Research of Antarctica in our time. Economic importance of Antarctica

Argentina, South Africa and others signed the Antarctic Treaty. The treaty proclaimed freedom of scientific research and the use of this region only for peaceful purposes. Antarctica became the first continent in the world where all military activity is prohibited; it is called the continent of peace and international cooperation.

Currently, about 50 states have signed the Antarctic Treaty.

2008 marked 50 years of active research in Antarctica. Many states have created scientific stations on the mainland (Argentina, Germany, China, Russia, USA, Chile, etc.). The USSR built several stations at different times, for example Vostok, Mirny, Komsomolskaya, Novolazarevskaya, Pionerskaya, Molodezhnaya. At the geographic South Pole, the southernmost Antarctic station, Amundsen-Scott (USA), is constantly operating. During this time, several targeted international studies of the polar regions were carried out (International Polar Years). This was the 2007/2008 polar year, the purpose of which was to study global climate changes on Earth.

In the coming years, the Belarusian Antarctic station “Mount Vechernyaya” will be created 18 km from the Russian Molodezhnaya station.

Scientific research is supported by the International Environmental Fund. Meteorological, oceanographic, biological, space, astronomical, and medical research are the main areas of scientific research in Antarctica. Antarctica is a natural laboratory for complex geographical and other studies. The main goal of modern research is to determine current and assess future climate changes, the state of the environment and the consequences of these changes for Antarctica, and to develop proposals for nature conservation in a changing climate.

Changes in the Antarctic environment may affect development. According to certain scenarios, as a result of climate change, the ice sheet of Antarctica may melt, which will lead to the flooding of many developed areas of the Earth. Various countries are studying the problem, atmospheric processes and their influence on the formation of the Earth's climate. A valuable natural resource is the fresh water of the ice sheet. Given the intense pollution of land surface waters, the ice of Antarctica may become the only source of clean drinking water on Earth.

Subglacial Lake Vostok has been isolated from the rest of the world for about a million years and is the object of study by scientists. Studies of ice samples from various depths of Antarctica at the Vostok station, obtained through deep drilling, make it possible to study the history of the last hundreds of thousands of years.

Over half a century of research, more than 100 Belarusian polar explorers have visited Antarctica. They participated in all allied expeditions to the South Pole. In November 2006, researchers as part of the 52nd Russian Antarctic Expedition organized a field scientific base in the area of Vechernyaya to support the research of Belarusian scientists. Here, every year, near the Russian Molodezhnaya station, Belarusian scientists conduct research on the mainland under a special program.

Antarctic Nature Conservancy

The nature of Antarctica is very susceptible to even minor human impacts. The poor species composition of the fauna and flora of the coast, the close natural connections between individual species in harsh conditions require a careful attitude towards nature on the part of humans. In the coastal part of the continent, permanent and seasonal scientific stations arose, to serve which air and land transport routes were developed, and air and sea ports were organized. Every year, sea vessels with provisions and scientific equipment, fuels and lubricants, and aircraft with replacement expedition crews arrive on the continent.

Active economic activity can greatly affect the nature of Antarctica and cause significant changes in the Earth's climate. Some large states have decided to create international tourist routes. In some years, up to 5 thousand tourists visit Antarctica during cruises.

The most significant problems are air pollution, as well as pollution of the station territory with solid waste, recycling and removal of this waste.

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activities, nuclear testing and waste disposal.

There is an international ban on the extraction of minerals from the depths of Antarctica. Novaya proposed to establish an Antarctic natural park with an area of about 12 million km2.

The problem of ozone layer destruction is one of the pressing problems of modern research by Belarusian polar explorers. The ozone layer absorbs part of solar radiation and protects all life on the earth's surface from the dangerous effects of ultraviolet radiation. The destruction of the ozone layer is manifested in the appearance of areas in the ozone layer with low ozone content - “ozone holes”, which are associated with changes in the Earth. These fluctuations are especially noticeable in Antarctica. This cannot but worry humanity. Since 1988, research has been carried out on the ozone layer above. The International Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer has been adopted.

Intensive krill fishing creates the problem of optimizing the catch and preserving the food supply for the animal world in Antarctica, its reproduction and maintaining an equilibrium ecosystem in the coastal zone of Antarctica. Despite Antarctica's remoteness from major routes, there is a problem of pollution of Antarctic waters and coastal pollution. At large research stations, waste processing and disposal facilities are being created.

Antarctica is a natural laboratory for studying global climate change on Earth. The processes taking place in Antarctica inevitably affect the nature of the entire planet.

Antarctica (Greek ἀνταρκτικός - the opposite of the Arctic) is a continent located in the very south of the Earth, the center of Antarctica approximately coincides with the southern geographic pole. Antarctica is washed by the waters of the Southern Ocean.

The area of the continent is about 14,107,000 km² (of which ice shelves - 930,000 km², islands - 75,500 km²).

Antarctica is also called the part of the world consisting of the mainland of Antarctica and adjacent islands.

Discovery of the continent of Antarctica

Antarctica was discovered on January 16 (28), 1820 by a Russian expedition led by Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, who approached it at the point 69°21′ S on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny”. w. 2°14′ W d. (G) (O) (region of the modern Bellingshausen ice shelf). Previously, the existence of the southern continent (lat. Terra Australis) was stated hypothetically; it was often combined with South America (for example, on the map compiled by Piri Reis in 1513) and Australia. However, it was the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev in the south polar seas, circumnavigating the Antarctic ice around the world, that confirmed the existence of a sixth continent.

The first to enter the continent were probably the crew of the American ship Cecilia on February 7, 1821. The exact location of the landing is unknown, but it is believed to have occurred at Hughes Bay (64°13′S 61°20′W (G)(O)). This statement of landing on the continent is one of the earliest. The most accurate is the statement about the landing on the mainland (Davis Coast) from the Norwegian businessman Henrik Johann Bull, dating back to 1895.

Geographical division

The territory of Antarctica is divided into geographical areas and regions discovered years earlier by various travelers. The area being explored and named after the discoverer (or others) is called "land".

