socio-economic terms with the decomposition of the feudal structure, in politically- with the search for a compromise with the nobility and aristocracy, who were the main driving force of previous coups d'etat.

The most striking manifestation of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the convening of a commission, one of whose tasks was to replace the outdated collection of laws (Code) of 1649.

On July 30, 1767, in the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin, Catherine solemnly opened the meetings of the Commission to draft a new code (legislative assembly). 565 deputies represented all classes of Russia, except for privately owned peasants and the clergy. However, the activities of the deputies, mainly due to organizational confusion, suffered a complete collapse. The very next year the Commission was effectively dissolved. But despite the Commission's failure, its activities had some positive consequences. Deputies of different classes brought with them more than a thousand orders from the localities, and these orders had a certain influence on Catherine’s further internal policy.

The pinnacle of noble privileges was the manifesto of April 21, 1785, granting charters to the nobility and cities. The nobles were legally assigned peasants with real estate; nobles were exempted from taxes, duties, corporal punishment, the obligation to perform military and public service, etc. City councils were created in the cities, and the townspeople were divided into 6 categories according to property qualifications.

Further strengthening of absolutism required the concentration of power in the hands of the empress and the maximum limitation of the powers of the Senate. On December 15, 1763, the Senate was divided into 6 departments, two of which were transferred to Moscow. The fragmentation of the functions of the Senate and filling it with obedient officials significantly weakened its importance. Thus, already at the beginning of the reign, measures were taken to stop any restrictions on the autocracy.

In the second half of the 18th century. Feudal legislation expanded significantly. By a decree of 1765, landowners were allowed to send offending peasants to hard labor in Siberia, and by a decree of 1767, peasants were prohibited from bringing complaints against the landowners. Peasant trade began. The landowner could give his serf as a soldier. It should also be noted that at the same time there was a process of spreading serfdom to territories where it had not existed before. The response of the peasantry soon followed: a revolt that grew into a powerful peasant uprising - an uprising under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva (1773-1775). The government had to make every effort to suppress the uprising that swept through the eastern regions of the country and the Volga region. Peace was hastily concluded with Turkey (1774), and troops from the Turkish campaign were sent to fight the rebels. The seriousness of the situation is also evidenced by the following fact: one of the best Catherine’s commanders, A.V. Suvorov on last stage took part in suppressing the uprising. The uprising covered a vast territory - the Southern and Middle Urals, Western Siberia, Bashkiria, Perm region, Volga region and Don. In addition to the above, the reasons for the war were the oppression of the Yaik Cossacks: the introduction of a state monopoly on fishing, salt extraction, vetch sales, duty collection, etc. The discontent of the Cossacks led to several uprisings in 1771-1772, which became the forefront of the war.

In 1775, Catherine II carried out a regional reform: instead of governorates, districts and provinces, the division of the country into governorates (300-400 thousand people) and districts (20-30 thousand people) was introduced, which was based on the principle of numbers tax-paying population. The administration was headed by a viceroy or governor-general. Provincial officials were appointed by the government, and the district administration was in the hands of the local nobility.

During the reign of Catherine, the feudal economic system reached its highest development and the first signs of its decomposition appeared. The most important of them was the undermining of noble ownership of land. In the second half of the 18th century. More and more land was concentrated in the hands of merchants and wealthy peasants, not only in the northern and eastern regions of Russia, but also in the provinces, which were considered the citadel of noble land ownership. The exploitation of peasants in the black earth provinces reached its limit. Here, landowners often transferred their peasants to monthly labor, thereby undermining the foundations of serfdom - the economy of the landowner peasants. In non-chernozem provinces, peasants began migrating to the city to earn money and were separated from agricultural activities. The share of payments in kind from peasants decreased, and monetary dues increased. With the expansion of commodity relations, the preservation of serfdom became a brake on the further development of industry and agriculture.

Foreign policy.

The foreign policy of the Russian Empire under Catherine II was distinguished by two stages, delimited by the French Revolution of the late 18th century.

At the first stage, the main goal of Catherine II's foreign policy was to spread influence in Europe, where France, the most powerful European state, was considered the main rival at that time, as well as to annex new lands at the expense of neighboring states.

Therefore, the main directions of Russian foreign policy, around which the efforts of the tsarist government were concentrated, were:

the struggle against the Ottoman Empire with the goal of capturing the Black Sea coast with Crimea and reaching the Caucasus ridge. Solving this problem opened up the opportunity to develop the Black Sea steppes, develop foreign trade relations through the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea, eliminated the danger of attacks by the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire;

Russian-Turkish wars 1768-1774 and 1787-1791

The first Russian-Turkish war during the time of Catherine II was unleashed by Turkey, which planned to attack Kyiv, Smolensk, Astrakhan with powerful blows, and break into the Caucasus.

In the fall of 1768, the troops of the Crimean Khan devastated some regions of Ukraine. Under the blows of Russian troops, the Crimeans retreated, capturing large booty. The following year, hostilities unfolded in the Black Sea steppes, the Balkans and the Caucasus. Russian troops pushed back the enemy everywhere. In 1769, the Russian army, led by the outstanding commander Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev, defeated the Turks near Khotyn and occupied Khotyn, Iasi, Bucharest, and Taganrog. In 1770, Russian troops won three brilliant victories: two on land (near Largo and Cahul) and one at sea (in Chesme Bay.

In 1774, the war ended with the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty, which was beneficial for Russia (concluded in the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi). The territories between the Bug and the Dnieper, including the sea coast, fortresses in the Crimea - Kerch and Yenikale, as well as lands up to the Kuban - went to Russia. Crimea and Kuban became independent from Turkey. Russia received the right to control the situation in the Danube principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were vassals of Turkey at that time. Russian ships received the right to sail freely in the Black Sea.

In April 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto in which she declared that Crimea, the Taman Peninsula and “The entire Kuban side were accepted under the All-Russian power.” In the summer of the same year, construction of a base for the Russian Black Sea Fleet began in Crimea - the city of Sevastopol.

Having been defeated, Türkiye began to prepare for a new war against Russia. Since most of the northern Black Sea coast remained in Turkish hands, the government of Catherine II also did not consider the conflict to be settled. Both states launched active diplomatic activities in search of allies. Russia entered into an alliance with Austria.

Türkiye, backed by England and France, began hostilities again. The Turkish fleet from the landing approached one of the main points Russian defense Black Sea region - Kinburn, whose garrison was commanded by Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. The battle on October 1, 1787 ended in the almost complete destruction of the Turkish landing force: from 5 thousand Turks, no more than 500 returned to the ships.

