Stages of organization development. Financial policy of the organization

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Brief descriptions of the stages of system development

Stage 1. Origin. Creation and dissemination of fundamentally new ideas. Establishment of objective laws of nature and society, production and dissemination of information in the form of theories, concepts, etc. When creating an organization, it involves bringing together like-minded people to implement an idea. When moving to the first stage of the next level - creating new products, encouraging innovation and experimentation.

Stage 2. Arranging. The introduction of new orders and organizational structures in conditions of environmental resistance, establishing order by force, bold experiments. From the volume of information, information is selected that can be put into practice. The second task of the stage is to instill in people a sense of optimism, belonging, pride in the company, to give people meaning and perspective.

Stage 3. Optimization. Criticism of mistakes made and reform of rigid structures, introduction of alternative economic values, rapid progress, accumulation of material resources, development of the social sphere.

Stage 4. Stabilization. Ensuring stable development and wise use of accumulated resources, creating soil for the weak shoots of the new. Development of individuality, discovery of talents.

What and when to do

The first question is how to find out what stage of development an organization is at, and how to recognize the onset of the next stage? Below are the main features of each stage, as well as the actions you can take to move to that stage.

Stage 1. Origin

Signs of the stage. The initial stage in creating an organization. Development of fairly large, fundamentally new areas in an existing organization.

What you need to do to make the transition. Encouraging innovation and experimentation. Support for original ideas, allocating part of the budget for this purpose. Attracting young personnel. Market research, marketing.

Stage 2: Organizing

Signs of the stage. At the first stage of development, there is an increase in the number of personnel to a level at which personal communication between all employees (about 9 and above) becomes impossible. Introduction of formal communication systems (documentation, regulations).

What you need to do to make the transition. Document flow, job descriptions, subordination. Official registration. Long-term prospects (for 5-10 years and beyond). Mass sales of goods or services. Cooperation with government and public organizations. Charity. Growing young personnel.

Stage 3. Optimization

Signs of the stage. Formation of internal divisions on a self-supporting basis, incl. focusing on the internal customer. The emergence of leaders around whom their own group of people gathers, but within the framework of the company and a common goal. Profit growth, slowdown in turnover growth.

Stage 4. Stabilization

Signs of the stage. System stabilization. The predominance of small, but constant income over large, but one-time transactions. Profit does not come from turnover, but from reducing costs per unit of production.

What you need to do to make the transition. Comfort of workplaces, aesthetics. Production of serial products. Implementation of a quality system. Establishing a system of constant feedback from the client. Saving money, rationalizing production.

If you have decided at what stage of development the organization is, you can analyze which of the relevant areas for this stage have been worked out well and which are not. And then it becomes clear what can slow down development, where it is worth directing the main attention and resources.

Stage 1. Origin. Objectives of the stage at the enterprise

Stage 2. Organizing. Objectives of the stage at the enterprise

Marketing, resource exploration.
Emotional influence on certain social groups of people. Creating a favorable image or a negative attitude towards something in target groups.
Streamlining work, creating a clear organizational structure, divisions and departments for a specific task, optimizing the organizational structure by eliminating unnecessary links that have not justified themselves.
Rational regrouping of personnel.
Systematization of documentation and putting it in order.
Inventory of material resources.
Studying competitors.
Creation of a security system: protection of material and intellectual property, as well as development of action programs in case of extreme situations or failures in the normal functioning of the organization.
Introduction of internal corporate rules, order and discipline.
Multifactor forecasting, design and strategic planning of actions. Anticipating crisis stages of events and implementing breakthroughs.
Studying the history or dynamics of development in your industry, making forecasts.
Conducting screenings and demonstrations.
Social activity.

Stage 3. Optimization. Objectives of the stage at the enterprise

Establishing the functioning of the system in its entirety, eliminating bottlenecks in production, stabilizing an organization that is operating with malfunctions.
Solving everyday infrastructure problems, deploying a logistics system.
Rationalization of production, introduction and operation of complex equipment, debugging and acceleration of technological processes.
Checking the stability of products and services under adverse environmental influences, organizing overload tests.
Organization of comprehensive repairs of equipment and depreciation systems.
Psychological assistance, advice on interpersonal communication tasks, conflict prevention.
Resolving issues of social security and humanitarian assistance.
Establishing public relations, establishing and maintaining informal contacts.
Cultivation of corporate traditions and customs, creation and maintenance moral and ethical standards behavior.

Stage 4. Stabilization. Objectives of the stage at the enterprise

Rational use of available resources, achieving a closed cycle in the manufacture of products.
Creation of methods for developing the creative abilities of employees.
Organization of rational and comfortable conditions work and rest, environmental management and establishment of a mass service network.
Creation of products with high consumer qualities.

What kind of personnel is needed?

Sometimes there is an opinion that any employee can be taught anything. In parallel, there is a completely opposite view of this: active hunting for natural talents, natural leaders and creatives. Both opinions are absolutely correct - to a certain extent. Each person has his own development potential, and there is a limit for each, beyond which he cannot now go. How to determine this limit is a separate question and is beyond the scope of this article. Now I would like to say the following: people act as both the main catalysts of change and their main neutralizers, and even reverse them. That's why correct placement personnel is one of the main factors in successfully resolving a crisis stage. In this case, their internal psychological qualities and abilities play a role first, and only then their experience, knowledge and qualifications. The psychological portrait of employees in demand at different stages of organizational development is described below.

Stage 1. Origin. They welcome freedom of thought, original ideas, new interesting information, no matter where it comes from. Their perception of the outside world is characterized by openness, mobility, lightness; they reject conventions and traditions. They are characterized by a sense of universal integrity and harmony of the world. The psychological age in which they live is childhood. They all feel and often behave like real children - sincerely, directly, with great curiosity. They are capable of being surprised by everything.

