How did peasants live in the Middle Ages? Tools of labor and life of medieval peasants. History of peasants

My grandfather Pavel Antonovich was a peasant. He was born in 1906 in the Belarusian village of Kleshevo. Using his life as an example, I will tell you how peasants lived in the USSR. During a history lesson in 4th grade, the teacher told us about the difficult lot of peasants in pre-revolutionary times. Having arrived in the village with my parents on vacation, I, remembering these words, directly asked my grandfather: “Was it hard to live in tsarist times? Did the landowners torture you?” His answer took me by surprise: " Lived well. We had a good gentleman, and he rarely visited us."

Painting by G. Myasoedov “Time of Passion”, 1887

The "good" life of peasants before the 1917 revolution

Peasant life has always been both light and heavy at the same time. Easy because the people in the village provided for themselves and did not depend on almost anyone. The main thing was to have enough land. Do you want to have a satisfying winter? Plow the field, plant more potatoes, pumpkins, etc.; get a cow, sheep, chickens, turkeys, ducks; Mow hay, and plenty of it, so that the cow doesn’t go hungry in winter. Do you want to avoid freezing in winter? Build a good hut, build a large stove with a stove bench; prepare more firewood. And it was heavy because peasants have too much work, and from early morning. My grandfather also told me that they had clay floors, and the hut illuminated at night with torches- long slivers inserted into a special metal clamp at a certain angle so that it does not burn out very quickly.

Indeed, at the end of the 20s, all peasants began to be herded into collective farms. Rural workers had to work no longer for yourself, but for the state. Was personal workday system, according to which, in the end, they provided less food than the villagers produced for themselves before. Grandfather Pavel recalled that he had a horse on his farm. During collectivization, she was taken away from him, but he still came to the collective farm stable to feed her. There were two stables in the village. The chairman of the collective farm ordered that my grandfather’s horse be moved to a distant horse so that Pavel would visit it less often. I remember how I cried when I learned about such a stupid injustice. In the 60s, life in the village became easier: they installed electricity in the huts, and even a powerful “Kirovets” tractor appeared on the collective farm in addition to the “Belarus”. Grandfather began to receive pension 24 rub., as a war invalid, and grandmother - 12 rubles. (citizens’ pensions at that time were about 60 rubles).

I’ll also outline briefly how my grandfather Pavel lived in the village:

• for workdays ( collective farmers received salaries in 1966.);
• as a serf ( without a passport) until the 70s;
• without electricity until the 60s;
• worked on 2 “fronts”: on the collective farm and in your garden;
• had to cutting down apple trees in the garden when the tax was introduced fruit trees;
• I made myself (or rather, with Baba Antonina) a delicious pork sausage (I haven’t been able to find anything like it in supermarkets so far!).

I remember advice from my grandfather, obviously inspired by a difficult peasant life: "Never go to bed before sunset!"

In the Middle Ages, they were centered around the castles of feudal lords, and the peasants were entirely dependent on these lords. This happened because at the dawn of the formation of feudalism, kings gave away lands to their vassals along with the people living on them. In addition, internal and external wars, in which medieval society was constantly in a state, ruined the peasants. It often happened that the peasants themselves asked the feudal lords for help when they could not independently protect themselves from the raids and robberies of their neighbors or strangers. In such cases, they had to give up their allotments to the feudal defender and found themselves completely dependent on him. Peasants who were officially free, but had no rights to own land, were called land dependents. In France, England, Italy and West Germany they were called villans. Peasants who were personally dependent were the most powerless. In Spain they were called remens, in France - servas. And in England, even villeins had no right to leave their master under any circumstances.

In addition to taxes, the peasants paid their lord for the use of his mill, oven, grape press and other equipment that the peasants did not have. Most often, peasants gave part of their products for this: grain, wine, honey, etc. To gain freedom (this became possible in the 12th – 13th centuries), peasants could pay a large ransom, but the land still remained in the possession of the feudal lord.

Scandinavian peasants of the Middle Ages were in the most advantageous position: they were free owners of the land, but had to pay a certain percentage of their production. The life of peasants in medieval times, as now, was harder and harsher than the life of city dwellers. To grow a crop, it was necessary to work tirelessly for many months and pray to God for favorable weather, so that the breadwinner would not be taken away for another war, so that several dozen horsemen from the feudal lord’s retinue would not gallop across the peasant field in pursuit of a forest animal during the hunt so that the vegetables are not gnawed by hares, and the grain is not pecked by birds, so that some dashing people do not burn or ruin the harvest. And even if everything goes well, what is grown is unlikely to be enough to feed a usually very large family. Part of the harvest should be given to the feudal lord, part should be left for seeds, and the rest should be given to the family.