In 1788, Russian troops stormed the strong Turkish fortress of Ochakov. In this and other operations, the young Black Sea Fleet operated successfully under the command of Admiral Fedor Fedorovich Ushakov.

In 1789, near the Rymniku River (a tributary of the Danube), a joint Russian-Austrian corps (7 thousand Russians under the leadership of A.V. Suvorov and 18 thousand Austrians) blocked the path of a hundred thousand Turkish army and on September 11 received a brilliant victory “not in numbers, but skill." And in December 1790, Suvorov and the troops led by him achieved a new, unprecedented success, receiving the Turkish fortress of Izmail at the mouth of the Danube.

Receipt of Ishmael and victory at sea (1791 in Kerch Strait, near the island of Tendra, at Cape Kaliakria south of the mouth of the Danube, near Varna) decided the fate of the war.

In 1791, a peace treaty was concluded between Russia and Turkey in Iasi. Russia received lands between the Southern Bug and the Dniester. Türkiye renounced its claims to Crimea and recognized it as possession of the Russian Empire. The entire Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Dniester to Crimea ended up within Russia.

opposition to Swedish attempts to regain lost lands;

War against Sweden 1788-1790

King Gustav III of Sweden decided to take advantage of the fact that Russia fought against Turkey to return previously lost lands. In 1788, the Swedish army invaded Finland, but encountered strong resistance from Russian troops, which forced it to retreat. The following year, the Russian army and navy went on the offensive and captured a large part of Finland. In 1790, the main events took place at sea. The Swedish fleet made two attacks on Russian fleet in the area of ​​Revel (Tallinn) and Krasnaya Gorka, but unsuccessfully. After these defeats, Gustav III offered peace; Russia agreed.

The Russian-Swedish war showed the weakness of Sweden and its inability to fight against Russia even under favorable conditions.

participation in the struggle for the conquest of the weakened Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the annexation of Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus to Russia.

Russian participation in the partitions of Poland

In the second half of the 18th century. The Polish state was weakened due to constant strife among the gentry and became the object of intervention by its powerful neighbors - Austria, Prussia and Russia.

The issue of dividing Polish lands has long been discussed by European diplomats. However, the solution to this issue did not move to a practical level. The distribution of the Russian victory in the war with Turkey of 1768-1774 accelerated the distribution of Polka. Prussia and Austria did not want an even greater strengthening of Russia, but not being able to prevent it, they sought to bargain for possessions in Poland in exchange for non-settlement in the Russian-Turkish conflict. Russia, which actually controlled Poland, relied on the development of events in this way. And the prevailing circumstances (the struggle with the Bar Confederation became protracted, Austria threatened to intervene and in 1770 began to seize Galicia, diplomatic pressure came to Russia from France, England, Prussia and other states) forced Russia to reconsider its position. She agreed to the division of Poland along with Austria and Prussia.

In 1772, these states carried out the first partition of Poland. Galicia went to Austria, Eastern Belarus - to Russia, Western Prussia - to the Kingdom of Prussia. According to the second partition of Poland in 1793, Right Bank Ukraine went to Russia. The third partition of Poland took place in 1795. Russia received Western Belarus, Western Volyn, Lithuania and Courland; Austria - Krakow, Sandomierz and Lublin regions, and Prussia - Other lands including Warsaw. As a result of three divisions, Poland's state independence was eliminated. Most Russia received its lands.

The implementation of these directions would negate France's plans to weaken and isolate the Russian Empire.

The revolution in France of 1789-1794 made significant adjustments to Russian foreign policy. The revolution not only destroyed French absolutism, but also forced other European monarchs to think about how to prevent its influence from spreading to their countries. The changing situation in Europe turned Russia into a stronghold of absolutism. Catherine II accepted active participation in the fight against revolutionary France.

Peter I and his reforms widened the horizon of Russian life. During the reign of Catherine II, this process accelerated. Russia moved further and further away from its medieval culture, largely isolated from the rest of the world, and turned into an enlightened European state.

The ideas of European enlighteners and the state practice of enlightened monarchs became the property not only of the imperial court and the enlightened elite of Russia. They penetrated into wide circles of the population - the nobility, the growing middle class and even the peasantry. And if the previous major turns in the history of European civilization - the Renaissance and Reformation - largely passed Russia by, then the Age of Enlightenment became its own era. The attitude towards man, his place in the system of society and nature, and the goals and objectives of society has changed.

But feudalism reigned in Russia, absolutism reached its peak, serfdom, class privileges and restrictions formed the unshakable basis of human relations. This led to acute contradictions between the old world, still powerful in Russia, and new phenomena in culture. And yet the new stubbornly made its way.

One of the development features Russian culture At this time, the achievements of Russian culture of the 17th century began to interpenetrate. and new cultural trends.

The Christian worldview remained fundamental for the Russian people. Both Peter I and Catherine II were deeply religious people, but showed complete indifference to church rituals, traditions, and rules. Freed from this constant church influence and pressure, Russian culture in all its manifestations became increasingly secular.

Culture contributed to the formation Russian society, it brought people together as a nation and awakened national consciousness.

Members of this society and this nation were the empress, and nobles, and provincial nobles, and city residents, and the Cossacks, and the peasantry, including the serf intelligentsia (actors, musicians, painters). Of course, there was an insurmountable gulf between the upper strata of society and its lower classes, but culture imperceptibly threw bridges across this gulf. Only the k|nost peasantry turned out to be rejected in this new coming world.

The emergence of new cultural values ​​acquired an international character in the conditions of multinational Russia. New cultural values and educational ideas were superimposed on the cultural traditions and achievements of the three peoples of Russia and made them involved in the destinies of the country's history. They began to feel like Russians, residents of a colossal and multinational power.

The bearers of new scientific and cultural traditions were primarily the nobility. But this did not mean that Russian culture was purely noble. The nobility created and nurtured a universal human culture in Russia.

The creators of Russian science and culture of the 18th century. people also came from abroad. Throughout the century, foreigners had a strong influence on the formation of Russian civilization. They participated in the creation of the education system, stood at the origins of the organization of the Academy of Sciences, and made a huge contribution to the development of Russian architecture, sculpture, painting, theater, and music. For the most part, these were talented and passionate people who brought a lot of benefit to Russia, passing on their experience and their skills to the Russian people. But domestic talents gradually gained strength and influence.

Education and enlightenment of the people

Education and enlightenment of the people by the end of the 18th century. has achieved significant success.

Education was mainly class-based. This meant that each class had its own education system, closed from others. And the higher and more privileged the class was, the higher the level of education.