Stage 2. Organizing. Their main qualities are active nature, passion, focus and strength. They look for and find a field of activity where they can apply their energy and feel the spirit of struggle that they so need. They are very disciplined and organized people who know how to quickly gather themselves in the event of an emergency. Their psychological age- youth. In youth, a person is bold, active and impatient; he craves activity and self-affirmation. He harbors in his heart ambitious dreams of a brilliant career, major conquests, fame and honors. They look outwardly young and strong, vigorous and beautiful, in good control of their body.

Stage 3. Optimization. Their character is characterized by inconstancy and internal unrest. They are unpretentious in everyday life and easy to climb. They sharply abandon outdated ideas, criticize past mistakes and delusions, and strive to protect themselves from enemies and adversaries. They prefer gradual progress. In their view, all that is needed is to remove the obstacles that are hindering them, and unlimited growth opportunities will immediately open up ahead. They are not afraid of chaos and shocks, they know how to work in conditions of spontaneity, risk, and confusion. They are good at defending themselves and their positions. Their psychological age is maturity. A person thinks deeply about how he lived before and, by abandoning previous stereotypes, is able to radically change the course of his destiny.

Stage 4. Stabilization. Their perception of the world is realistic; above all, they value the stability of existence and the inviolability of proven traditions. These are open, friendly people with a philosophical view of things. Being experienced and sophisticated, they know how to value well-being in their home, peace and quiet on earth. They know how to consume rationally, wisely use economic and natural resources, prefer high-quality and durable goods. The psychological factor plays a very important role for them. They respect unusual, talented, original people. Their psychological age is old age. The wisdom and experience that accompanies the last period of a person's life underlies the respect for traditions and a significant amount of conservatism that is so characteristic of them.

Of course, it is hardly possible to swap places between the chief accountant and the engineer, despite all their psychological qualities. But you can give the leading role in strategic issues to either one or the other. Or to a third party. And when selecting new people, consider psychological characteristics candidates have long been taught.

Once again, I would like to draw the reader’s attention to the following key point: at each stage of an organization’s development, DIFFERENT personnel are needed, sometimes even opposite to the previous one. That is, other people. So, is it necessary to fire everyone and recruit new, suitable ones?

Fortunately, this can be solved in another way. As one of the options, you can create four departments (directions, departments), and at different stages, control and key positions are transferred to the hands of the corresponding department. Sometimes even one person can turn the flow in the right direction if he is in a key position. And these are not necessarily high positions. It happens that an ordinary secretary, in fact, manages the company. Don't believe me? Look at it from the perspective of who gets permission to speak with senior executives and when.

Stage 1. Origin. A modest rate, plus significant bonuses for achievements.

Stage 2. Organizing. Piecework, additional types incentives external signs distinctions: personalized prizes, certificates, badges, etc.

Stage 3. Optimization.% (percentage) of the shaft, profit or other part of the financial flow.

Stage 4. Stabilization. Rate or piece rate (depending on functional responsibilities), allowances for length of service, education, etc., social benefits.

Corporate culture and values at different stages

Stage 1. Origin. The style of activity is “family”. The style of activity is characterized by freedom, relaxation, and the presence of amenities. The psychological climate in the company is always cozy, relaxed, and homely. There is fun, but it doesn't turn into eccentricity. They prefer an atmosphere of informal communication. You should not expect quick results and follow formal rules. Narrow specialization is also not for them.

Stage 2. Organizing. The style of activity is “conveyor”. There is a simple, even somewhat mechanical, working atmosphere here. Forceful, authoritarian methods are used, the interests of the employee are completely subordinated to the interests of the entire organization. Corporate holidays and employee creativity are important: theater, music, poetry, etc.

Stage 3. Optimization. The style of activity is “market”. The work puts forward the individual, working alone. Internal entrepreneurship, competition, the spirit of competition, independence of actions and judgments are encouraged. The ability to take risks and navigate a constantly changing situation is valued. Demand for decent pay for quality work.

Stage 4. Stabilization. The style of activity is “commune”. Team coherence, comfortable working conditions, and stable order are valued. They do not like to work in an environment of risk, rush and chaos. Recognition of the individuality and uniqueness of everyone, non-interference in inner world human, concrete humanism.

And here, as in the case of personnel, the same problem arises: on the one hand, different values are welcomed at different stages of the organization’s development, and on the other hand, the corporate culture should not be changed with each transition to new stage, and you can lose all your old clients!

But this is not a problem or a contradiction. Corporate culture remains a true and unchanging core, at each stage acquiring only slightly different forms, adding nuances or variations. If we draw an analogy with clothing, then you can always remain faithful to the sports style of clothing, but every season, following fashion, you can change the cut, then play with shades of color, or experiment with accessories. It’s the same with corporate culture: while maintaining key values, place a certain emphasis at each stage.

Transitions without destruction

With any major change in an organization, there is a risk of loss and loss. Moreover, there will definitely be losses. People who don’t like the “wind of change” may leave; some clients who will lag behind the new pricing policy may leave. It may even be that part of the documentation “disappears” somewhere, or the hitherto stable local network begins to fail. This is all normal, and you need to be prepared for it. The question is how to minimize these losses, how to emerge from the crisis with renewed, not lost, faith in own strength and the correctness of the chosen path. This can be done if you follow some general rules any major changes:

Do everything gradually and smoothly. Any sudden jerks and turns can break connections and break the system. There is no need to announce on Monday morning at a planning meeting that “now we will live in a new way,” fire all those who disagree and immediately introduce a new payment system. To begin, draw a proposed diagram and think through the details. Discuss the change plan with those closest to you. Try working for a month or two “in a double standard,” i.e. actual calculations are carried out in the old way, but in parallel it is calculated how it would look in a new way.
Make changes confidently, persistently and quickly enough. At first glance, this contradicts the previous point. However, confidence, speed and fluidity go well together. Be consistent. The decisions made must be implemented, otherwise employees will get used to acting on the principle of “let’s wait, otherwise everything will change again.” Of course, in exceptional situations it is possible and necessary to change decisions and plans, but this should not become the rule.
Be open and honest, feel feedback. Provide employees with enough information to understand and accept the need for change. When there is a lack of data, people tend to come up with their own, not always the best, interpretations of what is happening. You can hold general meetings, post information on an internal corporate website, in a wall newspaper, or make mailings. Emphasize that changes will bring primarily positive things: sometimes freedom and expansion of boundaries, sometimes confidence in the future and stability, and sometimes professional growth and the opportunity to increase your income. And give employees a chance to speak out before changes begin to happen, otherwise they will be left feeling that they were not listened to or taken into account.
Carry out adaptation measures. For example, corporate trainings (mission and goals, team building, self-management). They will help old employees accept the new rules of the game, and new ones - to smoothly integrate into an already established team.