Official list of lands of Antarctica:

Queen Maud Land
Wilkes Land
Victoria Land
Mary Byrd Land
Ellsworth Land
Kotsa Land
Enderby Land

The northernmost point of the continent is Prime Head.

Antarctica is the highest continent on Earth; the average height of the continent's surface above sea level is more than 2000 m, and in the center of the continent it reaches 4000 meters. Most of this height is made up of the permanent ice cover of the continent, under which the continental relief is hidden and only 0.3% (about 40 thousand km²) of its area is free from ice - mainly in West Antarctica and the Transantarctic Mountains: islands, sections of the coast, etc. n. “dry valleys” and individual ridges and mountain peaks (nunataks) rising above the icy surface. The Transantarctic Mountains, crossing almost the entire continent, divide Antarctica into two parts - West Antarctica and East Antarctica, which have different origins and geological structures. In the east there is a high (highest elevation of the ice surface ~4100 m above sea level) ice-covered plateau. The western part consists of a group of mountainous islands connected by ice. On the Pacific coast are the Antarctic Andes, whose altitude exceeds 4000 m; the highest point on the continent is 5140 m above sea level - the Vinson Massif in the Ellsworth Mountains. In West Antarctica there is also the deepest depression of the continent - the Bentley Trench, probably of rift origin. The depth of the ice-filled Bentley Trench reaches 2555 m below sea level.

Research using modern methods has made it possible to learn more about the subglacial topography of the southern continent. As a result of research, it turned out that about a third of the continent lies below the level of the world ocean; research also showed the presence of mountain ranges and massifs.

The western part of the continent has complex terrain and large elevation changes. Here are the highest mountain (Vinson Mountain 5140 m) and the deepest depression (Bentley Trough −2555 m) in Antarctica. The Antarctic Peninsula is a continuation of the South American Andes, which stretch towards the south pole, slightly deviating from it to the western sector.

The eastern part of the continent has a predominantly smooth topography, with individual plateaus and mountain ranges up to 3-4 km high. In contrast to the western part, which is composed of young Cenozoic rocks, the eastern part is a protrusion of the crystalline foundation of a platform that was previously part of Gondwana.

The continent has relatively low volcanic activity. The largest volcano is Mount Erebus on Ross Island in the sea of the same name.

Subglacial studies conducted by NASA have discovered a crater of asteroid origin in Antarctica. The diameter of the crater is 482 km. The crater was formed when an asteroid approximately 48 kilometers across (larger than Eros) fell to Earth approximately 250 million years ago, during the Permian-Triassic period. The dust raised during the fall and explosion of the asteroid led to centuries-long cooling and the death of most of the flora and fauna of that era. This crater is currently considered the largest on Earth.

If the glaciers completely melt, the area of Antarctica will be reduced by a third: Western Antarctica will turn into an archipelago, and eastern Antarctica will remain a continent. According to other sources, the whole of Antarctica will turn into an archipelago.

The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest on our planet and is approximately 10 times larger in area than the nearest largest, the Greenland Ice Sheet. It contains ~30 million km³ of ice, that is, 90% of all land ice. Due to the severity of the ice, as studies by geophysicists show, the continent subsided by an average of 0.5 km, as indicated by its relatively deep shelf. The ice sheet in Antarctica contains about 80% of all fresh water on the planet; if it melted completely, sea levels would rise by almost 60 meters (for comparison, if the Greenland ice sheet were to melt, sea levels would rise by only 8 meters).

The ice sheet has a dome shape with increasing surface steepness towards the coast, where it is framed in many places by ice shelves. The average thickness of the ice layer is 2500-2800 m, reaching a maximum value in some areas of East Antarctica - 4800 m. The accumulation of ice on the ice sheet leads, as in the case of other glaciers, to the flow of ice into the ablation (destruction) zone, which acts as coast of the continent; the ice breaks off in the form of icebergs. The annual volume of ablation is estimated at 2500 km³.

A special feature of Antarctica is the large area of ice shelves (low (blue) areas of West Antarctica), which accounts for ~10% of the area above sea level; these glaciers are the source of icebergs of record sizes, significantly exceeding the size of the icebergs of the outlet glaciers of Greenland; for example, in 2000, the largest currently known iceberg (2005), B-15, with an area of over 10 thousand km², broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf. In winter (summer in the Northern Hemisphere), the area of sea ice around Antarctica increases to 18 million km², and in summer it decreases to 3-4 million km².

The age of the ice sheet at the top can be determined from annual layers consisting of winter and summer deposits, as well as from marker horizons that carry information about global events (for example, volcanic eruptions). But at great depths, to determine the age, numerical modeling of ice spreading is used, which is based on knowledge of the relief, temperature, rate of snow accumulation, etc.

According to Academician Vladimir Mikhailovich Kotlyakov, the continental ice sheet formed no later than 5 million years ago, but, more likely, 30-35 million years ago. This was apparently facilitated by the rupture of the bridge connecting South America and the Antarctic Peninsula, which led, in turn, to the formation of the Antarctic circumpolar current (Western Wind Current) and the isolation of the Antarctic waters from the World Ocean - these waters make up the so-called Southern Ocean.

Geological structure

Geological structure of East Antarctica

East Antarctica is an ancient Precambrian continental platform (craton) similar to those of India, Brazil, Africa and Australia. All these cratons were formed during the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. The age of the crystalline basement rocks is 2.5-2.8 billion years, the oldest rocks of Enderby Land are more than 3 billion years old.

The foundation is covered by a younger sedimentary cover, formed 350-190 million years ago, mainly of marine origin. In layers with an age of 320-280 million years, there are glacial deposits, but younger ones contain fossil remains of plants and animals, including ichthyosaurs, which indicates a strong difference in the climate of that time from the modern one. Findings of heat-loving reptiles and fern flora were made by the first explorers of Antarctica and served as one of the strongest evidence of large-scale horizontal plate movements, confirming the concept of plate tectonics.

Seismic activity. Volcanism

Antarctica is a tectonically calm continent with little seismic activity; manifestations of volcanism are concentrated in West Antarctica and are associated with the Antarctic Peninsula, which arose during the Andean period of mountain building. Some of the volcanoes, especially island volcanoes, have erupted in the last 200 years. The most active volcano in Antarctica is Erebus. It is called “the volcano guarding the path to the South Pole.”