In the 1730s. The Land Noble Corps opened, and in the 1750s the Marine Noble Corps opened. Thus, the army and navy were replenished with highly qualified personnel, and at the same time, noble children were given the opportunity to begin serving as an officer immediately after training, and not, as under Peter I, pull the burden of a soldier. This was the privilege of the nobility.

Other closed educational institutions were the Artillery and Engineering gentry corps.

Many private noble boarding houses appeared in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. Noble children lived and studied in such boarding houses. At the same time, homeschooling became fashionable.

However, education in boarding schools and at home needed to improve its professional and general humanitarian level. Only the highest could give this educational establishments civilian type. Due to the lack of modern higher educational institutions in Russia, a completely natural step by the authorities was to open two universities in Russia at once.

One, at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, trained domestic scientists. This goal limited the influx into the university of those who wanted to get a university degree, i.e. universal, general education. In addition, entering the university was preceded by studying at an academic gymnasium.

With the opening of Moscow University in 1755, the situation changed significantly. At first there were three faculties - philosophy, law and medicine. At the Faculty of Philosophy they studied mathematics, mechanics, physics, geography, and philology. At the Faculty of Medicine, a significant place was devoted to the study of chemistry and biology.

Moscow University became the first and only one in Europe in the 18th century. a university that did not have a theological faculty and did not teach theological sciences. The new educational institution in Russia was based entirely on secular principles of education.

It is not for nothing that Moscow University bears the name of the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765). He was the initiator of its creation, developed a project for the university, and insisted that teaching there be conducted in Russian, which was also unusual at a time when Latin was widely used in teaching. M.V. Lomonos tried to transform the university into a public, that is, inaccessible, educational institution.

It is no coincidence that within the walls of the university in the 18th century. studied by people from families of commoners. The teaching staff was formed from them. The university charter prohibited corporal punishment of students. The university was an autonomous, self-governing organization and did not depend on local authorities. He was subordinate to the Senate.

There was a gymnasium at the university. One of its networks was intended for the children of nobles, the other for the children of commoners. A huge role in the creation of the university I.I. Shuvalov played the favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna - I. I. Shuvalov (1727-1797). It was with his active support that M.V. Lomonosov realized his plans.

Along with educational institutions for the nobility, the network of religious educational institutions expanded in the country.

The network gradually developed secondary schools. In the 1780s. For the first time in the history of the country, a public education system was introduced. In the St. Petersburg province, and later in another 25 provinces of the country, two-class and four-class public schools were opened. At first, children were taught reading, writing, penmanship, drawing, and the Law of God. Secondly, teaching of grammar, arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, physics, geography, history, natural science and architecture was added.

Catherine II sought to bring the education system to the European level. She wanted broad-minded, humane, enlightened people to appear in the country. And not only among the nobles, but also among other classes. For this purpose, it was planned to create closed educational institutions - separately for nobles, merchants, and other ordinary people. Education there was supposed to be carried out on the basis of the principles of education - through persuasion, without punishment or coercion.

Closed educational institutions appeared primarily in St. Petersburg. In 1767, the Institute of Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute) was opened. In separate groups Girls from the bourgeois class studied there.

The science

The Academy of Sciences with its three departments - philosophical, physical and historical - remained at the center of Russian science. At first, only scientists invited from abroad were members of the Academy. After the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna and the end of German dominance in many spheres of the country's public life, the situation at the Academy began to change. Scientific research has moved forward, and Russian scientists have appeared among scientists. In the 1740-1750s. The leading role in the Academy belonged to Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.

For Russian science, Lomonosov became a whole era. It seems that there was no branch of knowledge into which he would not have penetrated and where he would not have left his remarkable mark. He created the first chemical laboratory in Russian history. It was through a series of chemical experiments that he came to the discovery of the law of conservation of matter and motion. He is responsible for the development of the atomic-molecular theory of the structure of matter. He also explained the phenomenon of heating bodies: it is not the mythical caloric, as previously thought, but the movement of body particles that causes this process. Astronomers call Lomonosov the father of their science. It is he who holds the honor of discovering the atmosphere on the planet Venus. Lomonosov did a lot in the field of geology, mineralogy, mining, and geography. He substantiated the great importance for Russia of the Northern sea ​​route, along which ships sail to the northeastern ports of the country to this day.

M.V. Lomonosov was never an armchair scientist. He achieved amazing results in many applied sciences and made a number of discoveries that were of practical importance. Thus, he came up with the idea of ​​lightning rods that protect people from atmospheric electricity and lightning. He became the founder of domestic scientific meteorology. He worked a lot in the production sector - in the development of new varieties of porcelain, glass, paints, creating mosaics from which he made magnificent paintings.

M.V. Lomonosov was a genius not only in the field of natural sciences, but also an outstanding humanitarian. He made a great contribution to the formation of the Russian literary language and became the author of Russian grammar. His poetic works, in particular odes in honor of Elizabeth

11strovny, victories of Russian weapons, were a model for many writers of the 18th century. Finally, M.V. Lomonosov proved himself to be a brilliant historian. His Ancient Russian History is a work filled with pride in the history of the Slavic world.

In the second half of the 18th century. Technical thought also stepped forward. Heating engineer I. I. Polzunov (1728-1766) developed a project for a universal steam engine. Self-taught mechanic I.P. Kulibin (1735-1818) invented many different mechanisms, among them the amazing I.P. Kulibin clock. He proposed a project for a single-arch bridge across the Neva with a length of almost 300 m.

Research expeditions became an important part of scientific activity. If the 17th century was the century of great Russian discoveries in the east, then the 18th century. became the time of their research and development. They were interested in everything - communication routes, climate, subsoil, sea currents, geographical outlines of the Eurasian continent, its population.

From 1733 to 1741, with the support of the Senate, the Admiralty, and the Academy of Sciences, the Second Kamchatka Expedition of V. Bering and A. I. Chirikov took place, during which the strait separating America from Asia was discovered and named after the discoverer - the Bering Strait. The expedition opened Northwestern America to the world. Members of the expedition explored and described the shores of Kamchatka, the Kuril and Aleutian Islands, and Northern Japan.

Expeditions were also sent to Southern Siberia, Lower Volga region, in the Urals and the Urals, in Bashkiria, in the North Caucasus, in Crimea, to Lake Baikal.

A special research expedition sailed to Alaska. The materials of these expeditions were widely published in Russia and abroad.

Literature and art

Literature of the second half of the 18th century. becomes more and more secular, leaving the influence of the Church. The Russian literary language is being formed, freed from the old church speech. The Church Slavonic language remained only in religious texts and in worship. First, M.V. had a great influence on the language reform. Lomonosov, and later the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), whose Peter I. He creates prose and poetic works, translates ancient and modern European classics into Russian. Among the works of classicism are the odes of M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky (1706-1768), as well as the tragedies and comedies of A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), the father of Russian drama, according to contemporaries.