And again, at each stage of an organization’s development there are its own risks specific to this stage:

Stage 1. Origin. Freedom of speech and impatience. Ahead of time, untimeliness. Theorizing and the inability of practical implementation, the impossibility of systematic expansion. Dislike of rigid frameworks - commandments, codes, rules, lack of stability. Substitution of the concept of morality with the concept of justice. Inability to conserve and accumulate resources.

Stage 2. Organizing. There is no room for dissent, a ban on original thinking. Ethics is replaced by ideology. Labor productivity is stimulated by strong-willed pressure and increased enthusiasm. Private entrepreneurship is not valued; it is impossible to respond flexibly to changing situations. Disdain for “philistine joys” and pleasure.

Stage 3. Optimization. Desire to change places and occupations, neglect of health. Dryness in communication. Fear of opening your creative achievements for everyone to see. Destruction of social values, there is no sense of a single whole.

Stage 4. Stabilization. Fears of external pressure, attacks on one’s comforts, personal rights and internal freedom. Superficiality of beliefs. Living in the present without thinking about the past and future. Disrespect for knowledge and authority. Weak competitiveness, growth has stopped.

Development Management

You can hide from change by at least preserving what you have. But this is not a permanent situation. Or you can consciously and thoughtfully, armed with the knowledge and support of professionals, manage your own changes. Be ready for the next turn. Acting in advance means being more constructive and effective. And this is conscious business development.

Natalia Berezhnaya

One of the most important problems management organization is to determine the purposefulness of its system, i.e. establishing the main (general) purpose of the company’s existence.

The goal is the desired state of the system. There are two types of goals: development and stabilization.

The goals that make up the overall goal of the company must have a number of characteristics: management planning control

*specificity (certain result);
*visibility (short-term, long-term);
*reality (attainability);
* interconnectedness (consistency with other goals);
*efficiency (effectiveness and profitability).

The main thing is to determine the goals that meet the interests of the company, and, therefore, to determine the management functions that implement these goals.

Goals are realized through management functions. The implementation of each function is ensured by the corresponding management unit, which is structural element control systems. The validity of the existence of structural units in the management system is always determined by their functions. In turn, the efficiency of each unit depends on its internal structure, the elements of which (groups and individual employees) are determined by the operations that make up these functions.

Management functions are generated by the division of labor, combining elements of cumulative impact that are homogeneous in nature and commonality of intermediate goals, i.e. individual management work. To name management functions, it is necessary to determine the signs of homogeneity and commonality of goals, elements of targeted influence. None of the functions by itself or a simple sum of functions provide an idea of control. Only in inextricable unity and interaction do they form a single management cycle.

Any The management function consists of five types of management activities with relative independence:

1. planning;
2. organizations;
3. coordination;
4. activation;
5. control.

Each previous type of activity is a necessary prerequisite for the subsequent one, until this function is fully realized. This means that the degree of completeness of the implementation of the management function depends on the complexity of management activities.

To understand the content of each management function, it is necessary to present it as a set of these five main types of interrelated management actions. For clarity, let's illustrate this with the planning function in developing a specific plan. This work is carried out by a significant group of employees. To achieve the goal (developing a plan), their activities must be planned, organized, coordinated, activated and controlled. In this example, you can see the difference between the concepts of “planning” as a management function and “planning” as its component, one of the five management actions of this function. In the same way, if a group of employees develops a system for rewarding the company's employees, then their work needs to be planned, organized, coordinated, activated (encouraged) and controlled. That is, when performing the “activation” management function, workers need to be activated.

Let us now consider the types of management actions.

1. The first type is planning, i.e. determining the optimal result under given time and resource constraints. In any management decision or order, there are always answers to the questions: who should do what, how much and when.
2. The question of how to do this can be answered by the second type of management activity - organization, i.e. determination of ways, methods and means of achieving the goal. When analyzing the implementation of functions, it is necessary to seriously check at which hierarchical level of management the organization's strategy is implemented, and at which tactics are implemented.
3. The third type is coordination, or harmonization, i.e. establishing harmony in working together participants in the planned process. When analyzing functions for this type of activity, it is necessary to pay attention to the implementation time. As a rule, in practice this type of management activity is carried out during the production process, and not before it begins. From here great amount so-called five-minute sessions, often lasting several hours. Therefore, when analyzing functions, it is advisable to pay attention to the minutes of various meetings, at which coordination issues are mainly resolved promptly.
4. The fourth type is activation, or stimulation, i.e. creation of such working conditions under which each employee would work with the highest efficiency.
5. The fifth type of management activity - control - must be especially carefully carried out. In practice, unfortunately, there is a confusion of control and accounting. Often, instead of predicting the progress of work, significant part time is spent on identifying the reasons for the failure of tasks. Control is, first of all, the prediction of deviations and their timely prevention. Preventing deviations is the main task of a perfect management system.

Management presupposes complexity in the implementation of management functions. For effective management it is necessary to consider:

* the entire sum of functions that make up the content of management, and establish the degree of compliance of this sum with the goals and objectives facing this particular management system;
*complexity of the implementation of each function by type of activity, coordination of the shares of the function when they are implemented by different performers and the complexity of performing the function, taking into account the equal intensity of labor;
*procedures for implementing each function in order to simplify and improve the technology for their implementation.

Analysis of the effectiveness of the function will also make it possible to more clearly define the responsibilities and rights of management employees and, on this basis, to design a more rational management system.