Climate

Antarctica has an extremely harsh cold climate. In East Antarctica, at the Soviet Antarctic station Vostok, on July 21, 1983, the lowest air temperature on Earth in the entire history of meteorological measurements was recorded: 89.2 degrees below zero. The area is considered the Earth's pole of cold. Average temperatures in the winter months (June, July, August) are from −60 to −75 °C, in the summer months (December, January, February) from −30 to −50 °C; on the coast in winter from −8 to −35 °C, in summer 0-5 °C.

Another feature of the meteorology of East Antarctica is the katabatic winds caused by its dome-shaped topography. These stable southerly winds arise on fairly steep slopes of the ice sheet due to the cooling of the air layer near the ice surface, the density of the near-surface layer increases, and it flows down the slope under the influence of gravity. The thickness of the air flow layer is usually 200-300 m; Due to the large amount of ice dust carried by the wind, horizontal visibility in such winds is very low. The strength of the katabatic wind is proportional to the steepness of the slope and reaches its greatest values in coastal areas with a high slope towards the sea. The katabatic winds reach their maximum strength in the Antarctic winter - from April to November they blow almost continuously around the clock, from November to March - at night or when the Sun is low above the horizon. In summer, during the daytime, due to the heating of the surface layer of air by the sun, katabatic winds along the coast cease.

Data on temperature changes from 1981 to 2007 show that the temperature background in Antarctica changed unevenly. For West Antarctica as a whole, an increase in temperature has been observed, while for East Antarctica no warming has been detected, and even some decline has been noted. It is unlikely that the melting of Antarctica's glaciers will increase significantly in the 21st century. On the contrary, as temperatures rise, the amount of snow falling on the Antarctic ice sheet is expected to increase. However, due to warming, more intense destruction of ice shelves and acceleration of the movement of Antarctica's outlet glaciers, throwing ice into the World Ocean, is possible.

Due to the fact that not only the average annual temperature, but also in most areas even summer temperatures in Antarctica do not exceed zero degrees, precipitation there falls only in the form of snow (rain is an extremely rare occurrence). It forms an ice sheet (snow is compressed under its own weight) more than 1,700 m thick, in some places reaching 4,300 m. About 80% of all fresh water on Earth is concentrated in Antarctic ice. However, there are lakes in Antarctica, and in the summer, rivers. The rivers are fed by glaciers. Thanks to intense solar radiation, due to the exceptional transparency of the air, the melting of glaciers occurs even at slightly negative air temperatures. On the surface of the glacier, often at a considerable distance from the coast, streams of melt water form. The most intense melting occurs near oases, next to rocky soil heated in the sun. Since all streams are fed by the melting of the glacier, their water and level regimes are completely determined by the course of air temperature and solar radiation. The highest flows in them are observed during the hours of the highest air temperatures, that is, in the afternoon, and the lowest - at night, and often at this time the riverbeds dry out completely. As a rule, glacier streams and rivers have very winding channels and connect numerous glacier lakes. Open channels usually end before reaching the sea or lake, and the watercourse makes its way further under the ice or in the thickness of the glacier, like underground rivers in karst areas.

With the onset of autumn frosts, the flow stops, and deep channels with steep banks are covered with snow or blocked by snow bridges. Sometimes almost constant snow drifts and frequent snowstorms block the beds of streams even before the flow stops, and then the streams flow in ice tunnels, completely invisible from the surface. Like cracks in glaciers, they are dangerous, as heavy vehicles can fall into them. If the snow bridge is not strong enough, it may collapse under the weight of a person. The rivers of Antarctic oases, flowing through the ground, usually do not exceed a length of several kilometers. The largest is the river. Onyx, more than 20 km long. Rivers exist only in summer.

Antarctic lakes are no less unique. Sometimes they are classified as a special, Antarctic type. They are located in oases or dry valleys and are almost always covered with a thick layer of ice. However, in the summer, a strip of open water several tens of meters wide forms along the banks and at the mouths of temporary watercourses. Often, lakes are stratified. At the bottom there is a layer of water with increased temperature and salinity, as, for example, in Lake Vanda (English) Russian. In some small closed lakes, the concentration of salt is significantly increased and they can be completely free of ice. For example, lake Don Juan, with a high concentration of calcium chloride in its waters, freezes only at very low temperatures. Antarctic lakes are small, only some of them are larger than 10 km² (Lake Vanda, Lake Figurnoe). The largest of the Antarctic lakes is Lake Figurnoye in the Banger oasis. Curiously meandering among the hills, it stretches for 20 kilometers. Its area is 14.7 km², and its depth exceeds 130 meters. The deepest is Lake Radok, its depth reaches 362 m.

There are lakes on the coast of Antarctica that were formed as a result of the backwater of snowfields or small glaciers. Water in such lakes sometimes accumulates for several years until its level rises to the upper edge of the natural dam. Then excess water begins to flow out of the lake. A channel is formed, which quickly deepens, and the water flow increases. As the channel deepens, the water level in the lake drops and it shrinks in size. In winter, the dry riverbed is covered with snow, which gradually becomes compacted, and the natural dam is restored. In the next summer season, the lake begins to fill with meltwater again. Several years pass until the lake is filled and its waters again break into the sea.

Comparing Antarctica with other continents, it can be noted that there are absolutely no wetlands on the South Polar Continent. However, in the coastal strip there are peculiar glacial “swamps”. They form in summer in depressions filled with snow and firn. Melt water flowing into these depressions moistens the snow and firn, resulting in a snow-water porridge, viscous, like ordinary swamps. The depth of such “swamps” is most often insignificant - no more than a meter. On top they are covered with a thin ice crust. Like real swamps, they are sometimes impassable even for tracked vehicles: a tractor or all-terrain vehicle that gets stuck in such a place, stuck in a snow-water slurry, will not get out without outside help.

In the 1990s, Russian scientists discovered the subglacial non-freezing Lake Vostok - the largest of the Antarctic lakes, having a length of 250 km and a width of 50 km; the lake holds about 5,400 thousand km³ of water.