Russian literature developed quickly. And before classicism had time to blossom, it was replaced by a new style- sentimentalism, with its interest in inner world, the experiences not of an outstanding hero, but of ordinary townspeople and peasants. A prominent representative of this trend was N. M. Karamzin, whose story “Poor Liza about the love experiences of a modest girl that ended in tragedy” was read throughout literate Russia.

XVIII century does not end yet, and the principles of realism, under the sign of which the literature of the entire 19th century existed, are imperiously intruding into Russian literature.

Realistic motifs are felt in the poetic works of G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816), in the plays of D.I. Fonvizin (1745-1792). His comedy “The Minor” brings to the stage that part of the nobility that did not want any innovations, any progress and firmly clung to serfdom and its privileges.

Folk art was an integral part of Russian culture. In folklore of the second half of the 18th century. reflected events and folk heroes those years - Emelyan Pugachev and Salavat Yulaev, heroes of past glorious events, for example Bogdap Khmelnitsky and Maxim Krivonos. The famous “Lament of the Serfs,” created among the people, spoke of the hatred of ordinary people for serfdom.

Many wonderful architectural monuments, a true decoration of Russian cities, were created in the 18th century. What are St. Petersburg, Tsarskoe Selo, Pavlovsk, Peterhof worth, which have become the pride of Russia and world architectural masterpieces!

The name of V.V. Rastrelli (1700-1771), an Italian sculptor who worked in Russia, is associated with the appearance of the Baroque style in our country. In this style he created the famous Winter Palace, no less famous Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, the complex of buildings of the Smolny Monastery, the Stroganov Palace and other buildings in St. Petersburg.

Following Baroque, classicism came to Russian architecture with its strict proportions, slender colonnades, monumentality, and harmony. A prominent exponent of this style was the court architect of Catherine II, the Scot Charles Cameron (1730s - 1812). He is the author of the ensemble of the palace and park buildings in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg, the gallery in Tsarskoe Selo, and other buildings.

The famous Italian architect G. Quarenghi (1744-1817) left a noticeable mark on the capital's architecture. It was he who created the Hermitage, the Smolny Institute, the Exchange building, the magnificent palaces in Peterhof (Grand Palace) and in Tsarskoe Selo (Alexander Palace). Everyone who has been to Moscow has seen the towering monumental and airy Pashkov House (the current State Library) opposite the Kremlin on a hill ). This is the creation of the wonderful Russian architect V.I. Bazhenov (1738-1799). He owns the projects of the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow and the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg, the imperial palace in the village of Tsaritsyn near Moscow, and other buildings. IN AND. Bazhenov was elected professor of the Roman Academy and a full member of the Bologna and Florence academies.

M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812) left a rich architectural heritage. His main works are the building of Moscow University on Mokhovaya, the building of the Golitsyn Hospital in Moscow (now the 1st City Hospital), the House of the Noble Assembly in Moscow (now the Hall of Columns of the House of Unions), other buildings in Moscow, Tver and other cities.

The pride of Russian architecture of the 18th century. became the work of I. E. Starov (1745-1808). His best creations are the Tauride Palace of G. A. Potemkin and the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg.

In the last decades of the century, powerful estate construction began in Russia. Wooden architecture also continued to develop. A striking example of it was the Sheremetev Palace in Ostankino, built by Russian masters P. I. Argunov, G. E. Dikushin and A. F. Mironov.

Russian painting also flourished. This flourishing was expressed in an increasing transition from the conventions of icon painting to realistic canvases. In the 18th century Portraiture developed. The soldier's son A.P. Antropov, serf artists I.P. Argunov and F.S. Rokotov, immigrants from Ukraine D.G. Levitsky and V.L. Borovikovsky created a brilliant gallery of portraits of Russian monarchs, nobles, statesmen, generals.

Historical painting with biblical and ancient Russian themes, as well as genre painting, appeared. The peasant theme has become a phenomenon of the times here. The artist I. A. Eremeev in his canvases showed the life of the common people, peasants. Everyday paintings on a peasant theme were created by the serf artist M. Shibanov.

Sculpture and music became part of the general development of Russian art. It was in the second half of the 18th century. in Russia there is a transition from applied, ornamental sculpture to monumental and portrait sculpture. An example of the first is the famous Bronze Horseman- a monument to Peter I, built at the direction of Catherine II by the French sculptor E. M. Falconet (1716-1791) in 1775, as well as a monument to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow, the author of which was the sculptor I. P. Martos (1754-1835) .

Another direction in sculpture was demonstrated by F. I. Shubin (1740-1805). He came from Pomeranian peasants and was a friend of M.V. Lomonosov. His chisel belongs to the busts of Catherine II, Paul I, Lomonosov, Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin.

Among the remarkable cultural figures of the second half of the 18th century. There is also an amazing figure of the founder of the Russian theater F.G. Volkov (1729-1763). The son of a Yaroslavl merchant, he became the first Russian actor and the founder of the Russian national theater. At first he worked in Yaroslavl, then moved to St. Petersburg and founded the first professional theater here.

The musical arts were still dominated by visiting opera and ballet troupes, but the time had already come for the approval of original Russian talents. The composer I. E. Khandoshkin (1747-1804) wrote his music for folk instruments, whose works are still performed. The creator of amazing church chorales was D. S. Bortnyansky (1751-1825).

Russian life

The most dramatic changes in the life of the population occurred in St. Petersburg, Moscow and some other large cities of the country. Petersburg, on Palace Embankment, Nevsky Prospekt, along the canals and rivers flowing into the Neva, nobles built luxurious palaces for themselves. The banks of the Neva were dressed with granite embankments. This was done on the instructions of Catherine I. The idea of ​​​​building the famous lattice of the Summer Garden belonged to her.

The palaces were rich and elegant. Aristocrats tried to make them look like imperial ones. There were large halls, living rooms furnished with European furniture, and comfortable rooms. In winter, the tiled stoves radiated an even, dry heat. Candles in chandeliers and candelabra perfectly illuminated the rooms, corridors and passages.

In these palaces balls thundered and high society receptions were held. What was the cost of the famous ball given by G. A. Potemkin in his Tauride Palace in honor of the Empress! Three thousand guests, performance of a choir, ballet, pantomime, reception in a hall turned into a garden with a fountain and tabernacle flowering trees, with the singing of living nightingales and a temple with a statue of Catherine. Dinner until 2 am, dancing until the morning. 140 thousand lamps and 20 thousand candles illuminated this action.