Functions are the basis of management. The composition and number of the management apparatus as a whole, as well as the composition and number of employees of its divisions, are determined by the management functions and their constituent operations. Any impact on the managed system can only be implemented through control functions.

The activities of the management apparatus are aimed at uniting in the general flow of managerial work all relatively separate, although inextricably linked, management functions. Therefore, analysis of the functional apparatus of management is important.

Analysis of management functions makes it possible to systematize knowledge about the dynamics, pace and directions of development, causal relationships and interrelations of functions, and reserves for improving their organization. Analysis of management functions is a component of management, and the results of the analysis are the basis for improving the existing management system.

The choice of object of analysis depends on the objectives of its implementation. It is possible to identify types of work that are closely interrelated and at the same time representing a single management function, to justify system-wide information, and the distribution of rights and responsibilities in the management system. The functions of the entire system are taken as the object of analysis, then a general system analysis is carried out. And if it is necessary to substantiate specific information, the subfunction (functional subsystem) that includes this range of work is taken as the object of analysis.

Analysis of individual operations in the workplace is carried out in cases where it is necessary to highlight work that requires equal qualifications of management personnel.

The versatility of the analysis, the need to search for reserves at all levels of management when performing each function require a strict distribution of responsibility between all links in carrying out this analytical work. All departments and services must conduct current, operational analysis and participate in the study of work by function or subfunction, operation. The implementation of a comprehensive analysis is assigned to certain services (divisions for organizing management), which must coordinate the work of the management apparatus in accordance with the functions that meet its goals and objectives.

The initial data for analysis can be: the results of a questionnaire or interview; monitoring the progress of management (photos of the working day, long-term observation of the work of a functional department, etc.); document flow analysis; study of regulatory and instructional materials, reports on work performance, conclusions of commissions, minutes of meetings, meetings, etc.

In the process of analyzing management functions, the following are studied:

* compliance of the goals of the managed object with the content of work on management functions;
*content of work of each function at management levels;
*distribution of management functions among departments;
*distribution of rights and responsibilities between employees of the management apparatus;
*connection of control functions.

All these are the main directions of analysis of management functions. Regardless of the object, methods and directions of implementation, it must be carried out in strict sequence: an analysis program is drawn up, initial data are selected and studied, the results of the analysis are summarized and appropriate recommendations are given.

The results of the analysis of control functions can be expressed as:

*functional (economic-organizational) management model, which reflects the relationship between management functions and specific performers;
*functionogram (functional diagram), which shows how static divisions are interconnected;
* work schedule (network or calendar), reflecting the dynamics of work execution and their interrelation.

The result of the analysis may be activities aimed at:

*department of auxiliary and routine settlement works;
* rationalization of communication between employees and performers;
*allocation of common work for the management system as a whole, the results of which are used by all departments;
*allocation of coordinating cross-functional work.

Thus, the main directions of analysis of management functions are the study of their entire sum, which constitutes the content of management, establishing the degree of its compliance with the goals and objectives facing the management object, as well as improving its organization.

In order to eliminate deviations, the company uses control.

Control is a process that ensures the achievement of the organization's goals. It is necessary to detect and resolve emerging problems before they become too serious, and can also be used to stimulate successful performance.

The control process consists of setting standards, changing the actual results achieved, and making adjustments if the results achieved differ significantly from the established standards.

Managers begin to exercise the control function from the very moment when they formulated goals and objectives and created the organization. Control is very important for an organization to function successfully.

Control function- this is a management characteristic that allows you to identify problems and adjust the organization’s activities accordingly before these problems develop into a crisis.

One of the most important reasons for the need for control is that any organization, of course, must have the ability to timely record its errors and correct them before they harm the achievement of the company's goals.

Equally important is the positive side of control, which consists in the full support of everything that is successful in the activities of the company. In other words, one of the important aspects of control is to determine which areas of the firm's activities are most effective. By identifying the successes and failures of the company and their reasons, we are able to quickly adapt the organization to dynamic requirements external environment.

Control not only allows problems and responds to them in a way that achieves

changes in the activities of our company. Control is a critical and complex function management. One of the most important features of control that should be considered first is that control must be comprehensive. Every manager, regardless of his rank, must exercise control as an integral part of his job responsibilities, even if no one specifically instructed him to do so.

Control is a fundamental element of the management process. Neither planning, nor the creation of organizational structures, nor motivation can be considered completely in isolation from control. Indeed, virtually all of them are integral parts of the overall control system in a given organization. There are three main types of control: preliminary, current and final. In terms of the form of implementation, all these types of control are similar, since they have the same goal: to ensure that the actual results obtained are as close as possible to the required ones. They differ only in the time of implementation.

Any organization is a purposeful system of activity. All forms of organizations appear and develop as unique responses to the various tasks that a person or group of people sets for themselves in the course of their purposeful activities. An engineering approach can be applied to the process of creating and functioning of organizations, which makes it possible to design effective organizational systems.

... the purpose of the goal and the choice of means to achieve it make up the meaning

studying systems. The existence of systems theory is justified

the opportunity to achieve what you want with its help

system state.

<В.Д. Могилевский>

1. Organizations as purposeful systems of activity

An organization arises when between some initial objects (in particular, people and/or groups of people) natural relationships that are stable over a certain period of time arise, updating or limiting some properties of the system being created or transformed.

The creation and functioning of organizations are variants of a purposeful system of activity, and the organizations themselves (enterprises, companies, concerns, communities, clubs, etc.) actually act as tools for achieving their goals. Moreover, the specific set of declared goals can vary within very wide limits - from extracting material benefits to resolving political, social, moral, ethical or any other contradictions. Thus, all forms of organizations appear and develop as unique responses to the multitude of tasks that a person or group of people sets for themselves in the course of their purposeful activities.

Example 1. Organization in action.