The peasants lived in small houses covered with reeds or straw. Smoke from the fireplace swirled right into the living room, the walls of which were forever black with soot. There were either no windows at all, or if there were, they were very small and without glass, since glass was too expensive for the poor peasant. In the cold season, these holes were simply plugged with some rags. In winter, peasants often kept even their few livestock in their homes. It was dark, cramped, and smoky in the houses of medieval peasants. On winter evenings, in the dim light of a torch (candles were expensive), the peasant was making or repairing something, his wife was sewing, weaving, spinning. The food in the house was meager and monotonous: flatbreads, stews, porridges, vegetables. There was often not enough bread until the new harvest. In order not to use the feudal lord's mill (after all, you have to pay for it), the peasants simply pounded the grain in a dugout wooden vessel - the result was something like flour. And in the spring, plow, sow, and protect the fields again. And pray, pray earnestly, so that there will be no frost on the seedlings, so that there will be no drought, fire or other disaster. So that plague and pestilence do not come to the village, so that this year there is no next military campaign, in which their sons could be taken away to participate. God is merciful, although everything is His holy will.

One or more neighboring villages were united into a community. At the community meeting, all the most important issues were resolved if they did not affect the interests of the lord. The community determined which field to sow with spring crops and which with winter crops. The community managed the land: forest, pasture, haymaking, and fishing. All this, unlike arable land, was not divided between individual families, but was common. The community helped the poor, widows, orphans, and protected those who were offended by some strangers. The community sometimes distributed duties among individual households, which were assigned to the village by its lord. The community often chose its headman, built church, maintained a priest, monitored the condition of the roads and generally the order on their lands. Village holidays were also organized mostly at the expense of the community. The wedding or funeral of one of the peasants was an event in which all community members participated. The worst punishment for the offender is expulsion from the community. Such a person, an outcast, was deprived of all rights and did not enjoy anyone’s protection. His fate was almost always sad.

New crop rotation

Around the Carolingian era agriculture an innovation spread that significantly increased grain yields. It was a three-field.

All arable land was divided into three fields of equal size. One was sown with spring crops, the other with winter crops, and the third was left fallow to rest. On next year The first field was left fallow, the second was used for winter crops, and the third for spring crops. This circle was repeated from year to year, and the land was less depleted under such a system. In addition, fertilizers began to be used more. Each owner had his own strip of land in each of the three fields. The lands were also arranged in stripes senora and churches. They also had to obey the decisions of the community meeting: for example, how to use this or that field this year, when they can let livestock out to graze on stubble, etc.

Village

At first, the villages were very small - rarely could they count a dozen households. Over time, however, they began to grow - into Europe the population gradually increased. But there were also severe disasters - wars, crop failures and epidemics - when dozens of villages were empty. The yield was not very high, and, as a rule, it was not possible to create large reserves, so two or three lean years in a row could cause terrible famine.

Medieval chronicles are full of stories about these severe disasters. It is worth recalling that before the discovery of America, European peasants did not yet know corn, sunflowers, tomatoes and, most importantly, potatoes. Most modern varieties of vegetables and fruits were not known then. But the fruits of beech and oak were valued: beech nuts and acorns for a long time were the main food for pigs, which were driven out to graze in oak forests and beech groves.

IN early middle ages everywhere the main draft force was oxen. They are unpretentious, hardy, and in old age can be used for meat. But then one technical invention was made, the significance of which is difficult to overestimate. European peasants invented... the clamp.

A horse in Europe at that time was a relatively rare and expensive animal. It was used by the nobility for riding. And when the horse was harnessed, for example, to a plow, it pulled it poorly. The problem was in the harness: the straps wrapped around her chest and prevented her from breathing, the horse quickly became exhausted and could not pull a plow or a loaded cart. The collar transferred all the weight from the chest to the horse’s neck. Thanks to this, its use as draft power has become more effective. In addition, a horse is tougher than a bull and plows a field faster. But there were also disadvantages: horse meat was not eaten in Europe. The horse itself required more feed than a bull. This led to the need to expand oat crops. From the IX-X centuries. horses began to be shoed almost everywhere. Technical innovations: the collar and horseshoe made it possible to use the horse more widely on the farm.