By the end of the 18th century. In St. Petersburg it became fashionable to maintain aristocratic salons. French speech was heard here, and debates about politics, literature, and art raged. Russian literary celebrities began to shine in such salons.

Dapper carriages drove past luxurious mansions along Nevsky Prospekt, guards officers and smartly dressed townsfolk strolled.

Moscow also changed. Although there was not such wealth and splendor here as in St. Petersburg, the Moscow nobility did not want to lag behind the demands of the time. The evidence was aligned. The chaotic development of the city has stopped, although it is dying out.

Rich nobles and merchants built, as a rule, two- and three-story manor-type houses. Such a house was separate from the street with a garden, lawns, and paths. It stood in the depths of the space, fenced off from the street by a cast-iron or iron lattice; only the wings of the outbuilding faced the street. Such manor houses of the 18th century. There are still many preserved in Moscow.

Next to them stood the houses of other rich people - stone, elegant buildings with columns. There were up to 7-8 rooms - living rooms, a sofa room, a bedroom, an office, a children's room, a dining room, and a dance hall. Here, too, there were furniture sets that came into fashion at that time, sofas and sofas. Gone are the benches and rough-hewn tables. There were chairs, armchairs, elegant tables on curved legs, shelves for books. The walls were covered with wallpaper.

In the evenings, many Russian cities were illuminated by lanterns in which hemp oil burned. In the centers of cities, cobblestone, and more often wooden, pavements were laid, as in St. Petersburg.

City hospitals appeared. Medical personnel were trained in hospital schools and medical-surgical schools. By the end of the century it was created one system medical institutions for the population. Each provincial town had to have one doctor in service, and in district towns - one doctor. Pharmacies have opened. Of course, this was insignificant and small for a vast and multimillion-dollar country. Hospitals were also built using private funds. After some time, rich people gave them to the city.

Small Russian cities were more like large villages. Apart from two or three stone buildings, the rest of the houses were wooden. Unpaved streets overgrown with grass, puddles after rains, and dirt in autumn and spring became an integral part of such cities.

On the outskirts there were workers' barracks, where newcomers from local factories and various artisans lived. These were cramped, dirty, stuffy rooms with bunks instead of beds. In such a barracks, sometimes several dozen people lived in a common room. Families also lived here. Only later did the interiors of the barracks begin to be separated by partitions.

Cities and urban life with its innovations, of course, were of great importance for the overall civilizational development of the country. Here, like nowhere else, the latest European achievements in architecture, education, enlightenment, lifestyle, clothing, nutrition, recreation, and entertainment took root. Combined with Old Russian traditions, customs and habits, they determined the main directions of life of the Russian population in the 18th century.

But this did not mean that innovations were taking over the entire country. On the contrary, they only emphasized the general stagnation, traditionalism, and poverty of Russian life.

A huge area of ​​Russian life remained outside of urban civilization - the village, the village, the rural population. Here, as in the cities, there were big differences in living conditions and everyday life. On the one hand, part of the rural population was the nobility. After the decree on the freedom of the nobility and the Charter of the nobility, which exempted nobles from compulsory state and military service, Substantial part nobles settled on their estates, took up farming, and began to organize their rural life.

Of course, there were great differences between representatives of the rural nobility. Rich landowners, owners of tens of thousands of serf souls, are one thing. These rich people had luxurious estates with magnificent ice houses, built according to the designs of famous architects. Another thing was the small-scale Lebanese people, who owned one and a half dozen serfs.

And yet, the bulk of the nobility were middle-class landowners, owners of rural estates. Such Chnoryans were not separated from peasant life by an insurmountable wall. They constantly communicated with the peasants; courtyard people and servants from those peasants lived in their estates. Masters and servants spent years side by side, came into contact with the origins of the same folk culture, traditions, customs, beliefs, were treated by the same healers, drank the same infusions and steamed in the bathhouse with the same birch brooms. In addition, a significant part of the nobility, like Fonvizin’s Mrs. Prostakova, was illiterate or semi-literate. The rural estates of such nobles were an integral part of Russian rural life.

The latest innovations in everyday life bypassed peasant life. Only a small part of the peasants became people. They built good, clean huts in the villages with Dutch ovens, used new household items (dishes and furniture), bought good-quality clothes and shoes, and diversified their food.

Development of crafts, manufactories, domestic and foreign trade in Russia in the 50s - 80s. XVIII century dictated the active economic policy of the government of Catherine II. It was determined by the interests of the nobility and partly large merchants and industrialists. The proclamation of freedom of trade and industrial activity contributed to the development of peasant trade and manufacturing, which undoubtedly was beneficial to the nobility, because “capitalist peasants” were serfs and paid large quitrents and were bought out for a lot of money. During the reign of Catherine II, 2/3 of the manufactories registered in the second half of the 90s were created. XVIII century

In the social sphere, the policy of Catherine II was called “enlightened absolutism.” “Enlightened absolutism” is a pan-European phenomenon that constituted a natural stage of state development in many European countries. This version of public policy arose under the influence of the ideas of the French Enlightenment. The main slogan of the Enlightenment was the achievement of the "kingdom of reason." Belief in the limitless powers of the human mind gave rise to ideas about the possibility of building a society on reasonable, fair principles. Many figures of the era pinned their hopes on an enlightened monarch who would be able to put their ideas into practice. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" in Russia was an attempt to prevent popular movements against the serfdom system and adapt the landowner economy to new bourgeois relations.

Under the influence of the ideas of the European Enlightenment, Catherine II decided to develop a new Code of Laws, which, while keeping autocracy and serfdom intact, would give grounds to speak of Russia as a state of law. For this purpose, in 1767, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission in Moscow. Elections of deputies were class-based. The discussion of the peasant issue caused the greatest urgency at the commission meetings. The disputes over this problem became so protracted that the empress became disillusioned with the expediency of the commission's work and came to the conclusion of its dissolution. Under the pretext of war with Turkey in 1768, the commission was dissolved without drawing up a new Code.

The obvious tilt of the internal political course towards protecting the interests of the nobility (Charter to the nobility of 1785; Charter to the cities of 1785) led to the outbreak of the most bloody and brutal peasant war - the war led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775), which demonstrated the presence of deep social contradictions in Russian society. The Pugachev uprising dealt a strong blow to the provincial administration. Catherine II took steps to restore and improve local government, publishing in 1775 the “Establishment on the Governorates.” The new provincial administration relied on the nobility, which increased the empress's dependence on him. Thus, the alliance of the most conservative elements of society against all others was once again strengthened, which slowed down the development of the commercial bourgeoisie and exacerbated the contradictions of serfdom.