Problem: suppose you want to cut down a whole grove of trees. You can, of course, wait for this event Z (all the trees to fall to the ground) to happen by itself. For example, a visiting tornado with the “Made in USA” stamp will come to visit us. But this is very unlikely if we are talking about Russia. In short, probability p spontaneous transition to the event Z is almost no different from zero.

But the task of cutting down a grove can be approached differently - purposefully, namely, purposefully recruit a team of lumberjacks, provide them with equipment, and set a felling schedule, which with a new probability P, much greater than p, will provide us with state Z (all trees lie on the ground).

Did you feel the difference? This is the essence of organizations.

Quite roughly, two main ways of creating organizations can be distinguished: (1) intuitive, spontaneous; (2) goal-oriented, scientifically based. In the first case, we can talk about a random process of improvement and/or emergence of a certain system of activity (i.e., about the self-organization of a certain system of activity), and in the second, about managing the process of creating a system of activity, which can also take place along with the process of self-organization. At the same time, the process of forming or changing a new organizational unit can be qualitatively characterized as evolutionary, adaptive, regression, etc. Most of these concepts do not have an unambiguous interpretation and are often used quite arbitrarily. So, for example, evolution is a modification of a system in the direction of increasing its adaptability (optimization of certain parameters) to environmental conditions. The main feature that distinguishes development from other dynamic processes, for example, from the growth process, is the qualitative change over time in the parameters characterizing the state of the system (the growth process is characterized only by a quantitative change in parameters), and this change is abrupt, often irreversible. Purposeful action differs from spontaneous action, primarily in that it increases the probability of the system transitioning from the current state to a certain specified state. Obviously, it is precisely in initiating such changes that the meaning of management lies.

Let us introduce a number of formal notations and abbreviations:

CD - purposeful action(Q);

R- resources(material and technical, financial, labor, information) spent on the implementation of targeted activities;

S- environmental conditions (external environment, macro environment), in which action Q occurs;

Z- target actions (goal event);

W-“ by-product”, accompanying the implementation of the event of goal Z ;

Central lock - target link- the combination S + R + Z + W characteristic of a given purposeful action;

p is the probability of spontaneous occurrence of an event equivalent to Z;

P is the probability of purposeful action.

As a rule, P > p ³ 0.

The purposeful action of Q is thus " bridge"(tool, mechanism, method, transmission, etc.) for the transition from a situation with existing resources (R, S) to a new situation Z, and the transition, as a rule, is accompanied by the release of by-products W, and the probability of its implementation is greater than the probability of the spontaneous occurrence of the event , equivalent to Z. In formalized form, the general scheme of purposeful action (Q):

Q(P>p): [ R,S] ® [ Z,W] (1)

We emphasize that a purposeful action (Q) or a purposeful action operator Q is understood as any process, mechanism, sequence of actions (operations) that exists and/or is created to perform a specific job.

Example 2. The role of CD operators is:

Separate technical devices(for example, operators of targeted utilization of fossil fuel energy, tools):

- People(specialists as operators to perform certain actions in certain conditions with a high probability P);

- binary systems “person” + “person”, “person” + “technical device” (an example of such a combination is a department store - a targeted system for selling goods - which includes both specialists (for example, sales managers) and technical devices (printers, stamps , calculators, room lighting devices, etc.), the combined use of which should ideally increase the probability P of the act of sale).

Example 3. Business processes and supply chains as special cases of operators of targeted activities.

A commercial enterprise is a complex system within which a complete set of dynamic processes are implemented. In the theory and practice of organizational management, it is customary to use the generalized concept of “business process” to denote the main class of these processes. Buisness process- this is a set of different types of activities, within which one or more types of resources are used “input”, and as a result of this activity “output” a product is created that is valuable to the consumer (Hammer, Champy, 1999).

In the logistics paradigm, within the framework of business processes, separate operations, their corresponding resources and performers. The execution of a business process is initiated by events (situations), and the business process itself is one of the forms of response to changes in the parameters of the external or internal environments. In particular, the concept of “service response logistics” (SRL) is used, which is defined as the process of coordinating logistics operations necessary to provide services to the most effective way in terms of cost and customer satisfaction (Ballou, 1993). Thus, the enterprise is treated as a multi-level service system , and enterprise management - as regulating the parameters of business processes or parameters of supply chains.

On this site we consider all types of organizations as complex operators of purposeful activity in the above sense. The use of certain sets of similar operators makes it possible to implement the basic chain “goal (task) – organizational decision.”

It is in the conscious, justified combination of operators of purposeful activity that the essence lies. organizational and social construction.

2. Typology of organizations

Each scientific discipline offers its own approach to the classification of organizations, corresponding to its subject area. In our opinion, all these definitions are correct in their own way in the contexts for which they were formulated.

For the purposes of this article, we do not consider it necessary to discuss these classifications. Let us dwell on the fact that an organization is a tool for achieving a set of goals formed by the main interested groups (primarily owners, top management, staff, consumers, society, etc.). This definition is of an essential nature and has no relation to the organizational and legal form of a particular economic unit.

We are based on the assumption that, regardless of how an organization is defined, it:

operates according to scheme (1), i.e. is a purposeful system of activity;
is created and developed on the basis of a specific set of goals (tasks), towards the achievement of which its existence is directed.

Thus organization is a social form of resolving social problems and contradictions. Note that by task we mean a strictly formulated contradiction between the desired (target) and actual states.

Example 4. Social tasks and contradictions:

4.1. The famous revolutionary contradiction “the leaders cannot<компетентно управлять>, but the lower classes don’t want<жить по старому>"has given rise to a huge range of organizations, each of which resolves this contradiction in its own way. The most famous of them are probably such an organization as parliament and terrorist organizations.

4.2. The task of disseminating information about one's products (the subtask of expanding sales) at one time gave birth to the figure of an advertising agent, and subsequently to such an organization as an advertising agency.

Moreover, all goals declared by organizations ultimately have a socio-psychological nature.