Peasants not only worked the land. The village has always had its own craftsmen. These are primarily blacksmiths and millers.

Fellow villagers treated people of these professions with great respect and were even afraid of them. Many suspected that the blacksmith, who “tames” fire and iron, like the miller, who knows how to handle complex tools, knows evil spirits. It is not for nothing that blacksmiths and millers are frequent heroes fairy tales, terrible legends...

Mills were mainly water-powered; windmills appeared around the 13th century.

Of course, in every village there were pottery experts. Even where the potter's wheel was forgotten during the era of the Great Migration, it began to be used again starting around the 7th century. Everywhere women were engaged in weaving, using more or less perfect looms. In the villages, iron was smelted as needed and dyes were made from plants.

Natural economy

Everything that was needed on the farm was produced here. Trade was poorly developed, because not enough was produced to allow the excess to be sent for sale. And to whom? To the neighboring village, where they do the same thing? Accordingly, money did not mean so much in the life of a medieval peasant. He did almost everything he needed himself or bartered for it. And let the lords buy expensive fabrics brought by merchants from the East, jewelry or incense. Why are they in a peasant's house?

This state of the economy, when almost everything necessary is produced right there, on the spot, and not bought, is called a subsistence economy. Subsistence farming dominated Europe in the first centuries of the Middle Ages.

This does not mean, however, that ordinary peasants did not buy or sell anything at all. For example, salt. It was evaporated in relatively few places, from where it was then transported throughout Europe. Salt in the Middle Ages was used more widely than now, since it was used for the preparation of perishable products. In addition, the peasants ate mainly floury porridges, which were completely tasteless without salt.

In addition to cereals, the usual food in the village was cheeses, eggs, naturally, fruits and vegetables (legumes, turnips and onions). In the north of Europe, those who were richer enjoyed butter, in the south - olive oil. In coastal villages, of course, the main food was fish. Sugar was essentially a luxury item. But cheap wine was widely available. True, they did not know how to store it for a long time; it quickly turned sour. From different types the grains were used to brew beer everywhere, and apples were used to make cider. Peasants, as a rule, allowed themselves meat only according to holidays. The table could be diversified by hunting and fishing.

Housing

On larger area In Europe, a peasant house was built of wood, but in the south, where this material was not enough, it was more often made of stone. Wooden houses They were covered with straw, which was suitable for feeding livestock in hungry winters. The open hearth slowly gave way to a stove. Small windows were closed with wooden shutters and covered with bubble wrap or leather. Glass was used only in churches, among lords and urban rich people. Instead of a chimney, there was often a hole in the ceiling, and when they burned, smoke filled the room. During the cold season, often both the peasant’s family and his livestock lived nearby - in the same hut.

People in villages usually got married early: the marriageable age for girls was often considered 12 years, for boys - 14-15 years. Many children were born, but even in wealthy families, not all lived to adulthood.

Questions

1. How was life in a medieval village different from what you know from classical literature life in a village in the 18th-19th centuries, and what was similar?

2. In what matters did the lord obey the decision of the peasant community and why?

3. What energy sources did the medieval peasant use?

4. In the Middle Ages, vineyards spread in Europe much further north than they do today. Why do you think?

5. Try to find out from which areas of Europe the peasants received salt.

From “Five Books of Stories of My Time” by monk Raoul Glaber about the famine of 1027-1030.

This famine appeared - in vengeance for sins - for the first time in the East. Having depopulated Greece, he went to Italy, spread from there throughout Gaul, and spread to all the peoples of England. And the entire human race languished due to the lack of food: rich and wealthy people wasted away from hunger no worse than the poor... If someone found something edible to sell, he could ask for any price - and would get as much as he wanted... .

When they had eaten all the livestock and poultry and hunger began to oppress the people more strongly, they began to devour carrion and other unheard-of things. To avoid impending death, some dug up forest roots and algae. But everything was in vain, for there is no refuge against the wrath of God except Himself. It is terrible to tell the extent to which the fall of the human race has reached.