Since the dissolution of the Statutory Commission, an important feature has emerged in Russian politics: periods of internal reforms began to alternate with periods of active foreign policy. Reforms in Russia were, as a rule, alarming, while the sphere of foreign policy provided a more relaxed and reliable field of activity for energetic supporters of enlightened absolutism.

The most important foreign policy task facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the Azov and Black Seas. For a long time, the Crimean Khanate posed a great danger to the southern borders of the empire. From there, with the support of Turkey, Tatar military raids were constantly carried out. At the end of the century, Catherine II fought two victorious wars with Turkey - in 1768-1774. and 1787-1791, as a result of which Russia received Crimea and access to the Black Sea. The port cities of Chersonesus, Odessa, and Sevastopol were created on its coast, which became the military base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Russia's centuries-old task of strengthening its southern borders and gaining the opportunity for active foreign policy actions in the south has been solved.

Simultaneously with the Russian-Turkish wars, Europe was shocked by the events of the Great French Revolution. Revolutionary processes turned out to be closely intertwined with the Polish question. Russia has shown very active position in his decision. As a result of three divisions of Poland (1772, 1793 and 1795) between Austria, Prussia and Russia, the latter took over Belarus, right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, and part of Volyn. The unification of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands was a progressive act for the development of these peoples.

Russia's influence also grew in the east. Economic and cultural ties between Russia and Kazakhstan were strengthened, and the development of Siberia continued. In the first half of the 18th century. Russian travelers reached Alaska, and in 1784 the construction of permanent Russian settlements began on its territory.

After the death of Catherine II, the throne passed to her son, Paul I (1796-1801). Paul sought to further strengthen autocracy and personal power. The emperor's transformations in the army, his desire to follow the military doctrine of the Prussian king Frederick II, caused serious rejection in the guard, which led to the last palace coup in the history of Russia: Paul I was killed by conspirators, the Russian throne passed to his eldest son Alexander I (1801-1825 gg.).

conclusions

Concluding a brief excursion into the era of the 17th - 18th centuries, we can highlight the following changes in the development of the Fatherland:

During this period, the economic policy of the state was characterized by a policy of mercantilism and protectionism. The development of elements of capitalism, however, was hampered by the deepening of serf relations and their penetration into the emerging industry, which led to Russia's growing lag behind advanced countries Western Europe.

The state's social policy was aimed at eliminating those social institutions that limited the absolutism of the tsarist power, as well as at creating new social strata and their unification.

The state-legal system of Russia has evolved from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. This was expressed in the creation of an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, a new service ideology, the concentration in the hands of the monarch of all legislative, executive and judicial powers, and the absence of any bodies or legislative acts limiting his powers.

During the XVII - XVIII centuries. There have been significant changes in the spiritual life of Russia. The Church came under the control of secular authorities and lost part of its wealth as a result of the secularization of church land ownership. Internal church life was complicated by the schism caused by the reforms of the mid-17th century.

This period is associated with the formation of a new class secular culture and education, the penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia, and the formation of various trends in socio-political life.

In the XVII - XVIII centuries. We are witnessing a significant increase in Russian territory as a result of an active foreign policy. The tasks of breaking out of economic isolation and strengthening state borders were solved, which led to a change in the geopolitical position of Russia and the formalization of its imperial status.

However, despite the efforts of state power, Russia remained an agrarian country, entangled in serfdom (feudal) relations, with the absolute power of the monarch. This led to the strengthening of elements of unfreedom in public life, and the germs of civil society were harshly suppressed. Despite the significant success of modernization processes, Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. remained a traditional society.

Tables. " Distinctive features traditional and industrial societies"

Traditional society Industrial society - predominance of subsistence farming; -the presence of a class hierarchy; -structure stability; -sociocultural regulation of processes is based on tradition; - the dominance of religion. - the spread of large-scale machine production; -urbanization; - establishment of a market economy; -emergence social groups entrepreneurs and employees; -the formation of democracy, civil society and the rule of law.

"Phases of modernization"

Phases of modernizationContent of the modernization processChronological frameworkEuropeRussiaPre-industrial or proto-industrialTransition from natural productive forces to social ones; from individual agricultural and handicraft production to manufacture; from personal dependence to market relations. XVI-XVII centuries. II half of the XVII - early XIX centuries. Industrial revolution or early industrial transition from manufactory to machine or factory production; from hand tools to mechanical ones; stratification of society into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. XVII-XIX centuries. 40s. XIX - early XX centuries *In the USSR - expansion of factory production; - increase in mechanical tools; -elimination of social stratification. 20s - 40s. XX century.Industrial - Transformation of the labor process based on scientific and technological revolution and scientific engineering organization; - the emergence and development of flow-conveyor production; - *softening of class contradictions. 1900-1929. - USA; 1930-1950 - Western Europe 1950-1960 - Japan 50s - end of the 20th century * In the USSR - absence of class contradictions

Diagram "Dynastic tree of the House of Romanov"

Main questions:

Definition of "Enlightened absolutism";

Social policy and reforms of Catherine II;

Foreign policy;

Results of the reign of Catherine II;

The rise to power of Paul I.

XVIII century – Age of Enlightenment in world history - an era of rapid development of natural sciences, widespread dissemination of secular knowledge. Enlightenment is a powerful ideological movement. The main ideas of the Enlightenment (“reason rules the world”, “theory of natural law”, principles of legality and separation of powers, etc.). Results of the American and Great French revolutions. Revolutionaries are followers of enlighteners.

The essence of the policy of “Enlightened absolutism”. Second half of the 18th century. called the “Era of Enlightened Absolutism.” Enlightened absolutism emerged in countries with a relatively slow development of bourgeois relations, where the nobility retained its political rights and economic privileges.

Social policy and reforms of Catherine II. Golden Age of Catherine II (1762-1796). Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name Catherine the Great. Her reign became a new era in the history of Russia.

The beginning of Catherine II's reign was difficult, primarily in moral terms. No matter how unpopular Peter III was in Russia, he was legal ( By God's grace) sovereign, and also the grandson of Peter the Great, albeit insufficient. Catherine was a purebred German who, in the eyes of society, usurped the ancient throne of the Moscow kings. The role of Catherine II in the murder of her husband was also unclear.

First of all, Catherine II hastened with the coronation, which was supposed to legitimize her accession to the throne. The ceremony took place on September 22, 1762. in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Catherine generously rewarded everyone who contributed to her victory. The main participants in the coup (40 people) received ranks, land holdings with serfs and large sums of money. The Empress ordered the return from exile of those who “innocently” suffered, including the former Grand Chancellor Count Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the former Prosecutor General Shakhovsky.