Example 5. In 2001, the merger of Lucent Technologies and Alcatel fell through, in 1999 - Texaco Inc. and Chevron Corp, in 1998 - Monsanto Co. with American Home Products Corp. Undoubtedly, all these mergers would increase the wealth of the merging companies. The reasons for the breakdown of negotiations in all cases are that two top managers could not agree on which of them would manage the merged company, i.e. preferred to exchange the company's welfare for their personal social and professional status.

The exclusively targeted nature of the creation and functioning of organizations allows us to propose a basic typology of organizations grouped according to purpose.

In our opinion, the components of purposeful action we introduced in entry (1) are sufficient to sketch a typology of organizations. Almost any organization can be described as a pattern of purposeful action (1). To do this, let’s ask ourselves: for what purpose do people and/or groups of people unite? That is, for what purpose are certain organizations created? And based on (1) we answer that people and/or groups of people create an organization (see Table 1.1):

1. For socialization/sharing of resources R

An example of an organization created for this purpose:

Consortium is a form of organization that is a temporary association between several banks or industrial companies for the purpose of joint placement of a loan or implementation of the capital-intensive phase of a project when financial resources one participant is no longer enough.

2. To remove/recycle by-products W

Organization example:

A mental hospital is an organization created, according to M. Foucault, for the “disposal” of individuals whose behavior is destructive in relation to society.

3. Around common and/or complementary goals Z(1) … Z(n)

Organization example:

A company store consists of activity subsystems whose goals are not common. Thus, the sales department in a store is a data center system specialized in creating operators that ensure the sale of goods. The operators here are sales methods - from verbal to non-verbal - and equipment that speeds up the preparation of reports and transactions and ensures an advantageous presentation of goods and exhibition equipment. Employees of this department are interested in maximum sales volumes. On the other hand, the neighboring department - the department of purchasing and storing goods - pursues its goal of ensuring the fastest possible transfer of all cash and non-cash funds of the company into goods. There is an obvious contradiction between the goals of these subsystems: sellers want to sell more and more, but the purchasing department cannot provide them with an unlimited quantity of goods. However, complete with such subsystems as the finance department and the advertising department, a viable activity IS is formed - the simplest purposeful system of a company store.

4. For conflict-free and/or mutually beneficial use of the situation S

Organization example:

Cartel - social association political parties, created to carry out a common agreed program on an important issue.

5. For the purpose of socialization/division of new operators

Department (at a plant, at a research institute) - is created to integrate the activities of specialists, create new techniques and expand the capabilities of the tool base.

6. Various mixed forms of associations based on combinations of paragraphs. 15

Casino - solves the problem of exchanging money for emotions.

Tribal community - the problem of effective joint use of resources R (land) and operators (means of production, people - members of the community) is solved.

Table 1.1

Typology of organizations

Types of organizations (grouping by target characteristic)
Goal groups	Generalization/sharing of resources	By-product removal/processing	Implementation of common/complementary goals	Conflict-free and/or mutually beneficial use of the situation	Generalization / division / formation of activity operators	Various combinations of previous goals
Example of organizations	Commercial enterprise, consortium	Psychiatric hospital, "cemetery" of industrial waste	Associations, unions, supermarkets	Cartels, parliamentary groups	Functional departments, brigades, teams	Casino, tribal community

Within the framework of the proposed typology (Table 1.1), it becomes essentially unimportant whether, for example, the organization is commercial. The emphasis is on the fact that each organization solves a problem, and this task may not necessarily be related to making a profit. We do not claim that our typology captures all the features of any specific organization. But its use allows you to quickly identify the key problems that are hindering the development of one or another form of organization and switch to the search for new forms that allow you to resolve the emerging contradiction.

3. What is organizational and social engineering?

We noted above that organization is a social form of resolving social problems and contradictions. This approach allows us to approach a typically sociological subject - social association (social interaction) - from an engineering perspective. Indeed, an engineer, creating and/or improving any technical system, begins his work by formulating a technical contradiction between the desired (Z) and the existing (S). Next, the so-called inventory takes place. material-field resources (R) available to him. And only then is a purposeful action operator constructed, thanks to which transition (1) becomes possible:

Q(P > p): ® .

In the light of what we have said regarding nature organizational systems(in particular, the purposefulness of functioning) and their typology, there are no fundamental restrictions on applying the above-described engineering procedure to the problem of creating organizations.

Note in the text

Unfortunately, our leaders and social workers either they are reduced to intuition and instinct, or they are absent. Meanwhile, any manager who wants to develop professionally needs to practice identifying social and organizational contradictions every day. To begin to feel the emerging social contradictions, it is necessary, as in any creative activity, decide relevant tasks. Therefore, on our website we have created a section “Problem book on social construction”, where you can place your own problems, “suffering” for own experience, either gleaned from books and/or get acquainted with problems known to us, trying to solve them differently than we or the authors of these problems did. It should be remembered that in life, every problem has several solutions.

We emphasize that the use of the “engineering paradigm” in the theory and practice of organizational development is not something fundamentally new. General overview about organization as a system of universal schemes was formulated back in the 20s of the 20th century in the works of A.A. Bogdanov, who substantiated the need to create a universal organizational science (tectology). In the works of I.S. Ladenko dedicated to “intelligent systems,” the question of activity as a schema-reflexible entity was raised, and the general problems of the relationship between activity, thinking, learning and management were considered on the basis of universal models. A practice-oriented model description of a hierarchical organization as a set of coordinated decisions was developed by M. Mesarovic. The engineering (or “engineering”) approach is the basis of generally accepted standards of business modeling (for example, the IDEF methodology) and the methodology of structural analysis and design (Structured Analysis and Design Technique, SADT), the basis of functional cost analysis (Activity Based Costing, ABC) and implemented in a number of software packages (ARIS, IDEF/Design, Rational Rose, SAP R/3, Galaktika, Parus, Etalon, etc.).

The possibility of using engineering methods to social matter has been proven in a number of methodological works of recent decades (Zlotin B.N., Zusman A.V., 1989; Radshun R.V., 1997; Korogodin V.I., Sosnin E.A. , Poizner B.N., 2000). In particular, it was shown that all purposeful systems of activity develop according to the same patterns and therefore the experience of improving such purposeful activity as the creation of new technical objects can be (with reservations) transferred to the sphere of social and organizational design.