In January 2006, geophysicists Robin Bell and Michael Studinger from the American Lamont-Doherty Geophysical Observatory discovered the second and third largest subglacial lakes, with an area of 2000 km² and 1600 km² respectively, located at a depth of about 3 km from the surface of the continent. They reported that this could have been done earlier if the data from the 1958-1959 Soviet expedition had been analyzed more thoroughly. In addition to these data, satellite data, radar readings and measurements of the force of gravity on the surface of the continent were used.

In total, as of 2007, more than 140 subglacial lakes were discovered in Antarctica.

As a result of global warming, tundra began to actively form on the Antarctic Peninsula. Scientists predict that in 100 years the first trees may appear in Antarctica.

The oasis on the Antarctic Peninsula covers an area of 400 km², the total area of oases is 10 thousand km², and the area of non-ice areas (including snow-free rocks) is 30-40 thousand km².

The biosphere in Antarctica is represented in four “arenas of life”: coastal islands and ice, coastal oases on the mainland (for example, the “Banger Oasis”), the nunataks arena (Mount Amundsen near Mirny, Mount Nansen on Victoria Land, etc.) and the ice sheet arena .

Plants include flowering plants, ferns (on the Antarctic Peninsula), lichens, fungi, bacteria, and algae (in oases). Seals and penguins live on the coast.

Plants and animals are most common in the coastal zone. Terrestrial vegetation in ice-free areas exists mainly in the form of various types of mosses and lichens and does not form a continuous cover (Antarctic moss-lichen deserts).

Antarctic animals are completely dependent on the coastal ecosystem of the Southern Ocean: due to the paucity of vegetation, all food chains of any significance in coastal ecosystems begin in the waters surrounding Antarctica. Antarctic waters are particularly rich in zooplankton, primarily krill. Krill directly or indirectly form the basis of the food chain of many species of fish, cetaceans, squid, seals, penguins and other animals; There are no completely land mammals in Antarctica; invertebrates are represented by approximately 70 species of arthropods (insects and arachnids) and nematodes living in soils.

Terrestrial animals include seals (Weddell, crabeater seals, leopard seals, Ross seals, elephant seals) and birds (several species of petrels (Antarctic, snowy), two species of skuas, Arctic tern, Adélie penguins and emperor penguins).

In the freshwater lakes of continental coastal oases - “dry valleys” - there are oligotrophic ecosystems inhabited by blue-green algae, roundworms, copepods (cyclops) and daphnia, while birds (petrels and skuas) fly here occasionally.

Nunataks are characterized only by bacteria, algae, lichens and severely suppressed mosses; only skuas, following people, occasionally fly onto the ice sheet.

There is an assumption about the presence in subglacial lakes of Antarctica, such as Lake Vostok, of extremely oligotrophic ecosystems, practically isolated from the outside world.

In 1994, scientists reported a rapid increase in the number of plants in Antarctica, which seems to confirm the hypothesis of global warming of the planet.

The Antarctic Peninsula and its adjacent islands have the most favorable climatic conditions on the mainland. It is here that two species of flowering plants found in the region grow - Antarctic meadowsweet and Quito colobanthus.

Man and Antarctica

In preparation for the International Geophysical Year, about 60 bases and stations belonging to 11 states were founded on the coast, ice sheet and islands (including Soviet - Mirny Observatory, Oasis, Pionerskaya, Vostok-1, Komsomolskaya and Vostok stations, American - Amudsen -Scott at the South Pole, Baird, Hulett, Wilkes and McMurdo).

Since the late 1950s. Oceanological work is being carried out in the seas washing the continent, and regular geophysical research is being carried out at stationary continental stations; Expeditions into the continent are also being undertaken. Soviet scientists carried out a sleigh-and-tractor trip to the Geomagnetic Pole (1957), the Pole of Relative Inaccessibility (1958), and the South Pole (1959). American researchers traveled on all-terrain vehicles from Little America station to Baird station and further to Sentinel station (1957), in 1958-1959 from Ellsworth station through the Dufeka massif to Baird station; English and New Zealand scientists on tractors in 1957-1958 crossed Antarctica through the South Pole from the Wedell Sea to the Ross Sea. Australian, Belgian and French scientists also worked in the interior of Antarctica. In 1959, an international treaty on Antarctica was concluded, which contributed to the development of cooperation in the study of the ice continent.

History of the study of the continent

The first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle belonged to the Dutch; it was commanded by Dirk Geeritz, who sailed in the squadron of Jacob Magyu. In 1559, in the Strait of Magellan, Geeritz's ship lost sight of the squadron after a storm and went south. When it dropped to 64° S. sh., high ground was discovered there. In 1675 La Roche discovered South Georgia; Bouvet Island was discovered in 1739; In 1772, in the Indian Ocean, Yves-Joseph Kerglen, a French naval officer, discovered an island named after him.

Almost simultaneously with Kerglen’s voyage, James Cook set off from England on his first voyage to the Southern Hemisphere, and already in January 1773, his ships “Adventure” and “Resolution” crossed the Antarctic Circle at the meridian 37°33′E. d. After a difficult struggle with ice, he reached 67°15′ S. sh., where he was forced to turn north. In December 1773, Cook again set off for the southern ocean, crossing it on December 8 and at parallel 67°5′ S. w. was covered in ice. Having freed himself, Cook went further south and at the end of January 1774 reached 71°15′ S. sh., southwest of Tierra del Fuego. Here an impenetrable wall of ice prevented him from going further. Cook was one of the first to reach the south polar seas and, having encountered solid ice in several places, declared that it could not be penetrated further. They believed him and did not undertake polar expeditions for 45 years.

The first geographical discovery of land south of 60° S. (modern "political Antarctica", governed by the Antarctic Treaty system) was accomplished by the English merchant William Smith, who stumbled upon Livingston Island, South Shetland Islands, on February 19, 1819.

In 1819, Russian sailors F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev, on the sloops of war "Vostok" and "Mirny", visited South Georgia and tried to penetrate into the depths of the Arctic Ocean. For the first time, on January 28, 1820, almost on the Greenwich meridian, they reached 69°21′ S. w. and discovered modern Antarctica itself; then, leaving the Arctic Circle, Bellingshausen walked along it east to 19° east. d., where he crossed it again and reached in February 1820 again almost the same latitude (69°6′). Further east, he rose only to the 62° parallel and continued his path along the outskirts of the floating ice. Then, on the meridian of the Balleny Islands, Bellingshausen reached 64°55′, and in December 1820 reached 161°w. d., passed the Antarctic Circle and reached 67°15′ S. latitude, and in January 1821 reached 69°53′ S. w. Almost at the 81° meridian, he discovered the high coast of the island of Peter I, and having gone further east, inside the Antarctic Circle, the coast of Alexander I Land. Thus, Bellingshausen was the first to complete a complete voyage around Antarctica at latitudes from 60° to 70°.

In 1838-1842, the American Charles Wilkes explored a part of Antarctica, named after him Wilkes Land. In 1839-1840, the Frenchman Jules Dumont-D'Urville discovered Adélie Land, and in 1841-1842 the Englishman James Ross discovered the Ross Sea and Victoria Land. The first landing on the shores of Antarctica and the first wintering was made by the Norwegian expedition of Karsten Borchgrevink in 1895.

After this, the study of the coast of the continent and its interior began. Numerous studies were carried out by English expeditions led by Ernest Shackleton (he wrote the book “In the Heart of Antarctica” about them). In 1911-1912, a real race to conquer the South Pole began between the expedition of the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and the expedition of the Englishman Robert Scott. The first to reach the South Pole were Amundsen, Olaf Bjaland, Oscar Wisting, Helmer Hansen and Sverre Hassel; a month after him, Scott's party arrived at the cherished point, but died on the way back.

From the middle of the 20th century, the study of Antarctica began on an industrial basis. On the continent, various countries are creating numerous permanent bases that conduct meteorological, glaciological and geological research all year round. On December 14, 1958, the third Soviet Antarctic expedition, led by Evgeniy Tolstikov, reached the South Pole of Inaccessibility and founded a temporary station there, the Pole of Inaccessibility.

In the 19th century, several whaling bases existed on the Antarctic Peninsula and surrounding islands. Subsequently, they were all abandoned.

The harsh climate of Antarctica prevents its settlement. Currently, there is no permanent population in Antarctica; there are several dozen scientific stations where, depending on the season, there live from 4,000 people (150 Russian citizens) in the summer and about 1,000 in the winter (about 100 Russian citizens).

In 1978, the first man of Antarctica, Emilio Marcos Palma, was born at the Argentine station Esperanza.

Antarctica has been assigned the top-level Internet domain .aq and the telephone prefix +672.

Status of Antarctica

In accordance with the Antarctic Convention, signed on December 1, 1959 and entered into force on June 23, 1961, Antarctica does not belong to any state. Only scientific activities are permitted.

The deployment of military facilities, as well as the entry of warships and armed vessels south of 60 degrees south latitude are prohibited.

In the 1980s, Antarctica was also declared a nuclear-free zone, which excluded the appearance of nuclear-powered ships in its waters, and nuclear power units on the mainland.

Currently, 28 states (with voting rights) and dozens of observer countries are parties to the treaty.

Territorial claims

However, the existence of a treaty does not mean that the states that joined it renounced their territorial claims to the continent and the surrounding area. On the contrary, the territorial claims of some countries are enormous. For example, Norway claims territory that is ten times larger than its own (including the island of Peter I, discovered by the Bellingshausen-Lazarev expedition). Great Britain declared huge territories as its own. The British intend to extract ore and hydrocarbon resources on the Antarctic shelf. Australia considers almost half of Antarctica its own, into which, however, the “French” Adélie Land is wedged. New Zealand also made territorial claims. Great Britain, Chile and Argentina claim almost the same territory, including the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands. No country has officially made territorial claims to Mary Byrd's land. However, hints about US rights to this territory are contained in unofficial American sources.

The United States and Russia took a special position, declaring that, in principle, they can put forward their territorial claims in Antarctica, although they have not yet done so. Moreover, both states do not recognize the claims of other countries.

The continent of Antarctica today is the only uninhabited and undeveloped continent on Earth. Antarctica has long attracted European powers and the United States, but it began to attract global interest at the end of the 20th century. Antarctica is the last resource reserve for humanity on Earth. After the exhaustion of raw materials on the five inhabited continents, people will develop their resources. However, since Antarctica will remain the only source of resources for countries, the struggle for its resources has already begun, which could result in a fierce military conflict. Geologists have found that the depths of Antarctica contain a significant amount of minerals - iron ore, coal; Traces of ores of copper, nickel, lead, zinc, molybdenum, rock crystal, mica, and graphite were found. In addition, Antarctica contains about 80% of the world's fresh water, a shortage of which is already felt in many countries.

Currently, observations are being made of climatic and meteorological processes on the continent, which, like the Gulf Stream in the Northern Hemisphere, is a climate-forming factor for the entire Earth. In Antarctica, the effects of space and the processes occurring in the earth's crust are also studied.

The study of the ice sheet brings serious scientific results, informing us about the climate of the Earth hundreds, thousands, hundreds of thousands of years ago. The Antarctic ice sheet contains data on the climate and composition of the atmosphere over the past hundred thousand years. The chemical composition of different layers of ice determines the level of solar activity over the past several centuries.

Microorganisms have been discovered in Antarctica that may be of scientific value and will allow for better study of these life forms.

Many Antarctic bases, especially Russian ones, located around the continent's perimeter, provide ideal opportunities for monitoring seismological activity throughout the planet. Antarctic bases are also testing technologies and equipment that are planned to be used in the future for the exploration, development and colonization of other planets in the solar system.

Russia in Antarctica

In total, there are about 45 year-round scientific stations in Antarctica. Currently, Russia has seven operating stations and one field base in Antarctica.