Wanting to win over the influential Orthodox clergy in Russia, Catherine II canceled the decree of Peter III on the confiscation of land property and peasants from monasteries. True, having strengthened her position, the empress already in 1764. nevertheless, she took away 990 thousand peasants from the monasteries in favor of the state. The former monastic peasants (there were about 1 million male souls) began to be called economic, since the College of Economy was created to manage them. The number of monasteries in Russia decreased from 881 to 385.

Acting carefully, avoiding dangerous conflicts, Catherine II made it clear from the very beginning that she did not intend to give up autocratic power.

"Manifesto on freedom for the nobility"(1762) and “Charter granted to the nobility”(1785) Catherine II finally consolidated the privileges of the nobility. The nobles were exempt from taxes and duties. Noble land ownership increased noticeably. State and palace peasants, as well as uninhabited lands, were distributed to the landowners. The period of the reign of Catherine II in historical science was called the golden age of the Russian nobility.

Anti-peasant decrees were issued in the 1760s: permission for landowners to exile peasants to Siberia and hard labor without trial, a ban on complaining about landowners, maintenance of military teams in the event of an uprising at their own expense, mass distributions of state peasants (300 thousand in 34 years), permission trade by peasants without land.

In 1985 – The charter granted the cities the right to local government, exemption of the merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds from poll tax and conscription.

By the time of her accession to the throne, Catherine II was well acquainted with the liberal ideas of European philosophical, political and economic thought. Even in her youth, she read the works of French educators - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, D'Alembert– and considered herself their student. In 1763 Catherine began a correspondence with Voltaire, which continued until 1777, i.e. almost until the death of the famous French educator. In letters to Voltaire, Catherine told the “teacher” about activities for the benefit of her subjects and about military events, and Voltaire showered the “student” with flattery and compliments. Catherine II emphasized that the book of the French educator Montesquieu became her guide in politics. In Western European countries they started talking about the “great Semiramis of the north.”

Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine developed a certain idea of ​​​​what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state. Combined with knowledge of Russian reality, these ideas influenced the formation political program empress. How Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch, which she sincerely considered herself to be, can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation that is to be governed. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors” (“Notes”).

Since ideologically this program, and therefore Catherine’s internal policy, was based on the principles of the Enlightenment, this period of Russian history itself received the name “enlightened absolutism” in the literature (E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky).

The largest event of enlightened absolutism was the convening in 1767. commission on the drafting of a new code (Laid Commission). It should be noted that the convening of the Statutory Commission was preceded by Catherine II's study tours around Russia. “After Peter the Great, Catherine was the first empress who undertook travel around Russia for government purposes” (S.M. Soloviev).

Catherine II decided to give Russia a legislative code based on the principles of new philosophy and science discovered modern era Enlightenment.

As a guiding document for the commission, the Empress prepared "Order" which consisted of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles. Almost a quarter of the text of the “Nakaz” consisted of quotations from the works of enlighteners (Beccaria, Bielfeld, Montesquieu, Justi). These quotes were carefully selected, and “Nakaz”, thus, was a complete work in which the need for strong autocratic power in Russia and the class structure of Russian society was proved.

The Catherine Commission failed to draw up new code laws, since it was difficult to bring the old legislation into agreement, on the one hand, with the liberal “Order” of Catherine (built on book theories, without taking into account the real facts of Russian life), and on the other hand, with the conflicting needs, wishes and many separate orders from different population groups.

The collapse of the policy of enlightened absolutism was influenced by two events of the 18th century: the peasant war led by E. Pugacheva in Russia and the Great French Revolution in Europe.

Foreign policy. Transformation of Russia into a great European power. In the second half of the 18th century. Russia played an increasingly active role in international relations. It is a member of European military-political alliances and, thanks to its strong army, has significant influence in them.

The influence of foreign officers is declining. Russian officers and commanders take their place. The Russian army is increasingly acquiring national character.

Foreign policy objectives:

Firstly, the struggle for access to southern seas– Cherny and Azovsky;

Secondly, the liberation of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus from foreign domination and the unification of all Eastern Slavs in one state;

Thirdly, the struggle with revolutionary France in connection with the war that began in 1789. Great French Revolution;

Fourthly, asserting its interests in European politics, Russia sought to play the role of guarantor of the independence of the British colonies in North America; compliance with Russian interests in this region - participation in colonization North America.

Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774. In the 60s of the XVIII century. A complex political game is taking place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement between certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. Russia had its strongest contradictions with France and Austria.

The Russian government was pushed to take active action in the south by the interests of the country's security, the need of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and developing industry and trade, which dictated the need to access the Black Sea coast.

Türkiye, incited by France and England, in the fall of 1768. declared war on Russia. After the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. Brilliant victories were won on land: in 1770. under the command of a talented commander P.A. Rumyantseva, in 1771 under the command of the prince V.A. Dolgoruky, in 1774 - Major General A.V. Suvorov. In the famous Battle of Chesma at sea under the command of admirals G.A. Spiridonova, A.G. Orlova and S.K. Greig victory was also won.

According to the terms Kuchuk-Kainardzhisky world(1774) Russia received:

Access to the Black Sea;

Steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossiya;

The right to have your own fleet on the Black Sea;

Right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits;

Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia;

The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey;

Türkiye paid an indemnity in the amount of 4 million rubles;

The Russian government sought the right to act as a defender legal rights Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish War, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and personalized weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov began to be called Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, P.A. Rumyantsev - Zadunaisky. A.V. Suvorov received a gold sword with diamonds.

Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791. Since 1780, a rapprochement between Russia and Austria began on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.

Türkiye did not want to come to terms with Russia's assertion in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea to its rule, Russian troops occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a base for the fleet (1783). G.A. Potemkin for the successes and annexation of Crimea (the old name of Taurida) he received a prefix to his title “Prince of Tauride”.

In 1787 Türkiye presented an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The Second Russian-Turkish War took place in a difficult time for Russia. international situation. At this time, an alliance between England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia’s position in the Baltic. these countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788-1790. weakened the forces of Russia, although the peace treaty of 1790 did not make any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. At this time, only Austria provided support to Russia, and then only with insignificant forces. Nevertheless, this war also showed the superiority of the Russian army.

During these years, his military leadership talent was especially evident. A.V. Suvorov. In 1787 he defeats the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788. takes the powerful fortress of Ochakov, and in 1789. wins two convincing victories over many times superior enemy forces at Focshanny and on the river. Rymnik, for which he receives the title of Count Rymninsky.