So, under organizational design we understand a set of procedures unfolded over time that makes it possible to form a certain purposeful system of activity (organization). Each procedure interferes with the established or random course of events, increasing the probability P of the target outcome.

The basis of the design process is the development of a formal logical model of the organization that meets the goals of the main stakeholder groups. As in engineering design (see, for example, Ilyichev A.V., 1991), at the initial stage the appearance of the system is selected, corresponding to the given goal and resources, considered alternative options achieving a given goal and selecting the best one. The stage is completed by the development of tactical and technical specifications for the development of a social system, which, for example, includes: 1) determining a set of operators of targeted activity (Q) (for example, recruitment of the necessary specialists, composition of the machine park, methodological support); 2) determination of possible options for resource provision (R) ( for example, concluding contracts for the supply of raw materials and energy, connecting to the Internet); 3) model of interaction of the organization with the external environment ( for example, organizing distribution channels, registration regulatory documents, opening a bank account); 4) possible options for organizational and legal forms of existence of the organization ( for example, registering a company as legal entity ) etc..

As a result, a document (project) must be drawn up, including: 1) justification for the proposed solutions; 2) the process model of the organization as a whole; 3) parameters of the main processes (targeted actions); 4) requirements for the organization’s personnel; 5) detailed technical, economic, socio-psychological, environmental and other design tasks.

Then, based on the project, the assembly/remodeling of the social system and its subsequent operation are carried out.

As shown in the works (Zlotin B.N., Zusman A.V., 1989; Korogodin V.I., Sosnin E.A., Poizner B.N., 2000), the project of an organization (as a purposeful system of activities) is built on standard procedures, and there are only a few such procedures. Different authors call them differently. In memetics (Dawkins, 1993) they are called memes, in socioergonics (Korogodin V.I., Sosnin E.A., Poizner B.N., 2000) standards for resolving social contradictions. Their entire set forms a kind of constructor of techniques, on the basis of which it can be built or modernized social system as a means of overcoming social contradictions. Thus, designing an organization can be considered as a process of constructing a data center operator based on a certain set of standards.

The work contains materials obtained during the implementation of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research project No. 00-06-80195.

Literature

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R. Lewicky, M. Stevenson and V. Banker (Lewicky et al., 1997) believe that the formation of trust in business relations goes through three phases. At the first stage, when trust has not yet been formed, relationships are built on the basis of calculation. In such relationships, it is assumed that it is not beneficial for the other partner to violate his obligations. If they are not violated, then the process of trust formation will move into the second phase - the knowledge phase. Relationship experience, frequency and depth of contacts and interaction are significant for its course. If trust meets the expectations of the parties, then the third phase begins in the development of relations - identity, which is characterized by recognition of the common values, goals and interests of the interacting parties. Relationships between people who trust each other are characterized by psychological closeness and stability. The authors of the approach note that the pace of transition of relationships from one phase to another can be different, sometimes relationships are interrupted at some stage. It depends on the large number objective and subjective factors.

How to introduce elements of trust into management?
Ideally, the process of transforming into a trust-based organization should go through three stages.
In the first stage, the entire process is initiated by management, which formulates its vision of the key points of a trust-based organization. Then this vision needs to be formalized and ways of communicating it to employees need to be thought through. These actions should not be specified at this stage. What is more important here is to decide on the direction in which the organization will develop in order to become trust-based and effectively functioning. It is also important to motivate middle managers to actively support the transition process.
In the second stage, the concept of a trust-based organization must be communicated to all employees. The main task of middle managers is to constantly stimulate the transition process. Employees should be made aware of the benefits of the concept as quickly as possible and show its positive impact on the work process due to more open communication, greater responsibility for their actions and greater dependence between work and payment. This mobilizes their readiness for change and motivates them to improve their performance.
At the third stage, ongoing events must be constantly assessed. Middle managers monitor staff attitudes towards them. This makes it easy to understand whether the process of transforming into a trust-based organization is going well or not.
NPO management: relying on trust. 2008

Researchers note factors and processes that contribute to the formation of a relatively high level of trust from the very beginning of interaction between two participants in the organizational structure. Initial trust is formed when following conditions: 1) the existence of a predisposition to trust, a willingness to trust in one of the participants in the interaction; 2) the presence of institutional trust; 3) the presence of categorization processes and illusions of control. Institutional trust arises in situations when a person believes in the existence of objective circumstances that ensure that the interacting parties fulfill their obligations.

The expectation of high trust in the initial relationship will be very weak under the following conditions: 1) when this expectation is supported by only a few previous cases; 2) when it is based on assumptions, assumptions; 3) when the level of risk is high.

How to develop trust in a team: myths and reality
The trust of team members in each other goes through three main stages: calculation, experience, identity.
The calculation stage is based on a kind of balance of all the pros and cons, which the trustor mentally calculates in the event of a partner’s violation of his obligations. Trust at this stage is quite fragile, develops slowly, carefully and can disappear as a result of one wrong step. At the same time, the frequency of contacts in the team and compliance with agreements in small things are fundamentally important for its development: call back on time, send the requested information. The rational component of trust is of primary importance at this time; team members must be convinced of each other’s competence, reliability, and predictability. At this stage, small victories are especially necessary: successfully solving minor problems through joint efforts.
At the experience stage, various guarantees and balances largely lose their meaning, since the partner’s actions in the future can be judged by his behavior in similar situations in the past. At this stage, the importance of the emotional components of trust—goodwill and openness to discussing problems—increases. At the same time, trust increases in serious crises, critical situations, the resolution of which requires mutual assistance. On the contrary, if, when faced with difficulties, managers are “too busy” or are afraid to frankly express their opinions on complex issues, the team risks losing trust forever. As research shows, closeness is the surest way to destroy trust, as it allows team members to attribute any, even the most ridiculous, motives to each other’s behavior.
At the identity stage, team members are a group with unified system values. They understand each other so well and are similar in their assessments of what is happening that they can trust each other to represent mutual interests in relations with other people. At this stage, even serious isolated failures caused by the wrong decisions of one of the group members do not reduce trust if the others are confident that the employee followed the team principles.
Nestik T. A., 2005. P. 33

T. A. Nestik notes that one of the criteria for an employee’s trust in his organization as an employer is how much, from his point of view, he can count on the support of the team. If a person comes to a department and begins to devote himself completely to work, then it is very important whether other employees will support his impulse or, on the contrary, will begin to pull him back, saying that he is “setting them up”, raising the bar, the production rate. The same can be said about some very complex project, when the degree of satisfaction with relationships with management and colleagues within this project affects job satisfaction as a whole.