Alas! Woe is me! Something that had rarely been heard of before was prompted by frenzied hunger: people devoured the flesh of people. Those who were stronger attacked the travelers, divided them into parts, roasted them on fire, and devoured them. Many, driven by hunger, moved from place to place. They were taken in for the night, strangled at night, and their owners used them for food. Some, showing the children an apple or an egg and taking them to a secluded place, killed and devoured them. In many places, bodies dug out of the ground were also used to satisfy hunger... Eating human meat seemed so common that someone brought it boiled to the market in Tournus, like some kind of beef. He was captured, he did not deny his crime. He was tied up and burned at the stake. The meat, buried in the ground, was dug up by someone else at night and eaten. He was also burned.

Then in these places they began to try something that no one had ever heard of before. Many people pulled out white land like clay, and from this mixture they baked bread for themselves in order to at least save themselves from starvation. This was their last hope for salvation, but it also turned out to be in vain. For their faces grew pale and thin; For most, the skin became swollen and tight. The very voice of these people became so weak that it resembled the squeak of a dying bird.

And then the wolves, attracted by the corpses that remained unburied due to the many dead, began to make people their prey, which had not happened for a long time. And since it was impossible, as we said, due to the large number, to bury each dead person separately, in some places God-fearing people dug holes, and the people called them “dumps.” In these pits, 500 and even more corpses were buried at once, as many as were included. And the corpses were dumped there without any order, half naked, without shrouds. Even road intersections and fields devoid of stubble were turned into cemeteries...

This terrible famine raged throughout the entire earth, to the extent of human sins, for three whole years. All the church treasures were wasted on the needs of the poor, all the contributions originally intended, according to the charters, for this cause were exhausted.

People exhausted by prolonged hunger, if they managed to eat, swelled and immediately died. Others, touching the food with their hands and trying to bring it to their mouths, fell exhausted, unable to fulfill their desire.

From the poem “The Peasant Helmbrecht” by Werner Sadovnik (13th century)

The poem tells how Helmbrecht, the son of a meyer (i.e., a peasant), decided to become a knight and what came of it. The following is an excerpt from the poem in which Helmbrecht's father tries to reason with his son.

I'm going to the court.
I thank my sister
Thank you for your help, mother,
I will remember them well.
Now buy it for me
Dear father, horse.

With annoyance, Meyer said sternly:
Although you're asking too much
From a patient father
I'll buy you a stallion.
Your horse will take any barrier,
He will trot and go into the quarry,
Without getting tired, he will convey
You to the castle gates.
I'll buy a horse without excuses,
If only it weren't expensive.
But don't leave your father's shelter.
The custom at court is harsh,
It is only for knightly children
Accustomed from young nails.
Now, if you followed the rogue,
And, measuring strength with each other,
We would plow our wedge,
You would be happier, my son.
And without wasting any effort,
I would honestly live to the grave.
I have always respected loyalty
I didn't offend anyone
Paid tithes regularly
And I bequeath the same to my son.
Without hating, without enmity
I lived and I await death peacefully.

Oh, shut up, dear father,
There is no point in arguing with you.
I don't want to hide in a hole,
And to know what it smells like at court.
I won't tear my guts
And carry bags on your back,
Load manure with a shovel
And take out the cart after the cart,
May God punish me
I won't grind the grain.
After all, it’s inappropriate
My curls don't care
My dandy outfits,
To my silk doves
On that hat, embroidered
A well-born maiden.
No I won't help
You neither sow nor plow.

Stay son - father in reply,-
I know, Ruprecht, our neighbor,
A daughter is destined to be your bride.
He agrees, and I am not averse,
Give her sheep, cows,
Up to nine goals in total
Three-year-olds and young animals.
And at court, for sure,
Son, you'll starve
Fall asleep on a hard bed.
He remains out of work
Who rebels against his lot,
And your lot is the peasant's plow,
Don't let him out of your hands.
Enough of the nobility without you!
Not loving my class,
You're just sinning in vain
This is a bad profit.
I swear that I know the real thing
He can only ridicule you.

And the son repeats with bullish tenacity:
I'll get used to knightly customs
No worse than a noble chick,
Who grew up in the chambers of the palace.
When will they see my hat?
And an armful of golden curls,
They will believe that he did not know the plow,
Didn't drive the oxen through the peasant's meadow,
And they will swear an oath everywhere,
That I didn’t step on the furrow.
Every castle will welcome me,
When I put on those outfits,
What did they give me yesterday
Both mother and good sister.
Look like a man in them
I certainly won't.
Recognize the knight in me
Although it happened on the threshing floor
I threshed my grain
Yes, that was a long time ago.
Looking at these two legs,
It is important to wear boots
Made from Corduan leather
The nobles will not think of
What a palisade I fenced
And that a man gave birth to me.
And we will be able to take the stallion,
Then I am not Ruprecht's son-in-law:
I don't need my neighbor's daughter.
I need fame, not a wife.