Permanently active:

Bellingshausen
Peaceful
Novolazarevskaya
East
Progress
Marine squad
Leningradskaya (Reopened in 2008)
Russian (Reactivated in 2008)

Canned:

Youth
Druzhnaya-4

No longer existing:

Pionerskaya
Komsomolskaya
Soviet
Vostok-1
Lazarev
Pole of inaccessibility
Oasis (transferred to Poland in 1959)

Orthodox Church

The first Orthodox church in Antarctica was built on Waterloo Island (South Shetland Islands) near the Russian Bellingshausen station with the blessing of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II. They collected it in Altai, and then transported it to the icy continent on the scientific vessel Akademik Vavilov. The fifteen-meter high temple was built from cedar and larch. It can accommodate up to 30 people.

The temple was consecrated in the name of the Holy Trinity on February 15, 2004 by the abbot of the Holy Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, Bishop Feognost of Sergiev Posad, in the presence of numerous clergy, pilgrims and sponsors, who arrived on a special flight from the nearest city, Chilean Punta Arenas. Now the temple is the Patriarchal Metochion of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

The Church of the Holy Trinity is considered the southernmost Orthodox church in the world. To the south there is only the chapel of St. John of Rila at the Bulgarian station St. Kliment Ohridski and the chapel of St. Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir at the Ukrainian station Academician Vernadski.

On January 29, 2007, the first wedding in Antarctica took place in this temple (the daughter of a polar explorer, Russian Angelina Zhuldybina and Chilean Eduardo Aliaga Ilabac, working at the Chilean Antarctic base).

Interesting Facts

The average surface elevation of Antarctica is the highest of any continent.
In addition to the pole of cold, Antarctica contains points of the lowest relative air humidity, the strongest and longest winds, and the most intense solar radiation.
Although Antarctica is not the territory of any state, enthusiasts from the United States issue the unofficial currency of the continent - the “Antarctic dollar”.

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including the extraction of mineral resources. BUT one day a ban was instituted and a block of white marmuru was mined. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE??.

The fact is that Antarctica is a very difficult continent. He is very mysterious and enigmatic. Despite very low air temperatures, there are lakes under Antarctica that never freeze. This fact cannot be ignored. Scientists also find dry trees in the snow of Antarctica! What does this mean? This suggests that Antarctica was once blooming and green! There are still many amazing finds that scientists find and carefully hide.
However, these facts cannot be hidden! If ordinary inhabitants of the Earth become interested in Antarctica, they will probably find out who lived in Antarctica then (surely someone lived - our distant, distant ancestors) and they will find out that it was not always cold in Antarctica and it was covered with eternal ice. The media prefer to keep silent about the “real” Antarctica and not bring discoveries to the masses. They adhere to Darwin's theory, which is still the official theory of human origin, which is very strange. Modern finds and discoveries provide completely contradictory knowledge about the origin of humanity. Antarctica stores some of the knowledge about our ancestors that remains unsolved.

Mining is an integral part of the study of the soil and the minerals themselves that lie on the bottom of Antarctica. The fact that white marble is mined near Antarctica is very strange and this may well mean that someone bypassed the prohibitions and, no matter what, decided to explore Antarctica.
And the ban was not established by chance either. I will be very interested to know about white marble.
I think my answer is clear. I tried to clearly explain the information I have accumulated and my point of view.

Until the beginning of the 19th century, a large white spot was placed on globes in the area of the south pole, because there was no reliable information about these places. The unknown southern land has been persistently but unsuccessfully searched for by sailors since the 16th century.

The famous English captain James Cook, whose geographical discoveries created him worldwide fame and unquestioned authority, also searched for it. In 1775, his ships crossed the Antarctic Circle and reached 71 S, but icebergs, ice and snow storms blocked their path. Cook's words: “I have circumnavigated the ocean of the Southern Hemisphere and have indisputably rejected the possibility of the existence of a continent” extinguished interest in the search for an unknown land for many years.

Rice. 1. F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev

At the beginning of the 19th century, the young Russian fleet entered the vast oceans to discover and explore new lands. In summer 1819-1820 years Russian expedition under the command of F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazareva on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny” for the first time circumnavigated the southern continent, came close to the shore of the unknown continent and mapped sections of the coasts of Antarctica (see Fig. 1).

In the 19th century, many ships approached the shores of Antarctica. In 1823, the Englishman James Weddell, in search of seal rookeries, reached 74 degrees. Yu. sh., passing through the sea that juts deep into the land. In 1840G. The French expedition of Jules Dumont d'Urville discovered several small islands off the coast of the mainland.

And the study of Antarctica by the English expedition of James Ross in 1841 led to the discovery on the mainland of a mountainous country named after the Queen of England - Victoria Land, and two volcanoes - Erbus and Terror. The world's largest ice shelf was also discovered. The greatest geographical discovery was achievement December 1911 South Pole of the Earth Norwegian R. Amundsen. Scott's expedition, which repeated this feat a month later, died.

Who owns Antarctica?

And to no one!

Antarctica is the only continent that does not belong to anyone, but is a continent of international cooperation (see Fig. 2). The real masters of the continent are scientists from different parts of the world.

In accordance with the Antarctic Convention, signed on December 1, 1959 and entered into force on June 23, 1961, Antarctica does not belong to any state. Only scientific activities are permitted.

Rice. 2. International status of the continent

The placement of military facilities, as well as the entry of warships and armed vessels south of 60 degrees latitude are prohibited. In the 80s of the 20th century, Antarctica was also declared a nuclear-free zone, which excluded the appearance of nuclear-powered ships in its waters, and nuclear power units on the mainland.

Currently, 28 states (with voting rights) and dozens of observer countries are parties to the treaty. However, the existence of a treaty does not mean that the states that joined it renounced their territorial claims to the continent and the surrounding area.

On the contrary, the territorial claims of some countries are enormous. For example, Norway claims territory that is ten times larger than its own (including the island of Peter I, discovered by the expedition Bellingshausen – Lazarev).

Great Britain declared huge territories as its own. Australia considers almost half of Antarctica its own, into which, however, the “French” Adélie Land is wedged. New Zealand also made territorial claims. Great Britain, Chile and Argentina claim almost the same territory, including the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands.

Modern exploration of the mainland

After the first acquaintance with Antarctica, its exploration seemed economically unjustified and unpromising. The scientific study of the sixth continent actually began only in the 20th century.

The first wintering expeditions to the icy continent encountered enormous difficulties and hardships. Names Robert Scott (see Fig. 3), Roald Amundsen, Carsten Borchgrevink, Ernest Shackleton, Douglas Mawson and other “pioneers” of Antarctica made up a glorious page in its study.

Rice. 3. Robert Scott

In our time, the enthusiasm and courage of individuals has been replaced by the united, focused efforts of scientists from many countries. Large, well-equipped expeditions, numbering hundreds and sometimes thousands of different specialists, work in Antarctica every year. Research is carried out using modern icebreakers, all-terrain vehicles and aircraft.

The International Geophysical Year (1957–1958) should be considered the beginning of the newest stage in Antarctic research.

Soviet expeditions made a great contribution to the study of Antarctica.

The first Soviet Antarctic Expedition (SAE) was led by Hero of the Soviet Union Mikhail Mikhailovich Somov, and on February 13, 1956, the first Soviet scientific station Mirny, located exactly on the Southern Arctic Circle, came into operation.

In preparation for the International Geophysical Year, about 60 bases and stations belonging to 11 states were founded on the coast, ice sheet and islands (including Soviet ones - Mirny Observatory, Oasis, Pionerskaya, Vostok-1, Komsomolskaya and Vostok stations) ( see Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Vostok Station

Since the late 50s. Oceanological work is being carried out in the seas washing the continent, and regular geophysical research is being carried out at stationary continental stations; Expeditions into the continent are also being undertaken.

Soviet scientists carried out a sleigh-and-tractor trip to the Geomagnetic Pole, the Pole of Relative Inaccessibility, and the South Pole (see Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Modern research

Australian, Belgian and French scientists also worked in the interior of Antarctica.

Why is it necessary to study and develop Antarctica?

Antarctica is the last resource reserve of humanity; it is the last place where humanity will be able to extract mineral raw materials after it has been depleted on the five inhabited continents. Geologists have found that the depths of Antarctica contain a significant amount of minerals. Observations of climatic and meteorological processes on the continent, which, like the Gulf Stream in the Northern Hemisphere, is a climate-forming factor for the entire Earth. Antarctica contains up to 90% of the world's fresh water reserves. In Antarctica, the effects of space and the processes occurring in the earth's crust are studied. Glaciology, which studies the structure of ice, is already bringing serious scientific results today, informing us about what the Earth was like a hundred, thousand, hundreds of thousands of years ago. Antarctica provides a unique chance to see and study microorganisms that lived millions of years ago. Antarctic bases, especially Russian ones, located around the continent's perimeter, provide ideal opportunities for monitoring seismological activity across the planet. At Antarctic bases, technologies are being tested that are planned to be used in the future for the exploration, development and colonization of the Moon and Mars.

Bibliography

MainI

1. Geography. Land and people. 7th grade: Textbook for general education. uch. / A.P. Kuznetsov, L.E. Savelyeva, V.P. Dronov, series “Spheres”. – M.: Education, 2011.

2. Geography. Land and people. 7th grade: atlas. Series "Spheres".

Additional

1. N.A. Maksimov. Behind the pages of a geography textbook. – M.: Enlightenment.

5. Encyclopedia Around the World ().

Antarctica- the only continent, unusual in its uniqueness of nature. Polar explorers called it icy, silent, deserted, mysterious, white. In winter, Antarctica plunges into the darkness of the polar night, and in summer the Sun does not fall below the horizon, illuminating the icy desert at midnight. At the South Pole, the sun rises and sets only once a year.

This continent is the highest and coldest. The strongest winds on Earth are observed here. There is no permanent population here. The ice of Antarctica contains 80% of the planet's fresh water. The history of the discovery and exploration of the continent is peculiar.

Antarctica and Antarctica

The nature of Antarctica is inextricably linked with the nature of the southern parts of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans and together with them forms a single whole. Large areas extending shallowly into the land of the seas are covered with ice shelves. These glaciers are a continuation of the continental ice shell.

Antarctic- this is the southern polar region, including Antarctica with its adjacent islands and the southern parts of the oceans up to approximately 50 - 60 ° S. w. The name “Antarctica” comes from the Greek word “anti” - against, i.e. lying opposite the northern polar region of the globe.

Physiographic location

Almost the entire continent is located within the Antarctic Circle. Antarctica is separated from other continents by vast oceanic expanses. The geographical position of the continent near the pole led to the formation of a thick ice cover, the average thickness of which is about 2000 m. Due to the thickness of the ice, Antarctica turned out to be the highest continent on Earth. The shores of the mainland are mostly ice cliffs of several tens of meters. Due to its geographical location and ice shell, Antarctica is the world's pole of cold.

Discovery of Antarctica

First research. Antarctica was discovered much later than other continents. Even ancient scientists expressed the idea of the existence of a continent in the high latitudes of the southern hemisphere. But finally there was a question about the existence of a sixth continent. resolved much later. In the second half of the 18th century. An English expedition headed by the famous English navigator James Cook set off in search of the Southern continent.

J. Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle more than once, but was never able to break through the ice to the mainland. He came to the gloomy conclusion that "the lands that may be in the south will never be explored... this country is doomed by nature to eternal cold." The results of J. Cook's expedition cooled for a long time the desire to embark on risky voyages in search of the mainland.

Only in 1819 was the first Russian Antarctic expedition organized on the ships “Vostok” and “Mirny” under the command of Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev, which circumnavigated the unknown continent and came close to its shores, discovering many islands. 1820, when the expedition first approached the shores of Antarctica, is considered to be the year of its discovery, which marked the beginning of an intensive study of the coastal zone of the Southern continent.

On December 14, 1911, the Norwegian Roald Amundsen, and a month later - on January 18, 1912 - the Englishman Robert Scott reached the South Pole. This was the greatest geographical discovery. Scientists received the first information about the interior of the continent. But they came at a high price. R. Scott's group died on the way back, not reaching just a few kilometers to the warehouse where there were food and fuel.

In November 1912, a rescue squad found a tent with frozen bodies in it. Next to the tent stood a sleigh with a geological collection weighing more than two pounds.

Modern exploration of Antarctica

Research of Antarctica by Soviet scientists. In the first half of the 20th century. The USA, Great Britain, Australia, Norway and other countries organized special expeditions to study Antarctica. Each country pursued its own goals and acted alone. Research was carried out mainly on the coast, while the interior of the mainland remained little known.

Only in connection with the International Geophysical Year (IGY, 1957 - 1958) did twelve countries of the world decide to jointly study the continent and exchange information. The Soviet Union took one of the leading places in this work. Soviet expeditions were organized at a high scientific and technical level. To carry them out, rich practical experience in the study and development of the Arctic was used. Despite the fact that the Soviet Union had no previous scientific stations or experience working in Antarctica at the beginning of the IGY, our researchers boldly moved deeper into the continent.

In difficult climatic conditions, in a short period of time, they built several scientific stations (Mirny, Pionerskaya, Vostok, etc.) not only on the coasts, but also in the internal hard-to-reach parts of Antarctica, where no human had ever set foot (Pole of Inaccessibility). The main and largest at this time is Molodezhnaya station. The Antarctic Aerometeorological Center is located here.

For more than three decades, Soviet specialists have been successfully working, a large amount of scientific material has been collected, many works have been written, and the first Soviet Atlas of Antarctica has been created. It can be used to obtain information about all components of Antarctic nature. Hundreds of names of Russian and Soviet explorers are immortalized on the map of Antarctica.

Antarctica differs from other continents not only in the absence of a permanent population, but also in its legal status. It does not belong to any state. According to an international agreement, any military activities, weapons testing and nuclear explosions are prohibited on its territory. The law enshrines the protection of Antarctic nature.

It is no coincidence that Antarctica is called the continent of science and peace. Thanks to well-organized international cooperation and the hard work of scientists, many of Antarctica's mysteries have now ceased to exist. by Abramenko

Ice sheet

How much ice is there in Antarctica? What is under the thick ice sheet? Just 30 - 35 years ago these questions could not be answered with confidence. Scientists have found that the Antarctic Platform lies at the heart of most of the continent - in its eastern half. Almost the entire continent is covered by an ice sheet, the average thickness of which is about 2000 m, and in the eastern part the maximum thickness reaches 4500 m.

The average height of the continent, taking into account the ice cover, is 2040 m. This is almost 3 times higher than the average height of other continents. The ice cover of Antarctica contains about 80% of all fresh water on Earth. The ice sheet resembles a dome, raised in the central part of the continent and lowered towards the coast, gradually spreading towards the periphery.

Subglacial relief

Modern research methods have made it possible to obtain a clear picture of the subglacial topography of the continent. About 1/3 of its surface lies below ocean level. At the same time, mountain ranges and massifs were discovered under the glacial shell. From the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea, along the fault zone, stretch the Transantarctic Mountains, which separate West Antarctica from East Antarctica, which differ greatly in relief.

West Antarctica is characterized by great dissection. Along the Antarctic Peninsula and the western edge of the continent stretch mountains that serve as a continuation of the Andes of South America. Here is the highest mountain range of the continent (5140 m), the deepest depression (-2555 m). Most of the mountains are covered with a continental glacier, and only in some places their highest peaks rise bizarrely above the icy desert. Lavas rising along fault lines play a significant role in the structure of mountains.

In East Antarctica, under a continuous cover of ice, flat areas of the surface alternate with mountain ranges 3000 - 4000 m high. They are composed of ancient sediments, similar to the rocks of other continents that were part of the ancient continent of Gondwana.

The features of the glacial and subglacial relief of East Antarctica are clearly visible on the surface profile of Antarctica compiled by Soviet polar explorers during the expedition of a sledge-caterpillar train along the route Mirny - Pole of Inaccessibility, Mirny - South Pole. At the edge of the mainland, on one of the coastal islands of the Ross Sea, the active volcano Erebus rises - a witness to active mountain-building processes in this area.

Almost all of Antarctica is located in the Antarctic climate zone. This is the coldest continent on Earth. The climate is especially harsh in the interior regions of the continent. The average daily temperature there, even in summer, does not rise above - 30 ° C, and in winter it is lower - 70 ° C. Antarctica is called the “refrigerator” of the Earth. Due to its influence, the southern hemisphere is much colder than the northern. Soviet polar explorers at the Vostok station recorded the lowest temperature on Earth (-89.2° C). That is why the Vostok station is called the Earth's Pole of Cold. At such a low temperature, the metal becomes brittle and breaks like glass on impact, while kerosene thickens and can be cut.

There have been cases of frostbite in people's lungs and corneas due to severe frosts. Therefore, to work in such conditions you have to use special clothing. Antarctic air is amazingly clear and dry.

In summer, Antarctica receives more solar heat than the equatorial region of the Earth. But 90% of this heat is reflected by snow and ice. In addition, summer is very short. On the coast of the mainland it is much warmer; in summer the air temperature rises to 0° C, and in winter there are moderate frosts. In areas where there is no ice cover in summer, rocks absorb up to 85% of solar heat, heat themselves, and heat the surrounding air. Oases are formed here. In the oases, the temperature in summer is much higher than above the surrounding glaciers. They are real centers of warmth.

The southern parts of the three oceans adjacent to Antarctica are located in the subantarctic belt. Temperatures here are higher than above the mainland. Due to the large difference in temperature and atmospheric pressure over the interior of Antarctica and over the oceans washing the continent, constant winds from the mainland blow in the coastal strip. Toward the coast they intensify and sometimes reach hurricane force. These winds blow huge amounts of snow from the mainland into the ocean.

In winter, the seas are covered with solid ice. In summer, the edge of solid ice retreats almost to the very shore. Continental ice sliding into the water breaks off and forms huge icebergs. Currents carry them far out into the ocean.

The distribution of precipitation, as well as temperatures, has a well-defined zonality. The central parts of the continent receive from 40 - 50 to 100 mm per year, like the Sahara.