A. B. Kupreichenko, based on the results of his empirical study of trust in an organization, as well as theoretical and empirical analysis trust structures formulated some recommendations for the targeted formation of trust components in the business sphere.

One of the main components of trust is the reliability of the interaction partner. It is formed if the parties fulfill their assumed obligations, which are naturally different for different interest groups. The company's clients are interested in fulfilling promises regarding the quality of products and services, prices and terms of transactions. The company's employees expect stable employment, career growth, and an objective system of rewards and punishments from management. Management, in turn, expects high labor productivity, effective training and increased knowledge and skills of personnel, etc.

An important element of trust based on reliability, notes A. B. Kupreichenko, is providing support and showing care. Thus, enterprises expect understanding and assistance from their partners, shareholders, clients and government agencies in difficult situations: extending loans, deferring payments, maintaining brand loyalty, supporting staff reductions and tolerating temporary losses. For company employees, manifestations of care will be different kinds insurance, job guarantees or additional benefits in case of layoffs, flexible work schedules, various shapes additional holidays etc. The management of the enterprise expects that staff in a crisis situation will support a number of forced measures, for example delaying wages or cutting jobs. An important indicator of caring is the manifestation of an active interest in work, recognition of merit and personal contribution.

The economic content of the category of trust is of the most specific and applied nature. Confidence in economics can be viewed at different levels. In its most aggregated form, trust can be considered at the micro and macro levels, i.e. at the level of an individual organization and the economy as a whole.
In this sense, increasing the level of trust in organizations depends on creating conditions for a positive solution to key issues of the quality of working life, which is understood as a certain set of employee needs and the degree of their satisfaction. The following are quality of work life indicators published by the Labor Research Institute of America.
1. Fair wage- equal pay for equal work, fairly justified differentiation of wages. It is recommended to take into account the level of individual responsibility for the results of overall work and provide additional remuneration for long service in the company.
2. Additional payment program - payments to the employee and his family in case of illness, as well as paid rest time in connection with holidays, vacations, paid leave for education.
3. Occupational safety and health conditions. This also includes the establishment of normal working hours, retirement age and other factors that determine the social rights of workers.
4. Job security - ensuring continuity of work experience and employee confidence in his future. Entrepreneurs are recommended to bear part of the costs that arise in connection with a forced change of place of work (additional professional education, retraining).
5. Development of employee abilities - programs to improve general education and professional level, retraining, personal self-realization.
6. Social integration- favorable socio-psychological microclimate; relationships between managers and subordinates that promote frankness and trust, freedom from prejudice and equality of people, regardless of rank and position.
7. Participation of workers in production and property management, encouragement of initiative, promotion of new ideas. The employee’s awareness that the activities of his organization have a positive impact on the development of society.
8. Democracy in production. Workers are provided with the rights and privileges arising from their membership in the organization (freedom of speech, the right to privacy, freedom from any discrimination and the right to participate in all work-related activities).
9. Lifestyle - work should be a harmonious part of an individual's life. Work schedules, business trips and overtime work must be reasonably balanced with responsibilities to the family, free time, used for recreation and personal development.
Milner Z. B., 1998

One of the significant components of trust in an organization is a sense of unity (identity), the presence of common goals and principles - one company, one vision. A. B. Kupreichenko believes that it is important to develop a corporate spirit among employees of an organization that would balance the interests and goals of individuals, groups and departments. This is created through various means. One of them is to minimize hierarchical and job differences between levels of the organization. This requires both the elimination of a number of status symbols and benefits, and genuine openness and informality of business and personal communication between management and staff.

As additional means A. B. Kupreichenko recommends using special training aimed at developing common goals and setting priorities. Another means of creating a sense of unity is to provide open information about the goals and motivations of management and the various departments. The rapprochement of department employees is facilitated by joint work on a project, targeted meetings to discuss business problems, joint training, informal meetings regarding certain events in the organization, i.e., all possible forms of communication both vertically and horizontally of the organizational structure.

And finally, the third component of trust - predictability, or knowledge - will be formed if the developed strategy is strictly followed, in the absence of sudden changes in course and if any changes to previously made decisions are justified, if honest, decent behavior is observed in relation to all groups of stakeholders. To purposefully shape the honest and consistent behavior of its employees, the company’s management can apply a number of measures, believes A. B. Kupreichenko. You need to start by demonstrating your own integrity and consistency. In addition, it is important to reward and lead by example those employees who follow these principles. Here, the organization of information flow also plays a significant role. If the company's management does not promptly explain the reasons that caused the change in strategy to its partners and employees, then reliable information will be replaced by rumors, which will have an extremely negative impact on the level of trust.

In order to effectively apply these recommendations in practice, writes A. B. Kupreichenko, it is necessary to clearly understand the characteristics of interacting economic entities, the nature of their connections, mutual expectations and characteristics of the social groups of which they are representatives. The set of measures to build trust in the organization must comply with organizational structure and type of corporate culture. Important place takes into account the characteristics of the external environment of the company. Thus, for Russian representatives of the business world, the author notes, for economic reasons, a number of ways to build and maintain trust are not yet available, in particular, guaranteed employment, additional payments when reducing staff or taking care of your retirees.

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