Son, shut up for a moment,
Receive good advice.
He who listens to his elders is rightfully
He will be able to find honor and glory.
And who will despise the father of science,
Prepares himself for shame and torment
And only reaps harm,
Good for not listening to advice.
You look like you in your rich dress
Compare with the born nobility,
But you won't be able to do this.
Everyone will just hate you.
If trouble happens, there is a flaw,
None of the peasants, of course.
He won't show you any sympathy,
And he will only be glad of misfortune.
When the original master
Climb into a man's barn,
He will take away the cattle, rob the house,
He will come out right before the court.
And if you take even a crumb,
Now they're going to make a fuss,
You won't get your feet out of there
And you yourself will remain as collateral.
They won't believe a word
You will pay for every lamb.
Realize that even if
They'll kill you if they catch you stealing,
They'll be a little sad,
They will decide that they have served God.
Leave, my son, all these lies,
Live with your wife in a legal marriage.

-Let everything that is destined happen
I'm going. It's decided.
I must know the highest circle.
Teach others how to use the plow
And wipe away the salty sweat.
I will attack the local cattle
And I will chase the prey from the meadow.
Let the bulls roar in fear,
Taking off at a gallop, as if from fire.
All I need is a horse -
Ride recklessly with friends,
I'm just sad about that
What are men up to now?
He didn’t drive, grabbing him by the cowlick.
I don't want to endure poverty
It takes three years to raise a haircut,
Nurture the heifer for three years,
Not much of that income.
Why be honest with you?
I'd rather go into robbery,
I'll wear clothes made of fur,
Us winter cold no problem, -
We will always find a table and shelter,
And a fat herd of bulls.
Hurry, father, to the merchant,
Without hesitating for a minute,
Buy me a horse soon
I don't want to waste a single day.

Questions

1. How did the church behave during the famine described by Raoul Glaber?

2. Why does Helmbrecht strive to leave his class, and his father keeps him from doing so?

3. Try to roughly estimate the size of the property of Helmbrecht’s father and his neighbor Ruprecht. What kind of peasants were they - poor, average or wealthy?

4. Try to find out what the household of Helmbrecht’s father consisted of, what

Modern people have the vaguest idea of ​​how peasants lived in the Middle Ages. This is not surprising, because life and customs in the villages have changed a lot over these centuries.

The emergence of feudal dependence

The term “Middle Ages” is most applicable to because it was here that all those phenomena that are strongly associated with ideas about the Middle Ages took place. These are castles, knights and much more. The peasants had their own place in this society, which remained virtually unchanged for several centuries.

At the turn of the 8th and 9th centuries. in the Frankish state (it united France, Germany and most Italy) there was a revolution in relations around land ownership. A feudal system emerged, which was the basis of medieval society.

Kings (holders of supreme power) relied on the support of the army. For their service, those close to the monarch received large land. Over time, a whole class of wealthy feudal lords appeared who had vast territories within the state. The peasants who lived on these lands became their property.

The meaning of the church

Another major owner of the land was the church. Monastic plots could cover many square kilometers. How did peasants live in the Middle Ages on such lands? They received a small personal allotment, and in exchange for it they had to work certain number days on the owner's premises. It was economic coercion. It affected almost all European countries except Scandinavia.

The church played a big role in the enslavement and dispossession of village residents. The life of peasants was easily regulated by spiritual authorities. Commoners were instilled with the idea that resigned work for the church or the transfer of land to it would later affect what would happen to a person after death in heaven.

Impoverishment of the peasants

The existing feudal land tenure ruined the peasants, almost all of them lived in noticeable poverty. This was due to several phenomena. Due to regular military service and work for the feudal lord, the peasants were cut off from their own land and had practically no time to work on it. In addition, a variety of taxes from the state fell on their shoulders. Medieval society was based on unfair prejudices. For example, peasants were subject to the highest court fines for misdemeanors and violations of laws.

The villagers were deprived of their own land, but were never driven from it. Subsistence farming was then the only way to survive and earn money. Therefore, the feudal lords offered landless peasants to take land from them in exchange for numerous obligations, which are described above.

precarious

The main mechanism of the emergence of the European was precarity. This was the name of the agreement that was concluded between the feudal lord and the poor landless peasant. In exchange for owning an allotment, the plowman was obliged to either pay quitrents or perform regular corvée work. and its inhabitants were often entirely bound to the feudal lord by a contract of precaria (literally, "transferred by request"). Use could be given for several years or even for life.

If at first the peasant found himself only in land dependence on the feudal lord or the church, then over time, due to impoverishment, he also lost his personal freedom. This process of enslavement was a consequence of the difficult economic situation experienced by medieval village and its inhabitants.

The power of large landowners

A poor man who was unable to pay the entire debt to the feudal lord fell into bondage to the creditor and actually turned into a slave. In general, this led to large land holdings absorbing small ones. This process was also facilitated by the growth of the political influence of the feudal lords. Thanks to the large concentration of resources, they became independent from the king and could do whatever they wanted on their land, regardless of the laws. The more the middle peasants became dependent on the feudal lords, the more the power of the latter grew.

The way peasants lived in the Middle Ages often also depended on justice. This type of power also ended up in the hands of feudal lords (on their land). The king could declare the immunity of a particularly influential duke, so as not to enter into conflict with him. Privileged feudal lords could judge their peasants (in other words, their property) without regard to the central government.

Immunity also gave the right to a major owner personally collect all monetary receipts going to the crown treasury (court fines, taxes and other levies). The feudal lord also became the leader of the militia of peasants and soldiers, which gathered during the war.

The immunity granted by the king was only a formalization of the system of which feudal land tenure was a part. Large property owners held their privileges long before receiving permission from the king. Immunity only gave legitimacy to the order under which the peasants lived.

Patrimony

Before the revolution in land relations took place, the main economic unit Western Europe there was a rural community. They were also called stamps. The communities lived freely, but at the turn of the 8th and 9th centuries they became a thing of the past. In their place came the estates of large feudal lords, to whom serf communities were subordinate.

They could be very different in their structure, depending on the region. For example, in the north of France large fiefdoms were common, which included several villages. In the southern provinces of the common Frankish state, medieval society in the village lived in small fiefdoms, which could be limited to a dozen households. This division into European regions was preserved and lasted until the abandonment of the feudal system.

Patrimony structure

The classic estate was divided into two parts. The first of these was the master's domain, where peasants worked in strict certain days while serving his duty. The second part included the households of rural residents, because of which they became dependent on the feudal lord.

The labor of peasants was also necessarily used in the manor's estate, which, as a rule, was the center of the estate and the master's allotment. It included a house and a yard, on which there were various outbuildings, vegetable gardens, orchards, and vineyards (if the climate permitted). The master's artisans also worked here, without whom the landowner also could not do. The estate also often had mills and a church. All this was considered the property of the feudal lord. What peasants owned in the Middle Ages was located on their plots, which could be located interspersed with the landowner's plots.

Dependent rural workers had to work on the feudal lord's plots using their own equipment, and also bring their livestock here. Real slaves were used less often (this social stratum was much smaller in number).

The arable plots of the peasants were adjacent to each other. They should have used common area for grazing livestock (this tradition remained with the time of the free community). The life of such a collective was regulated with the help of a village gathering. It was presided over by the headman, who was elected by the feudal lord.

Features of subsistence farming

This was due to the low development of production forces in the village. In addition, in the village there was no division of labor between artisans and peasants, which could have increased its productivity. That is, craft and household work appeared as side effect Agriculture.

Dependent peasants and artisans provided the feudal lord different clothes, shoes, and also necessary equipment. What was produced on the estate was mostly used at the owner's court and rarely became the personal property of the serfs.

Peasant trade

The lack of circulation of goods slowed down trade. Nevertheless, it is incorrect to say that it did not exist at all, and the peasants did not participate in it. There were markets, fairs, and money turnover. However, all this did not in any way affect the life of the village and estate. The peasants had no means of independent subsistence, and feeble trade could not help them pay off the feudal lords.

With the proceeds from trade, the villagers bought what they could not produce on their own. The feudal lords acquired salt, weapons, and also rare luxury items that merchants from overseas countries could bring. Villagers did not participate in such transactions. That is, trade satisfied only the interests and needs of the narrow elite of society who had extra money.

Peasant protest

The way peasants lived in the Middle Ages depended on the size of the quitrent that was paid to the feudal lord. Most often it was given in kind. It could be grain, flour, beer, wine, poultry, eggs or crafts.

The deprivation of the remaining property caused protest from the peasantry. He could express himself in various forms. For example, villagers fled from their oppressors or even staged mass riots. Peasant revolts Each time they suffered defeats due to spontaneity, fragmentation and disorganization. At the same time, even they led to the fact that the feudal lords tried to fix the size of duties in order to stop their growth, as well as increase discontent among the serfs.

Refusal of feudal relations

The history of peasants in the Middle Ages is a constant confrontation with large landowners with varying success. These relations appeared in ruins in Europe ancient society, where classical slavery generally reigned, especially pronounced in the Roman Empire.

The abandonment of the feudal system and the enslavement of peasants occurred in modern times. It was facilitated by the development of the economy (primarily light industry), the industrial revolution and the outflow of population to the cities. Also, at the turn of the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, humanistic sentiments prevailed in Europe, which put individual freedom at the forefront of everything else.

Every person should be interested in the past of his people. Without knowing history, we will never be able to build a good future. So let's talk about how the ancient peasants lived.

Housing

The villages in which they lived reached approximately 15 households. It was very rare to find a settlement with 30–50 peasant households. Each cozy family yard contained not only a dwelling, but also a barn, barn, poultry house and various outbuildings for the household. Many residents also boasted vegetable gardens, vineyards and orchards. Where the peasants lived can be understood from the remaining villages, where courtyards and signs of the life of the inhabitants have been preserved. Most often, the house was built of wood, stone, covered with reeds or hay. They slept and ate in one cozy room. stood in the house wooden table, several benches, a chest for storing clothes. They slept on wide beds, on which lay a mattress with straw or hay.

Food

The peasants' diet included porridge from various grain crops, vegetables, cheese products and fish. During the Middle Ages, baked bread was not made because it was very difficult to grind grain into flour. Meat dishes were typical only for festive table. Instead of sugar, peasants used honey from wild bees. For a long time, peasants hunted, but then fishing took its place. Therefore, fish was much more common on the tables of peasants than meat, which the feudal lords pampered themselves with.

Cloth

The clothing worn by peasants in the Middle Ages was very different from that of the ancient centuries. The usual clothing of peasants was a linen shirt and knee-length or ankle-length pants. Over the shirt they put on another one, with longer sleeves, called blio. For outerwear, a raincoat with a fastener at shoulder level was used. The shoes were very soft, made of leather, and there were no hard soles at all. But the peasants themselves often walked barefoot or in uncomfortable shoes with wooden soles.

Legal life of peasants

Peasants living in communities were in different addictions from the feudal mode. They had several legal categories with which they were endowed:

• The bulk of the peasants lived according to the rules of “Wallachian” law, which took as its basis the life of the villagers when they lived in a rural free community. Ownership of land was common on a single right.
• The remaining mass of peasants were subject to serfdom, which was thought out by the feudal lords.

If we talk about the Wallachian community, then there were all the features of serfdom in Moldova. Each community member had the right to work on the land only a few days a year. When the feudal lords took possession of the serfs, they introduced such a load on the days of work that it was realistic to complete it only over a long period of time. Of course, the peasants had to fulfill duties that went towards the prosperity of the church and the state itself. The serf peasants who lived in the 14th – 15th centuries split into groups:

• State peasants who depended on the ruler;
• Privately owned peasants who depended on a specific feudal lord.

The first group of peasants had much more rights. The second group was considered free, with their personal right to move to another feudal lord, but such peasants paid tithes, served corvée and were sued by the feudal lord. This situation was close to the complete enslavement of all peasants.

In the following centuries, various groups of peasants appeared who were dependent on the feudal order and its cruelty. The way the serfs lived was simply horrifying, because they had no rights or freedoms.

Enslavement of the peasants

During the period of 1766, Gregory Guike issued a law on the complete enslavement of all peasants. No one had the right to pass from the boyars to others; the fugitives were quickly returned to their places by the police. All serfdom was reinforced by taxes and duties. Taxes were imposed on any activity of peasants.

But even all this oppression and fear did not suppress the spirit of freedom in the peasants who rebelled against their slavery. Because otherwise serfdom difficult to name. The way peasants lived during the feudal era was not immediately forgotten. Unbridled feudal oppression remained in the memory and did not allow the peasants to restore their rights for a long time. The struggle for the right to free life was long. The struggle of the strong spirit of the peasants has been immortalized in history, and is still striking in its facts.