Of particular importance was the taking Ishmael(1790) - citadels of Turkish rule on the Danube. After a 10-hour assault, Izmail was taken. In battle, student A.V. glorified himself. Suvorova - future commander M.I. Kutuzov.

Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F., successfully operated. Ushakov. In the battle of Cape Kalpakria in 1791. the Turkish fleet was destroyed.

By Treaty of Jassy(signed in Iasi) Türkiye recognized Crimea as possession of Russia; the border between the two countries became the Dniester River; the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia; Türkiye recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.

As a result Russian-Turkish wars economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the Mediterranean countries expanded. The Crimean Khanate was liquidated - a permanent center of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands in the south of Russia, Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded.

Russia and US education. One of the significant international events was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution, which led to the creation of the United States of America.

Disagreements between England and Russia had a beneficial effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780 government adopted Declaration of Armed Neutrality, supported by most European countries. Ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by a belligerent fleet. This resulted in England abandoning attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.

At the same time, Russia participated in colonization of North America. Movement of Cossacks and Russian settlers in the 16th-17th centuries. led through Siberia and the Far East in 1784. to the landing of G.I. Shelekhov in Alaska and the appearance Russian America– permanent settlements of Russians on Alaska, and then in California.

Partitions of Poland. The strengthening of Prussia, Austria, Russia and the constant weakening of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to its divisions.

For the first section(1772) The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired part of eastern Belarus.

For the second section(1793) - Russia received the remaining part of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia.

According to the third section(1795) western Belarus, western Volyn, Lithuania, and Courland went to Russia.

Under the rule of the Russian emperors, almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs, who were part of the Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria.

The meaning of these events was controversial. On the one hand, this raised the political prestige of Russia. In addition, Russia has become one of the most populated countries in Europe. But, on the other hand, the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to an aggravation of national problems in the Russian Empire. The Polish nobility, who fought for national independence, became a destabilizing factor in the life of the country. His activity caused a response in the form of the government's Russification policy.

War with revolutionary France. The Great French Revolution of 1789 created a new political situation in Europe. and the execution of King Louis XVI. Relations between Russia and France were severed. Russia entered into an alliance with Prussia, England and Austria for a joint struggle against revolutionary France. It was an alliance of the reactionary forces of Europe against the hotbed of ideas of freedom and democracy, which was France.

Thus, thanks to Russia’s active foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. became a great European power. This was a victory for the policy of adaptation (adjustment) to Europe, begun by Peter I. However, Russia's political role in Europe far exceeded its economic position in the European market, similar to the place of Prussia, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia remained a socio-economically backward country, which made its position in the system of European civilization unstable and contradictory.

Results of the reign of Catherine II.

1. Imperial events in foreign and domestic policy.

2. Strengthening absolutism by reforming government institutions and the new administrative structure of the state, protecting the monarchy from any attacks.

3. Socio-economic measures for the further “Europeanization” of the country and the final formation and strengthening of the nobility.

4. liberal educational initiatives, care for education, literature and the arts.

5. The unpreparedness of Russian society not only for the abolition of serfdom, but even for more moderate reforms.

In addition, the country waged continuous wars, as a result of which there was a sharp increase in tax oppression and exploitation, which led to numerous popular uprisings: 1771. – Plague riot, 1773-1775. - Peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev.

It is worth pointing out the general features of peasant wars in Russia:

They started on the outskirts;

The main driving force is the Cossacks;

They passed under tsarist slogans.

Contradictions of personality and politics of Paul I (1796-1801). IN historical research There is no unity in the assessment of the reign of Paul I. Some historians call his reign “unenlightened absolutism”, others - a “military-police dictatorship”, others consider Paul the “Russian Hamlet”, and others - a “romantic emperor”.

The enlightener D'Alembert found in Pavel Petrovich an “exalted character” and education.

According to researchers, the main motives of activity Paul were the following:

Firstly, the desire to oppose oneself to the mother, to change everything that Catherine had done and to build her reign in defiance of the traditions of government laid down by her;

Secondly, fear, fear of the aristocratic opposition, peasant unrest, French republican ideas.

Paul I ascended the throne at the age of 42, already a mature, established man. He removed from power the former favorites of Catherine, whom he hated and blamed for the death of his father.

Paul I introduced a military-police regime in the country and at the same time returned Radishchev, Novikov, Kosciuszko from exile, laid the foundation for the foundation of the University of Dorpat, the Pavlovsk Corps (a school for military orphans in St. Petersburg), and amnestied the living Pugachevites. Ideal liberal politics, based on the self-government of classes, their rights and privileges, Paul I contrasted the ideal guardianship policy, based on the strong power of the king and his care for his people.

In general, the policy of Paul I was, in spite of everything, a direct continuation of Catherine’s reign.

Fighting the influence of the French Revolution, Paul I introduced the most severe censorship and banned all private printing houses.

Towards nobility Paul's politics also encountered contradictory trends. On the one side - the king's concern for strengthening the economic position of the nobility, which was expressed in material assistance through the credit and banking system, the creation of a regime of maximum favorability for the nobility in the service (decrees of 1797 and 1798). Another trend emerged in limitation of class self-government and its absorption by the bureaucratic apparatus.

The most unacceptable for the nobility were Paul I's transformation in the army. An ardent admirer of the Prussian military doctrine of Frederick II, he issued new infantry and cavalry regulations just three weeks after his accession; The basic principles of strategy and tactics of Russian military art fell into oblivion.

Ultimately, it was the infringement of the interests of the nobility that became the decisive moment that determined the fate of Paul I.

Foreign policy of Paul I. There are three stages to be distinguished:

1st stage 1796-1797. – proclamation of peaceful coexistence with all countries, an attempt to develop an ideological counterbalance to the ideas of the French Revolution;

2nd stage 1798-1799– Russia’s entry into the second anti-French coalition, Suvorov’s Italian and Swiss campaigns, Ushakov’s naval landings in Greece and Italy; indicate the reasons for the break with England (failure to provide assistance to Suvorov and refusal to liberate the island of Malta).

3rd stage 1800-1801- rapprochement with France and preparation of a joint campaign with her in India against England. However, his murder thwarted the plans of the French-Russian coalition.

On the night of March 12, 1801, Paul I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle by a group of conspirators, which included former favorites of Catherine II: the Zubov brothers, General L.L. Bennigsen, commanders of the guards regiments P.A. Talyzin and F.P. Uvarov, St. Petersburg governor P.A. Palen, Senator D.P. Troshchinsky. The conspiracy was supported by the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich.