Who is Luther in history? Here is the official version of the death of the reformer Martin Luther

There are several explanations for this unexpected decision. One refers to Luther's depressed state due to "consciousness of his sinfulness." According to another, Luther was once caught in a severe thunderstorm and was so frightened that he took a vow of monasticism. The third talks about the excessive severity of parental education, which Luther could not bear. The reason must be sought, apparently, in Luther’s circle and in the ferment of minds that existed then among the burghers. Luther's decision was apparently influenced by his acquaintance with the members of the humanist circle.

Luther later wrote that his monastic life was very difficult. Nevertheless, he was an exemplary monk and carefully followed all the instructions. Luther entered the Augustinian Order in Erfurt. The year before, John Staupitz, later a friend of Martin, received the position of vicar of the Order.

Luther made numerous appearances in Jena. It is known that in March 1532 he stayed incognito at the Black Bear Inn. Two years later he preached in the city church of St. Michael against staunch opponents of the reformation. After the founding of Salan in 1537, which later became a university, Luther received ample opportunities here to preach and call for the renewal of the church.

Luther's follower Georg Röhrer (1492-1557) edited Luther's works during his visits to the University and the library. As a result, the “Jena Luther Bible” was published, which is currently in the city museum.

In 1546, Johann Friedrich the First commissioned the master Heinrich Ziegler of Erfurt to make a statue for Luther's tomb in Wittenberg. The original was supposed to be a wooden statue created by Lucas Cranach the Elder. The existing bronze plaque ended up in storage in a Weimar castle for two decades. In 1571, Johann Friedrich's middle son donated it to the university.

The last years of Luther's life were marred by chronic illnesses. He died in Eisleben on February 18, 1546.

Luther's theological views

The fundamental principles of achieving salvation according to the teachings of Luther: sola fide, sola gratia et sola Scriptura (only faith, only grace and only Scripture). Luther declared untenable the Catholic dogma that the church and clergy are necessary mediators between God and man. The only way to save the soul for a Christian is faith, given to him directly by God (Gal. “The just shall live by faith,” and also Eph. “For by grace you have been saved through faith, and this not of yourselves, it is the gift of God”). Luther declared his rejection of the authority of papal decrees and epistles and called for the Bible, rather than the institutional church, to be considered the main source of Christian truths. Luther formulated the anthropological component of his teaching as “Christian freedom”: the freedom of the soul does not depend on external circumstances, but solely on the will of God.

One of the central and popular provisions of Luther’s views is the concept of “vocation” (German. Berufung). In contrast to the Catholic teaching about the opposition of the worldly and the spiritual, Luther believed that God's grace is also realized in the worldly life in the professional field. God destined people for one type of activity or another, investing in them various talents or abilities, and it is a person’s duty to work diligently to fulfill his calling. In the eyes of God, there is no noble or despicable work.

The labors of monks and priests, no matter how hard and holy they may be, do not differ one iota in the eyes of God from the labors of a peasant in the field or a woman working on the farm.

The concept of “calling” appears in Luther in the process of translating a fragment of the Bible into German (Sirach 11:20-21): “continue in your work (calling)”

The main goal of the theses was to show that priests are not mediators between God and man, they should only guide the flock and set an example of true Christians. “Man saves his soul not through the Church, but through faith,” wrote Luther. He opposes the dogma of the divinity of the pope, which was clearly demonstrated in Luther's discussion with the famous theologian Johann Eck in 1519. Refuting the divinity of the pope, Luther referred to the Greek, that is, Orthodox, church, which is also considered Christian and does without the pope and his unlimited powers. Luther asserted the infallibility of Holy Scripture, and questioned the authority of Holy Tradition and councils.

According to Luther, “the dead know nothing” (Eccl. 9:5). Calvin counters this in his first theological work, The Sleep of Souls (1534).

Historical significance of Luther's work

Luther and anti-Semitism

Postage stamp of the GDR

Luther condemned the Jews as carriers of Judaism for their denial of the Trinity, so he called for their expulsion and the destruction of synagogues, which subsequently aroused the sympathy of Hitler and his supporters. It is no coincidence that the Nazis designated the so-called Kristallnacht as a celebration of Luther's birthday.

Luther and music

Luther knew the history and theory of music well; his favorite composers were Josquin Despres and L. Senfl. In his works and letters, he quoted medieval and Renaissance treatises on music (the treatises of John Tinctoris almost verbatim).

Luther is the author of the preface (in Latin) to the collection of motets (by various composers) “Pleasant Consonances ... for 4 Voices” [* 1], released in 1538 by the German publisher Georg Rau. In this text, which was reprinted several times in the 16th century (including German translation) and received (later) the title “Praise of Music” (“Encomion musices”), Luther gives an enthusiastic assessment of imitative polyphonic music based on cantus firmus [* 2]. Whoever is unable to appreciate the divine beauty of such exquisite polyphony, “he is not worthy to be called a man, and let him listen to how the donkey screams and the pig grunts” [* 3]. In addition, Luther wrote a preface (in German) in verse "Frau Musica" to the short poem of Johann Walter (1496-1570) "Lob und Preis der löblichen Kunst Musica" (Wittenberg, 1538), as well as a number of prefaces to songbooks of various publishers, published in 1524, 1528, 1542 and 1545, where he expressed his views on music as an extremely important, integral component of the renewed cult.

As part of the liturgical reform, he introduced community singing of strophic songs in German, later called the generic Protestant chorale:

I also want us to have as many songs as possible in the mother tongue that people can sing during Mass, immediately after the Gradual and after the Sanctus and Agnus Dei. For there is no doubt that originally all people sang what is now sung only by the choir [of clerics].

Formula missae

Presumably, from 1523, Luther took a direct part in the compilation of a new everyday repertoire, he himself composed poems (more often he re-composed church Latin and secular prototypes) and selected “decent” melodies for them - both original and anonymous, including from the repertoire of the Roman Catholic Church . For example, in the preface to a collection of songs for the burial of the dead (1542) he wrote:

For the sake of good example, we have selected the beautiful melodies and songs used under the papacy for all-night vigils, requiem masses and burials and printed some of them in this little book, but provided them with other texts in order to sing the article of the resurrection, and not purgatory with its torment and satisfaction for sins, in which the dead cannot rest and find peace. The hymns and notes themselves [of Catholics] are worth a lot, and it would be a pity if all this were wasted. However, unchristian and nonsensical texts or words must go away.

Martin Luther's Preface to the first collection of Protestant chorales, the so-called Wittenberg Songbook (1524)

The question of how great Luther's personal contribution to the music of the Protestant church was has been revised several times over the centuries and remains controversial. Some church songs written by Luther under active participation Johann Walter, were included in the first collection of four-voice choral arrangements, “The Book of Spiritual Hymns” (Wittenberg, 1524) [* 4]. In the preface to it (see the given facsimile) [* 5] Luther wrote:

The fact that singing spiritual songs is a good and godly deed is obvious to every Christian, because not only the example of the prophets and kings of the Old Testament (who glorified God with songs and instrumental music, poetry and on all kinds of stringed instruments), but also the special custom of psalmody was known to all of Christianity from the very beginning. So to begin with, to encourage those who can do it better, I, along with a few other [writers], composed some spiritual songs. They are put on four votes

Martin Luther– head of the Reformation in Germany, Christian theologian, founder of Lutheranism (German Protestantism); he is credited with translating the Bible into German and establishing the norms of common German literary language. He was born in Saxony, the city of Eisleben, on November 10, 1483. His father was the owner of copper mining and smelting, who became a miner. At the age of 14, Martin entered the Marburg Franciscan school. Fulfilling the will of his parents, the young man entered the University of Erfurt in 1501 to receive a higher legal education. After taking a course in the “liberal arts” and receiving a master’s degree in 1505, Luther began to study jurisprudence, but he was much more interested in theology.

Ignoring his father’s opinion, Luther, remaining in the same city, went to the monastery of the Augustinian Order, where he began studying medieval mysticism. In 1506 he became a monk, in next year he is ordained a priest. In 1508, Luther arrived at the University of Wittenberg to lecture. To become a doctor of theology, he studied at the same time. Sent to Rome on behalf of the order, he was greatly impressed by the corruption of the Roman Catholic clergy. In 1512 Luther became a doctor of theology and professor. Teaching activities were combined with reading sermons and performing the role of caretaker of 11 monasteries.

In 1517, on October 18, a papal bull was issued on the remission of sins and the sale of indulgences. On October 31, 1517, on the doors of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Martin Luther hangs 95 theses, which he composed, criticizing the Catholic Church and rejecting its main postulates. According to the new religious teaching put forward by Luther, the secular state should be independent of the church, and the clergy itself does not have to act as a mediator between God and man; Luther assigned him the role of a mentor of Christians, an educator in the spirit of humility, etc. They rejected the cult of saints, the requirement of celibacy for clergy, monasticism, and the authority of papal decrees. The opposition-minded population saw in Luther's teaching a call to overthrow the authority of Catholicism, as well as to speak out against the social system with which he was one.

Luther was summoned to Rome for a church trial, but, feeling public support, he did not go. In 1519, during a debate with representatives of Catholicism, he openly voiced his agreement with many of the theses of Jan Hus, the Czech reformer. Luther is anathematized; in 1520, in the courtyard of the university, he organized a public burning of a papal bull, in which the head of the Catholics excommunicated him from the church, and in his address “To the Christian nobility of the German nation” the idea is heard that the work of the entire nation is the fight against papal dominance. Later, in 1520-1521, with changes in the political situation, his calls became less radical; he interpreted Christian freedom as spiritual freedom, which is compatible with bodily unfreedom.

The Pope is supported by Emperor Charles, and throughout 1520-1521. Luther takes refuge in Wartburg Castle, owned by Elector Frederick of Saxony. At this time, he begins to translate the Bible into his native language. In 1525, Luther arranged his personal life by marrying a former nun, who bore him six children.

The next period of Martin Luther's biography was marked by harsh criticism of radical burgher reform trends, popular uprisings, and demands for reprisals against rebels. At the same time, the history of German social thought captured Luther as a man who made a great contribution to the development of folk culture, a reformer of the literary language, music, and educational system.

Biography from Wikipedia

Martin Luther born into the family of Hans Luther (1459-1530), a peasant who moved to Eisleben (Saxony) in the hope of a better life. There he worked in copper mines. After Martin's birth, the family moved to the mountain town of Mansfeld, where his father became a wealthy burgher. In 1525, Hans bequeathed 1,250 guilders to his heirs, with which they could buy an estate with lands, meadows and forest.

In 1497, his parents sent 14-year-old Martin to the Franciscan school in Magdeburg. At that time, Luther and his friends earned their bread by singing under the windows of devout inhabitants.

In 1501, by decision of his parents, Luther entered the university in Erfurt. In those days, the burghers sought to give their sons a higher legal education. But he was preceded by taking a course in the “seven liberal arts.” In 1505, Luther received a Master of Arts degree and began studying law. That same year, against his father's wishes, he entered the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt.

There are several explanations for this unexpected decision. According to one, Luther’s depressed state was due to “awareness of his sinfulness.” According to another, one day he was caught in a severe thunderstorm, and subsequently joined the Augustinian Order. The year before, Johann Staupitz, later a friend of Martin, received the position of vicar of the Order.

In 1506, Luther took monastic vows. In 1507 he was ordained a priest.

In Wittenberg

In 1508, Luther was sent to teach at the new University of Wittenberg. There he first became acquainted with the works of St. Augustine. Among his students was Erasmus Alberus.

Luther taught and also studied for a doctorate in theology.

In 1511, Luther was sent to [Rome] on order business. The trip made an indelible impression on the young theologian. There he first saw the corruption of the Roman Catholic clergy.

In 1512, Luther received his doctorate in theology. After this, he took the position of teacher of theology in place of Staupitz.

Luther constantly felt himself in a state of uncertainty and incredible weakness in relation to God, and these experiences played a large role in the formation of his views. In 1509 he taught a course on the “Sentences” of Peter of Lombardy, in 1513-1515 - on the psalms, in 1515-1516 - on the Epistle to the Romans, in 1516-1518 - on the Epistles to the Galatians and to the Hebrews. Luther painstakingly studied the Bible. He not only taught, but was also the caretaker of 11 monasteries. He also preached in church.

Luther said that he was constantly in a state of feeling sin. Having experienced a spiritual crisis, Luther discovered a different understanding of the Epistles of the Apostle Paul. He wrote: “I understood that we receive Divine righteousness through faith in God itself and thanks to it, thereby the merciful Lord justifies us through faith itself.” At this thought, Luther, as he said, felt that he was born again and entered heaven through the open gates. The idea that a believer receives justification through his faith in the mercy of God was developed by Luther in 1515-1519.

Reform activities

On October 18, 1517, Pope Leo X issues a bull on the remission of sins and the sale of indulgences in order to “Provide assistance in the construction of the Church of St. Peter and the salvation of the souls of the Christian world." Luther explodes with criticism of the role of the church in the salvation of the soul, which is expressed on October 31, 1517 in 95 theses against the sale of indulgences.

Theses were sent to the Bishop of Brandenburg and the Archbishop of Mainz. It is worth adding that there have been protests against the papacy before. However, they were of a different nature. Led by humanists, the anti-indulgence movement approached the issue from a humane perspective. Luther criticized dogma, that is, the Christian aspect of teaching.

The rumor about the theses spreads with lightning speed, and Luther was summoned to trial in 1519 and, having relented, to the Leipzig Dispute, where he appeared, despite the reprisal against Jan Hus, and in the dispute expressed doubt about the righteousness and infallibility of the Catholic papacy. Then Pope Leo X anathematizes Luther; in 1520, a bull of damnation was drawn up by Pietro of the House of Accolti (in 2008 it was announced that the Catholic Church planned to “rehabilitate” him). Luther publicly burns the papal bull Exsurge Domine excommunicating him in the courtyard of the University of Wittenberg and, in his address “To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation,” declares that the fight against papal dominance is the business of the entire German people.

Emperor Charles V, who supported the pope, summoned Luther to the Diet of Worms, where the reformer declared: “Since Your Majesty and you, the sovereigns, wish to hear a simple answer, I will answer directly and simply. Unless I am convinced by the testimony of Holy Scripture and the clear arguments of reason - for I do not recognize the authority of either popes or councils, since they contradict each other - my conscience is bound by the Word of God. I cannot and do not want to renounce anything, because it is neither good nor safe to act against my conscience. God help me. Amen". The first editions of Luther’s speech also contain the words: “On this I stand and cannot do otherwise,” but this phrase was not in the documentary records of the meeting.

Luther was released from Worms, since he had previously been given an imperial safe conduct, but on May 26, 1521, the Edict of Worms was issued, condemning Luther as a heretic. On the way from Worms, near the village of Eisenach, the courtiers of Elector Frederick of Saxony, at the request of their master, staged the kidnapping of Luther, secretly placing him in Wartburg Castle; For some time, many considered him dead. The devil allegedly appeared to Luther in the castle, but Luther began translating the Bible into German, which he was helped to edit by Kaspar Kruziger, a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg.

In 1525, 42-year-old Luther tied the knot with 26-year-old former nun Katharina von Bora. In their marriage they had six children.

During the Peasants' War of 1524-1526, Luther sharply criticized the rioters, writing “Against the murderous and plundering hordes of peasants,” where he called reprisals against the instigators of the riots a godly act.

In 1529, Luther compiled the Larger and Smaller Catechism, which were the cornerstones of the Book of Concord.

Luther did not participate in the work of the Augsburg Reichstag in 1530; the positions of the Protestants were represented by Melanchthon.

Luther appeared in Jena several times. It is known that in March 1532 he stayed incognito at the Black Bear Inn. Two years later he preached in the city church of St. Mikhail. speaking out against staunch opponents of the Reformation. After the founding of Salan in 1537, which later became a university, Luther received ample opportunities here to preach and call for the renewal of the church.

In the last years of his life, Luther suffered from chronic illnesses. He died in Eisleben on February 18, 1546.

In 1546, Elector Johann Friedrich I commissioned the master Heinrich Ziegler from Erfurt to create a statue for Luther's tomb in Wittenberg. The original was supposed to be a wooden statue created by Lucas Cranach the Elder. The existing bronze plaque was stored in a Weimar castle for two decades. In 1571, Johann Friedrich's middle son donated it to the university.

Luther's theological views

The fundamental principles of achieving salvation according to the teachings of Luther: sola fide, sola gratia et sola Scriptura (by faith alone, grace alone and Scripture alone). Luther declared untenable the Catholic dogma that the church and clergy are necessary mediators between God and man. The only way to save the soul for a Christian is faith, given to him directly by God (Gal. 3:11 “The just shall live by faith,” and also Eph. 2:8 “For by grace you have been saved through faith, and this not of yourselves, it is the gift of God.” ). Luther declared his rejection of the authority of papal decrees and epistles and called for the Bible, rather than the institutional church, to be considered the main source of Christian truths. Luther formulated the anthropological component of his teaching as “Christian freedom”: the freedom of the soul does not depend on external circumstances, but solely on the will of God.

One of the central and sought-after provisions of Luther’s views is the concept of “vocation” (German: Berufung). In contrast to the Catholic teaching about the opposition of the worldly and the spiritual, Luther believed that God’s grace is also realized in the worldly life in the professional field. God destined people for one type of activity or another, investing in them various talents or abilities, and it is a person’s duty to work diligently to fulfill his calling. In the eyes of God, no work is noble or despicable.

The labors of monks and priests, no matter how hard and holy they may be, do not differ one iota in the eyes of God from the labors of a peasant in the field or a woman working on the farm.

The concept of “calling” appears in Luther in the process of translating a fragment of the Bible into German (Sirach 11:20-21): “continue in your work (calling)”

The main goal of the theses was to show that priests are not mediators between God and man, they should only guide the flock and set an example of true Christians. “Man saves his soul not through the Church, but through faith,” wrote Luther. He opposes the dogma of the Divinity of the Pope, which was clearly demonstrated in Luther's discussion with the famous theologian Johann Eck in 1519. Refuting the Divinity of the pope, Luther referred to the Greek, that is, Orthodox, church, which is also considered Christian and does without the pope and his unlimited powers. Luther asserted the infallibility of Holy Scripture, and questioned the authority of Holy Tradition and councils.

According to Luther, “the dead know nothing” (Eccl. 9:5). Calvin counters this in his first theological work, The Sleep of Souls (1534).

Historical significance of Luther's work

According to Max Weber, Lutheran preaching not only gave impetus to the Reformation, but also served as one of the turning points in the emergence of capitalism and determined the spirit of the Modern Age.

Luther also entered the history of German social thought as a cultural figure - a reformer of education, language, and music. In 2003, according to the results of public opinion polls, Martin Luther became the second greatest German in the entire history of Germany (the first place was taken by Konrad Adenauer, the third by Karl Marx).

Luther not only experienced the influence of the Renaissance culture, but in the fight against the “papists” he sought to use popular culture and did a lot for its development. Great importance had a translation of the Bible into German carried out mainly by Luther (1522-1542), in which he established the norms of general German national language. In this work he was assisted by his devoted friend and comrade-in-arms Johann-Caspar Aquila.

Luther and anti-Semitism

Luther's anti-Semitism has been understood in different ways. Some believe that anti-Semitism was Luther's personal position, which did not influence his theology and was merely an expression of the spirit of the times. Others, such as Daniel Gruber, call Luther a “Holocaust theologian,” believing that the opinion of the founder of the denomination could not but influence the still immature minds of believers and could even contribute to the spread of Nazism among Lutherans in Germany.

At the beginning of his preaching career, Luther was free from anti-Semitism. He even wrote a pamphlet in 1523, “Jesus Christ Was Born a Jew.”

Luther condemned the Jews, as carriers of Judaism, for denying the Trinity. Therefore, he called for expelling them and destroying the synagogues, which aroused the sympathy of Hitler and his supporters. The Nazis even called the so-called Kristallnacht a celebration of Luther's birthday.

Luther and music

Luther is the author of the preface (in Latin) to the collection of motets (by various composers) “Pleasant Consonances ... for 4 Voices,” published in 1538 by the German publisher Georg Rau. In this text, which was reprinted several times in the 16th century (including in German translation) and (later) called Encomion musices, Luther gives an enthusiastic assessment of imitative polyphonic music based on the cantus firmus. Whoever is unable to appreciate the Divine beauty of such exquisite polyphony, “he is not worthy to be called a man, and let him listen to how the donkey screams and the pig grunts.” In addition, Luther wrote a preface (in German) in verse "Frau Musica" to the short poem of Johann Walter (1496-1570) "Lob und Preis der löblichen Kunst Musica" (Wittenberg, 1538), as well as a number of prefaces to songbooks of various publishers, published in 1524, 1528, 1542 and 1545, where he expressed his views on music as an extremely important, integral component of the renewed cult.

As part of the liturgical reform, he introduced community singing of strophic songs in German, later called the generic Protestant chorale:

I also want us to have as many songs as possible in the mother tongue that people can sing during Mass, immediately after the Gradual and after the Sanctus and Agnus Dei. For there is no doubt that originally all people sang what is now sung only by the choir [of clerics].
Formula missae

For the sake of good example, we have selected beautiful melodies and songs used during the papacy for all-night vigils, requiem masses and burials<…>and they published some of them in this little book,<…>but they provided them with other texts in order to sing the article about the resurrection, and not purgatory with its torment and satisfaction for sins, in which the dead cannot rest and find peace. The hymns and notes themselves [of Catholics] are worth a lot, and it would be a pity if all this were wasted. However, unchristian and nonsensical texts or words must go away.

The question of how great Luther's personal contribution to the music of the Protestant church was has been revised several times over the centuries and remains controversial. Some church songs written by Luther with the active participation of Johann Walter were included in the first collection of four-voice choral arrangements, “The Book of Spiritual Hymns” (Wittenberg, 1524). In his preface, Luther wrote:

The fact that singing spiritual songs is a good and godly deed is obvious to every Christian, because not only the example of the prophets and kings of the Old Testament (who glorified God with songs and instrumental music, poetry and on all kinds of stringed instruments), but also the special custom of psalmody was known to all of Christianity from the very beginning.<…>So to begin with, to encourage those who can do it better, I, along with a few other [writers], composed some spiritual songs.<…>They are put in four voices only because I really wanted the youth (who will one way or another have to learn music and other genuine arts) to find something with the help of which they could put away love serenades and lustful songs (bul lieder und fleyschliche gesenge ) and instead learn something useful, and moreover, so that the benefit is combined with the pleasantness so desired for young people.

The chorales, which tradition attributes to Luther, were also included in other first collections of (one-voice) Protestant church songs, which were published in the same 1524 in Nuremberg and Erfurt.

Autograph of Martin Luther's famous church song "Ein" feste Burg"

The most famous chorales composed by Luther himself are “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott” (“Our Lord is a stronghold,” composed between 1527 and 1529) and “Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her” (“I descend from the heights of heaven”; in 1535 composed poems, setting them to the Spielman melody “Ich komm' aus fremden Landen her”; in 1539 he composed his own melody for the poems).

In total, Luther is credited with composing about 30 chorales. Striving for simplicity and accessibility of worship, Luther established the new congregational singing strictly diatonic, with minimal chant (he used mainly syllabics) - as opposed to the Gregorian chant, which contains a lot of lush melismatics, requiring professionalism of the singers. The Mass and officia services (primarily Vespers with Magnificat), inherited from the Catholics, were sung both in standard Latin texts and in German. At the same time, Luther abolished the funeral mass and other magnificent rituals that were practiced by Catholics in worship for the dead.

The works most important for understanding Luther’s liturgical reform are “Formula missae”, 1523 and “German Mass” (“Deutsche Messe”, 1525-1526). They gave 2 liturgical forms (in Latin and German), which were not mutually exclusive: Latin chants could be combined with German chant within one service. Worship entirely in German was practiced in small towns and villages. IN major cities, which had Latin schools and universities, the Macaronic Protestant Mass was the norm.

Luther did not object to the use of musical instruments in the church, especially the organ.

Luther in art

"Luther" (Luther, Germany, 1928);
"Martin Luther" (Martin Luther, USA 1953);
"Luther" (Luther, USA-Canada, 1974);
"Martin Luther" ( Martin Luther, Germany, 1983);
"Martin Luther" (Martin Luther, UK, 2002);
"Luther" ( Luther; in Russian distribution "The Luther Passion", Germany, 2003). Joseph Fiennes plays Martin Luther.

In a sketch by the British comedy troupe Monty Python, a character named Martin Luther was the head coach of the German football team, whose players featured other famous German philosophers.

The biography of Martin Luther served as the plot for the concept album of musician Neal Morse "Sola Scriptura", working in the style of progressive rock.

In 2010, renowned German conceptual artist Ottmar Hörl installed 800 sculptures of Martin Luther on the main market square of Wittenberg in Germany.

Essays

Berleburg Bible
Lectures on the Epistle to the Romans (1515-1516)
95 theses on indulgences (1517)
To the Christian nobility of the German nation (1520)
On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520)
Letter to Mulpfort (1520)
Open letter to Pope Leo X (1520), September 6.
About the freedom of a Christian
Against the damned bull of the Antichrist
Speech at the Worms Reichstag on April 18, 1521
On the Slavery of the Will (1525)
On the war against the Turks (1528)
Large and Small Catechism (1529)
Letter of transfer (1530)
Praise of Music (German translation) (1538)
About the Jews and their lies (1543)

Editions of Luther's works

Tomus secundus omnium operum, 1562

Luthers Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe. 65 Bde. Weimar: Bohlau, 1883-1993 (the best edition of Luther's works, considered standard for scholars of Luther's legacy).
Luther's Work. American Edition. 55vls. St. Louis, 1955-1986 (translation of Luther's works into English; publication unfinished).
Luther M. The time for silence has passed. Selected works 1520-1526. - Kharkov, 1994.
Luther M. Bible translation. 1534. reissued 1935 (German).
Luther M. Selected works. - St. Petersburg, 1994. 2nd ed.- St. Petersburg, 1997.
Luther M. 95 abstracts. [Collected works of M. Luther; in the application Leibniz, Hegel, K. Fischer about God, philosophy of religion and the Reformation]. - St. Petersburg: Rose of the World, 2002.
Luther, M. About the freedom of a Christian. [Collected works of M. Luther; in the appendix authors on Luther and the Reformation in Europe]. - Ufa: ARC, 2013. - 728 p.

Martin Luther - leader of the Reformation in Germany, founder of German Protestantism. He translated the Bible into German, establishing the norms of the common German literary language. Zodiac sign - Scorpio.

Martin Luther was born November 10, 1483, in Eisleben, Saxony in the family of a former miner who became one of the owners of smelters and copper mines. After graduating from the University of Erfurt in 1505 with a master's degree, Luther entered the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt. In 1508 he began lecturing at the University of Wittenberg (from 1512 Doctor of Theology).

Intelligence plus character are the goals of true education.

Luther Martin

In the context of the rise of the social movement in Germany, criticism of the Catholic Church, Martin Luther came up with 95 theses against indulgences (he hung the theses on October 31, 1517 on the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church). These theses contained the main provisions of his new religious teaching (which he later developed in other works), which denied the basic dogmas and the entire structure of the Catholic Church. Rejecting the Catholic dogma that the church and clergy are necessary mediators between man and God, Luther declared the Christian's faith to be the only way of salvation for the soul, which is granted to him directly by God (the thesis of justification by faith alone).

Riots are the language of those who were not listened to.

Luther Martin

Martin Luther argued that worldly life and the entire worldly order, which provides a person with the opportunity to devote himself to faith (the secular state and its institutions), occupy important place in the Christian religion. He rejected the authority of papal decrees and messages ( Sacred Tradition) and demanded the restoration of the authority of Holy Scripture. Luther rejected the clergy's claims to a dominant position in society. M. Luther limited the role of the clergy to instructing Christians in the spirit of humility, a person’s awareness of his complete dependence on the mercy of God for the salvation of his soul. Luther's proclamation of the idea of independence of the secular state from the Catholic Church was of great historical significance.

He who accepts evil without resistance becomes its accomplice.

Luther Martin

Martin Luther's theses were perceived by opposition sections of the population as a signal to speak out against the Catholic Church and the social order sanctified by it, and the reformation movement went beyond the boundaries that Martin set for it. Relying on the social movement in Germany, Luther refused to appear at the church court in Rome, and at the Leipzig dispute with Catholic theologians in 1519 he openly declared that he largely considered the positions put forward by the Czech reformer Jan Hus correct.

In 1520, Luther publicly burned a papal bull excommunicating him in the courtyard of the University of Wittenberg. In the same year, in his address “To the Christian nobility of the German nation,” he announced that the fight against papal dominance was the work of the entire German nation. But in 1520-1521, when the interests of the various classes that joined the Reformation began to demarcate, and Thomas Munzer entered the political arena, showing a new, popular understanding of the Reformation, Martin Luther began to move away from the radical position he initially took, clarifying that Christian freedom should be understood only in the sense of spiritual freedom, with which bodily unfreedom (including serfdom) is completely compatible. From persecution under the Edict of Worms in 1521, Luther sought protection from the princes, taking refuge in the Wartburg Castle of Elector Frederick of Saxony. From this time on, Luther began his sharp speeches against the radical burgher trends of the Reformation (Andreas Karlstadt) and especially against mass popular uprisings. Luther pointed out that secular power is obliged to protect the existing social order by the force of the sword. During the Peasants' War of 1524-1526, he demanded a bloody reprisal against the rebel peasants and the restoration of serfdom.

In the end of everything, we will remember not the insults of our enemies, but the silence of our friends.

Luther Martin

Martin Luther also entered the history of German social thought as a cultural figure - as a reformer of education, language, and music. He not only experienced the influence of Renaissance culture, but in the interests of fighting the papists, he sought to use popular culture and did a lot for its development. Luther's translation of the Bible into German (1522-1542) was of great importance, in which he managed to establish the norms of the common German national language.

Founder of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Born in Eisleben (in Saxony) on November 10, 1483. He came from the peasant class, was the son of a miner and received a strict religious and moral education in the family. In 1501, he entered the University of Erfurt, where, while studying law (at the request of his father), he was engaged in philosophical sciences at that time, and also acquired all the necessary techniques of dialectics. At the same time, Martin Luther studied the Latin classics and entered into close relations with representatives of Erfurt humanism - Rubianus and Lang. In 1502, Luther received a bachelor's degree, and in 1505 a master's degree in philosophy.

In the same year, minor; the event served as the impetus for a change in Luther’s life, which marked the beginning of his future activities. The thunderstorm that overtook him in the mountains made a deep impression on his ardent nature; Luther was, in his own words, “overwhelmed with fear sent down from heaven,” and from that time on he began to be tormented by doubts about the possibility of achieving salvation despite his sinfulness human nature. He left his distracted life, entered the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt and accepted the priestly rank (1507). However, despite a life full of work and repentance, the fear of divine punishment did not leave Luther, and in the silence of his cell he experienced more than one difficult moment of sadness and despair. A decisive revolution in his spiritual world was made by one old monk, who resolved all his doubts by simply pointing to the chapter on the remission of sins. Zealous study of Holy Scripture, on the one hand, and conversations with the prior of the Augustinian order, Staupitz, on the other, helped strengthen Martin Luther’s awareness of the possibility of achieving eternal salvation by the power of faith alone.

Portrait of Martin Luther. Artist Luca Cranach the Elder, 1525

Having made a trip to Rome in 1511, on behalf of his order, Luther was horrified to see the deep depravity of the Catholic clergy. Nevertheless, he returned from Rome still a faithful son of the Catholic Church, deeply believing in its boundless authority. Even before his trip to Rome, Martin Luther began giving lectures on Aristotle at the newly established Wittenberg University; Having become a doctor of theology (1512), he began reading about the epistles of the Apostle Paul, while at the same time delivering frequent sermons in Wittenberg churches on the topic of God's grace achieved through faith, which became the cornerstone of his teaching.

Luther's 95 Theses (briefly)

Soon Luther had the opportunity to openly act as an enemy of the Roman Church. The abuse of papal indulgences then reached extreme limits. The monk Tetzel, who sold these indulgences, also appeared in the vicinity of Wittenberg (1517), precisely at the time when the anniversary of the consecration of the local palace church was celebrated there. According to the custom of that time, such festivities were accompanied by publications nailed to the doors of the temple; Luther took advantage of this and nailed 95 theses to the church doors, in which he pointed out the difference between repentance, as an act of internal, moral peace, and the existing church system of repentance. The success of the 95 theses was extraordinary: within 14 days they managed to travel all over Germany and were met with universal sympathy. At the beginning of 1518, 95 theses were condemned by the papal censor; and in 1519, the papal theologian Eck challenged Martin Luther to a public debate in Leipzig (mainly concerning the question of the primacy of the pope), after which the final break between Luther and the Roman Church took place.

Luther's burning of a papal bull

Working tirelessly with his pen, Martin Luther began to develop in his writings the doctrine of the right to the priesthood of all believers, of religious freedom, that the church does not need an earthly substitute in the person of the pope, and demanded, among other things, communion under both types for the laity . These teachings and his association with such notorious enemies of Rome as Hutten finally brought the wrath of the pope upon Luther. In 1520, a papal bull appeared excommunicating him from the church, to which Luther responded with a new essay: “On the Freedom of the Christian Personality,” and solemnly burned the bull along with the papal decretals in front of the gates of Wittenberg. Luther was saved from punishment for this act only by the intercession of Elector Frederick the Wise, who was viceroy of the imperial throne before the election of Charles V.

Both in the above-mentioned and in other works published in the same year (“To the Christian nobility of the German nation on the correction of the Christian state” and “On the Babylonian captivity of the church”) Martin Luther calls on Christianity to fight against the arrogant demands of the pope and the clergy, demands the destruction of the enslaving the people of the system of remission of sins and point to direct rapprochement with God through faith as the only source of peace and bliss.

Luther at the Diet of Worms 1521 and at Wartburg Castle

In 1521, Martin Luther was called to account before Emperor Charles V and the Reichstag; appearing at the Imperial Diet in Worms, in the face of the authorities and numerous people, he boldly defended his teachings and decisively rejected the proposal to renounce his ideas.

Luther at the Diet of Worms. Painting by A. von Werner, 1877

On the way back, on the initiative of his patron, the Saxon Elector Frederick the Wise, Luther was “attacked” by disguised “robbers” who brought him to the Wartburg, where, hiding under an assumed name, he found a safe refuge from all persecution and could calmly devote himself to his literary and reform activities. Here Luther completed one of the most important works of his life - translating the Bible into German.

Luther in the Wartburg (where he lived under the name Jorg). Artist Luca Cranach the Elder, 1521-1522

Martin Luther's Reformation (briefly)

However, he did not stay in the Wartburg for long. The fanatical excesses of his followers, iconoclasm, Melanchthon's indecisiveness in view of these events called Luther out of his refuge. He reappeared in Wittenberg and, through the power of ardent preaching, restored calm, after which he zealously devoted himself to the organization of the reformed church, embracing with his reformatory activities divine services (which began to be conducted in German, and many of the rituals of which were replaced by prayer and the singing of hymns), church organization, and school affairs. etc., the result of which were his works: “On the Order of Worship in the Community”, “The Book of Church Songs”, “Large Catechism”, “Small Catechism”, etc. Denying the celibacy of the clergy, Martin Luther married (1525) Katharina von Bora (also a former nun), then began to destroy monasteries, using their property to build schools, hospitals, etc.

Portrait of Martin Luther and his wife Katharina Bora. Artist Luca Cranach the Elder, 1525

A brave religious reformer, Luther, however, firmly stood for the existing political system, sharply condemning any attempt to change it. Thus, he became an ardent opponent of the Münzer party, and during Peasant War in 1525 he passionately condemned the actions of peasants and Anabaptists in two essays: “Call for Peace” and “Against Peasants – Robbers and Murderers.” In the same way, Zwingli’s reform activities met an enemy in him. In addition to religious and ritual disagreements with the Swiss reformers, Martin Luther was an extreme opponent of the idea of armed resistance, as a result of which he completely rejected the extensive plan of Zwingli and the Landgrave of Hesse regarding the joint action of all reformation forces to fight the papacy and the Catholic monarchy. The final break between the Lutheran or Saxon and the South German and Swiss reformation followed at the religious dispute in Marburg (1529) so that at the Augsburg Reichstag in 1530, the Saxon Germans came out with their own personal confession of faith (“Augsburg Confession”), which completed the process of formation of the Lutheran churches. However, in the following years, Luther continued to work tirelessly on the work he had begun, remaining faithful to his ideas to the end: in this spirit, he compiled the Schmalkalden Articles in 1537; Guided by the same ideas, he rejected mediation offers in Regensburg in 1541 and an invitation to the Council of Trent in 1545.

Luther's personality

Ardent, impetuous, and sometimes unduly harsh when it came to his religious beliefs, in private life Martin Luther was distinguished by clarity of spirit, good-natured humor, a cheerful disposition and a warm, compassionate attitude towards people. His inner, spiritual life, however, was less than calm: more than once he experienced difficult, dark moments, fighting with the devil, tormented by phantoms that threatened to cloud his consciousness. Added to this were frequent physical sufferings, which developed into a painful illness that brought him to the grave. Until his death, Luther continued to operate in Wittenberg as a preacher. He died on February 18, 1546 in Eisleben, in the very city where he was born and where he went a few days before his death. His body was buried in Wittenberg.

Luther's meaning

In the memory of Martin Luther there remains a reproach for pandering to his high-ranking friends - the princes. But this weakness is partly redeemed by his spiritual and moral qualities. No less important are the services rendered by Luther to German literature. With him begins a new period in the history of the German language; the style of his sermons, pamphlets, treatises is full of energy, strength and expressiveness, and descendants value Martin Luther not only as a church reformer, but also as one of the most popular writers in Germany.

The content of the article

LUTHER, MARTIN(Luther, Martin) (1483–1546), German religious leader, founder of the Reformation movement. Born November 10, 1483 in the city of Eisleben in Thuringia. His father, Hans Luther, a native of peasants, was a miner, and subsequently acquired six foundries; mother, Margarita, also came from the peasant class. Martin was brought up in strictness, he received his education in church schools, where harsh morals reigned. In 1501 he entered the University of Erfurt and graduated in 1505 with a Master of Arts degree. He then turned to the study of law, but a career in law seemed to suit his father's wishes rather than his own. Luther had long been tormented by the question of man's fate in the world. His era was the era of a real cult of death, which arose a century earlier after the epidemics of the “Black Death” - the plague, but the greatest fear instilled in him was not even death, but the subsequent judgment and the threat of eternal damnation. In July 1505, when Luther was returning to university after visiting his parents, he was caught on the way by a thunderstorm. Falling to the ground during a terrible lightning strike, he screamed in horror, turning to the patron saint of his father: “Saint Anna, save me! I will become a monk." Fulfilling this vow, he soon joined the Augustinian order, which was distinguished by its strict rules.

Taking vows and entering the monastery.

In September 1506, Luther took his last vows, and in May 1507 he became a priest. The following year he was transferred to the University of Wittenberg, where he taught logic and physics, and in 1510 he was sent on an assignment to Rome. In 1512 the University of Wittenberg awarded him the degree of Doctor of Theology; He quickly advanced into teaching and preached regularly in the parish church. However, his old fears continued to haunt him. He originally hoped to earn heaven in a harsh way life, however, he soon came to the conviction that it was not possible for a person to do something so good that it would allow him to rightfully claim the mercy of God. By carefully studying the church's system of repentance, Luther became convinced that sins that he was unable to overcome and eradicate could still be forgiven. He discovered that he was not even able to confess all his sins: some of them escape memory, while others are committed completely unconsciously, so that a person does not see his sinfulness until God the Judge points his finger at them. The mystical path, which consists in abandoning all struggle and trusting in the miracle and mercy of God, did not seem to him a satisfactory solution, since for Luther God was a “consuming fire.”

Teaching in Wittenberg.

The solution to the problem came to Luther not as a result of sudden insight, but as a result of reading the Holy Scriptures, which he had to study especially carefully when he was appointed to the chair of biblical exegesis at the University of Wittenberg. Having prepared and delivered courses of lectures from 1513 to 1516 on the explanation of the Psalms and the letters of the Apostle Paul to the Romans and Galatians, Luther came to the conviction that human salvation depends solely on God's grace, which became available only through the sacrificial death of Christ. Christ is, first of all, not a terrible Judge condemning sinners, but a Redeemer who accepted death on the cross. To be saved, a person only needs to believe and accept everything that God has done for him, although his own sinfulness can never be completely overcome. This conviction formed the basis of Luther’s theological system, the center of which was the doctrine of justification by faith.

Luther differed from official church doctrine on one point: he resolutely rejected the very possibility for a person to undertake anything that would bring him closer to salvation. The Church taught that through grace God gives man the ability to fulfill his commandments. A person is free to reject this grace, but if he accepts it and does good deeds, then this is credited to him as a merit. Luther argued that when good deeds are done with an eye to future reward, this is no longer a merit, but a sin worthy of damnation.

Indulgences for the Cathedral of St. Petra.

The reason for Luther's decisive break with Catholic Church The practice of selling indulgences became well known. The term “indulgence” denoted the exemption from punishment for sins granted by the church. Initially, it was possible to obtain exemption only from the punishments imposed by the pope on earth, but half a century before Luther papal power was also extended to the punishments imposed by God in purgatory. Some popes began not only to release people from penance, but also to forgive sins. Those who received such exemption paid for it with material donations at a set rate (depending on the solvency of the subject). The rationale for all this practice was the theory that Christ and the saints by their deeds deserved much more than was required for their own salvation, thus laying down a “treasury of good works” that the pope could dispose of for the benefit of other people.

The privilege of selling special indulgences, which caused Luther's indignation, was granted by Pope Leo X to Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz, Magdeburg and Halberstadt. The proceeds were to be used for the construction of St. Petra. In reality, half of the money went to Albrecht himself: he used it to pay for loans, thanks to which he was able to buy himself a second archbishopric from Rome. The distribution of indulgences was entrusted to Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk who already had considerable experience in this matter. The letter accompanying the indulgence declared that it granted forgiveness of sin; in addition, it included the provision that those who bought indulgences for loved ones in purgatory thereby freed themselves from the need for repentance. Tetzel assured his listeners:

As soon as the coin in the casket rings,
The soul will fly away from purgatory.

Ninety-five theses.

On the last day of October 1517, Luther, following the old custom, hung up theses on the door of the palace church in Wittenberg. Latin, inviting theologians to discuss them. They included 95 points, which is why they got the name Ninety-five theses. Luther strongly opposed the idea of any connection between the collection of money and the remission of sins or release from punishment. He denied the extension of papal jurisdiction to purgatory. If the pope had the power to rescue souls from purgatory, he would have to release them all without any compensation. Many of Luther's contemporaries would have agreed with this, but he went further, even to the point of denying the fundamental theory of the "treasury of good works" performed by the saints. Thus, Luther opposed not the abuse of indulgences, but the very idea of indulgences.

Luther sent a copy of his theses to Archbishop Albrecht, who, in turn, forwarded them to Pope Leo X. The Pope belonged to the Medici family, being the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was a widely educated man and a patron of the arts; it would be difficult to expect that he would stop abuses in the indulgence trade. Leo X backed up the promises of indulgence sellers with his authority, confirming that souls were indeed immediately released from purgatory. Luther objected that the pope was mistaken on this point. The Pope summoned Luther to Rome. At this moment, his sovereign, Elector of Saxony Frederick the Wise, head of the college of prince-electors (electors) of the Holy Roman Empire, stood up for Luther, insisting that his subject be given the opportunity to justify himself in a fair hearing, which was possible only on German soil. Thus, the centuries-old distrust of the German rulers towards the Italian papacy provided Luther with patronage and protection.

Hearings were scheduled in the presence of Cardinal Cajetan, who arrived in 1518 at the Augsburg Reichstag. The cardinal introduced Luther to the papal bull, which outlined the doctrine of the treasury of merit accumulated by the saints. Luther opposed this doctrine, thereby challenging not only the authority of this pope, but also the canon law in which this doctrine was enshrined. The cardinal declared Luther a heretic and ordered him to retire and not return until he was ready to recant his opinions.

Luther's dispute with Eck.

A fire clearly loomed before Luther. His opponents predicted that within a couple of weeks he would be burned, and they would have been right if not for a sudden change in the political situation. German Emperor Maximilian died. The choice of his successor depended on the seven electors, led by Frederick of Saxony. The Pope did not want to strengthen the power of the main contenders for the imperial throne - Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England and Charles of Spain, so he gave preference to Elector Frederick. To win Frederick's favor, the pope actually allowed Luther to have a public debate with the great theologian Dr. Johann Eck at the University of Leipzig. At the center of the debate was the question of the antiquity of the institution of the papacy: it was assumed that if the succession of popes could be traced back to the time of the apostles, the institution was of divine origin. Luther stated that the pope's authority over the entire church lasted only 400 years and that it was a human institution. Then Eck forced Luther to publicly admit that, in his opinion, neither the authority of the pope nor the authority of the ecumenical councils were infallible. Eck pointed out that this statement coincided with the views of Jan Hus, a Bohemian heretic who was burned at the stake a century earlier. Luther had to admit that there were some points that brought his position closer to that of Jan Hus.

Defending a known heretic meant declaring oneself a heretic, so it was obvious to everyone that this time Luther would not escape the fire. However, influential forces in Germany unanimously came to his defense. These were German nationalists, led by the knight Ulrich von Hutten (known for his satirical writings), who saw in Luther the liberator of Germany, from which all the juice was being sucked out by the insatiable papacy. These were also humanists, led by Erasmus of Rotterdam, who perceived Luther as a champion of free scientific thought, oppressed by the pope. The pope hesitated, because, although Charles of Spain (under the name Charles V) ascended the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, the pope also needed the support of Frederick, as a kind of counterweight. But in June 1520 Leo X, in his hunting residence, drew up a bull Exsurge Domine- “Rise up, Lord... the wild boar has invaded Your vineyard.” Luther's Leipzig opponent, Johann Eck, was tasked with promulgating this bull, but he encountered unexpected opposition from the dukes and bishops, and only three months later, on October 10, 1520, the bull was presented to Luther in Wittenberg.

Subsequent essays.

Meanwhile, Luther, without thinking of submitting, published a series of pamphlets, each of which only aggravated his guilt in the eyes of Rome. His appeal To the Christian nobility of the German nation on the correction of Christianity (An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation: Von des christlichen Standes Besserung) contained a call to secular rulers, including the emperor, to reform the church. Luther demanded that the papacy return to apostolic poverty and simplicity. The Pope actually had to become like St. Francis of Assisi, and transfer the earthly affairs of the church to the discretion of local churches. These calls met with the warmest response in Germany. More radical was the demand for the abolition of celibacy for the clergy, which was opposed in Germany long before Luther, in the 11th century, when it was introduced by Pope Gregory VII.

Next essay, About the Babylonian Captivity of the Church(De captivitate Babylonica ecclesiae praeludium), was even more radical. In it, the very sacramental character of the church and the theocratic claims based on it were under attack. Of the seven church sacraments that existed in the era of Luther, he recognized only two: baptism and communion, and he refused to associate the latter with the mass.

Luther believed that the Mass was not a repetition of Christ's sacrifice. Eucharistic wine, like bread, should also be given to the laity. According to church teaching, in the sacrament of the Eucharist, bread and wine actually turn into the body and blood of Christ, retaining only the external signs (accidents) of bread and wine. Luther contrasted this doctrine, known as the doctrine of transubstantiation, with his own doctrine of “coexistence” (consubstantiatio), or “co-presence”: after the consecration of the Holy Gifts, the essences of bread and wine continue to be present in them along with the essences of the body and blood of Christ . The priest does not perform any miracle, since Christ is always present in everything. The priest merely opens the eyes of the believers, showing them his presence, for although God and Christ are present in everything, this presence is not always obvious. After the publication of this treatise, Erasmus declared that the schism between Luther and the church had become irreparable.

Equally revolutionary was the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. In the essay About the freedom of a Christian(Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen) Luther argued that the laity should not depend on the priestly class, because a priest is simply a member of the church appointed to perform a specific ministry.

The papal bull was presented to Luther on October 10; in it he was given 60 days to repent. Luther's response was a pamphlet Against the damned bull of the Antichrist. On December 10, the day the reprieve ended, he publicly burned the bull. However, this in itself did not put Luther outside the church, since his excommunication required a new bull, which would announce that the established deadlines had passed. This second bull was signed in January 1521. However, for a bull to gain legal force, it had to be made public, but this bull was not made public. In addition, it mentioned not only Luther, but also other persons, in particular Ulrich von Hutten, who had a significant army and had the opportunity to protect not only himself, but also Luther. Aleandro, the papal representative in the Reichstag of the German Empire, returned the bull to Rome and requested 40 copies of a new bull directed against Luther alone. As a result, Aleandro, willy-nilly, had to appear before the Imperial Reichstag, convened at Worms, without at all having a bull that would prove to the (mostly secular) tribunal that Luther was indeed a heretic. The Imperial Reichstag, originally convened to discuss administrative and financial problems, was thus supposed to assume the functions of an ecclesiastical council. However, the Reichstag would not make a decision without first hearing Luther. Frederick of Saxony was particularly emphatic in his insistence that his subject be given the opportunity to speak. Emperor Charles V, although he was a zealous Catholic, ordered Luther to be summoned.

Worms Reichstag.

Luther appeared before the Reichstag. He was shown editions of his works and asked if they were all written by him. Luther recognized all these writings as his own. Then he was asked if he insisted on everything that was said in these books. Luther asked for time to think and was granted a reprieve until the next day. The next day the question was posed again, and Luther was asked to answer bluntly in school Latin whether he renounced his teaching or not. He answered in German: “Since you, Your Majesty, and You, Your Lordships, want a simple answer, I will give it without any learned tricks. Until I am refuted by the evidence of Scripture or by clear arguments - for I believe neither the pope nor the councils; it is known that they were often mistaken and contradicted themselves - I am overwhelmed by the words of Scripture I cited. And since my conscience is captive to the Words of God, I cannot and do not want to renounce anything, because it is dangerous and impossible to go against my conscience. That's where I stand. I can't do otherwise. May God help me. Amen".

Luther in the Wartburg.

Even after this daring speech in his defense (the famous phrase “On this I stand...” may have been a later addition), the Reichstag did not dare to condemn Luther, but the emperor made it clear that Luther’s irreconcilable position was incompatible with orthodox dogma. And after some of Luther’s supporters left, those who remained accepted the “Edict of Worms,” which subjected Luther to state disgrace. In the normal course of events, this would have meant a fire, but Elector Frederick of Saxony intervened again, this time ordering his chaplain to hide Luther in a place that even the Elector himself would not know about. Wartburg Castle became such a place.

Initially, Luther was in a depressed mood. He claimed that the devil appeared to him several times (there is a legend that Luther once threw an inkwell at the demon, but missed). However, he soon managed to restore peace of mind, and he undertook the translation of the New Testament into German from the Greek text, recently published by Erasmus. He then began to translate the Old Testament from the Hebrew language. Luther was a wonderful translator; In addition, he was characterized by genuine religious fervor, which allowed him to rise to the heights and penetrate into the depths of biblical texts.

While Luther was in the Wartburg, a reformist movement began to spread in Wittenberg, led by some of Luther's colleagues at the university, most notably the kind-hearted Philip Melanchthon, famous for his learning, and the frantic Andreas Karlstadt, known for his radicalism. During communion, parishioners received not only bread, but also wine. Luther welcomed these changes with all his heart. He was invited to take a more active part. The monks left the monasteries and got married. Does Luther approve of this? In search of an answer, Luther turned to Scripture and came to the conclusion that the monks were right, although he himself would never have taken a wife. Then completely discouraging rumors began to arrive about outrages committed during Catholic services, about the destruction of icons, etc. The Elector warned him that he could not provide protection for a man who had been excommunicated and outlawed by the state. Luther replied that he was not asking for protection, and returned to Wittenberg. The fact that after this he managed to live another 25 years and die in his own bed can only be explained by an incredibly happy coincidence. The emperor could not actively intervene in what was happening, as he was distracted by wars with the Turks, with France, and even with the pope himself.

Church reform.

Luther took on the task of reforming the church in accordance with his understanding of the gospel. He soon felt the blows from both liberals and conservatives. Liberals, i.e. Catholic humanists, and above all Erasmus, moved away from him after they realized that the position he took was leading to a split in the church, in whose universal unity they deeply believed. Over time, Erasmus was even persuaded to write an essay against Luther and to strike at the very heart of his teaching - his doctrine of man. Erasmus, like the official church, believed that a person is capable of promoting his own salvation. In response, Luther began to insist even more decisively on the absolute helplessness of man.

Revolt of radical reformers.

Supporters of Luther and von Hutten and his party rebelled against the clergy and were defeated. This was followed by an even more devastating blow. An extremist group arose in Luther’s own camp, declaring that his views were not radical enough. Karlstadt proposed to abolish altogether the veneration of sacred images and church music and declared that the Eucharist was just a symbol. He denied the need for monetary rewards for clergy and special vestments for them, and he denied all academic degrees. Thomas Münzer argued that saints, i.e. those who are reborn in Christ can recognize each other, unite in a union and hasten the coming of the Lord by destroying the wicked. He placed above all not the letter of Scripture, but its spirit and individual spiritual experience (personal revelation). Münzer found numerous followers among peasants who had long suffered from social injustice, and raised a wave of merciless peasant revolts that devastated Saxony.

Luther did not at all believe that the Roman Church had wronged him. He loved music, he liked church paintings, and he insisted that the Eucharistic bread and wine were the authentic body and blood of Christ. He believed that saints could not be recognized on earth. In any case, the sword, in his opinion, should never be used to spread religious faith - not to mention the fact that it should be spread not by some commoner, but by a person vested with spiritual authority. Thus, Luther took the position of conservative Protestantism. Subsequently, he sharply condemned the rebel peasants and considered violence against sectarians acceptable. Previously, he said that faith cannot be the result of coercion and that officials are not capable of judging heresy. He never renounced these words, but now he nevertheless recognized that public blasphemy and incitement to rebellion should be punishable by death. And when the pacifist movement of the Anabaptists arose, Luther declared them troublemakers, since their reluctance to defend justice with the sword undermined authority and the state.

In a creative sense, Luther began to implement church reforms. His translations of Holy Scripture became his main tool. In September 1522 a German was published New Testament, and in 1534 - the entire Bible. In addition, Luther composed church hymns and melodies for them. The anthem is especially famous Our God is a strong stronghold(Ein" feste Burg ist unser Gott), based on Psalm 47, for which Luther wrote both words and music. As aids for religious education, Luther compiled two catechisms - one for adults, the other for children. To help preachers, he published a volume of sermons and made changes to the liturgy, first in Latin and then in German. From his pen came many works, most of which were biblical commentaries, especially on the Old Testament. He preached on Sundays, and often on other days of the week, and stood before numerous household members - children, workers and students - during home worship. Almost every word he said at the dinner table or in the classroom was recorded by diligent scribes. Some of his “conversations” would be better off consigned to oblivion, and other lectures are inexpressibly boring, although true fire sometimes flares up in them.

After the Reichstag of Worms, Luther ceased to play the public role that he had played before. Excommunicated and outlawed, he could not participate in the Reichstag. Melanchthon took upon himself this responsibility. Luther could also not appear before a secular assembly to confess his convictions, as at Worms. The German princes did this for him at the Augsburg Reichstag in 1530. In the last 25 years of his life, Luther was primarily a teacher and preacher, although, of course, he continued to write articles and pamphlets that received the widest resonance, and was at the very center of the Reformation movement, so that his opponents mockingly called him the Pope of Wittenberg.

Marriage and last years of life.

Luther committed another decisive act, which, although related to his personal life, was to have a profound impact on German culture and the entire Protestant world. We are talking about Luther's marriage. There was absolutely nothing romantic in this act itself. Impressed by the teachings of the reformer, the community of nuns left the monastery and arrived in Wittenberg. Luther had the responsibility to find them housing, husbands, and generally take care of their situation. One of them, Katharina von Bora, still turned out to be unattached. Luther once declared that he himself would never marry, but in the current situation he considered the best way out to take her as his wife, and on June 27, 1525 they got married. Luther admitted that he was not passionately in love, but he had respect for his wife. Subsequently, he became very attached to her. Luther and Katharina became an example of a German family - patriarchal, alien to romanticism and sentimentality, but full of love and mutual tenderness. They had six children of their own; in addition, Luther and Katharina raised eleven more orphaned nephews and nieces.

The last years of Luther's life were marred by chronic illnesses. Luther died in Eisleben on February 18, 1546.

APPLICATION

95 THESIS. DISPUTE ON CLARIFYING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INDULGENCES.

In the name of the love of truth and the desire to explain it, the following will be proposed for discussion in Wittenberg, under the chairmanship of the Venerable Father Martin Luther, Master of Liberal Arts and Holy Theology, and Professor in Ordinary in that city. Therefore, he asks that those who cannot be present and personally enter into discussion with us, do so, due to absence, in writing. In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen.

1. Our Lord and Teacher Jesus Christ, saying: “Repent...”, commanded that the whole life of believers should be repentance.

2. This word ["repent"] cannot be understood as referring to the sacrament of repentance (that is, to confession and absolution, which is performed by the ministry of the priest).

3. However, it does not only refer to internal repentance; on the contrary, internal repentance is nothing if in external life it does not entail complete mortification of the flesh.

4. Therefore, punishment remains as long as a person’s hatred of him remains (this is true internal repentance), in other words, until he enters the Kingdom of Heaven.

5. The Pope does not want and cannot forgive any punishments other than those that he has imposed either by his own authority or by ecclesiastical law.

6. The Pope has no power to forgive any sin without declaring and confirming the forgiveness in the name of the Lord; in addition, he grants absolution only in cases specified by him. If he neglects this, then the sin continues.

7. God does not forgive anyone’s sin without at the same time forcing him to submit in everything to the priest, His vicar.

8. Church rules of repentance were imposed only on the living and, in accordance with them, should not be imposed on the dead.

9. Therefore, for our good, the Holy Spirit acts in the pope, in whose decrees the clause on death and extreme circumstances is always excluded.

10. Those priests act ignorantly and impiously who, even in Purgatory, leave church punishments on the dead.

11. The tares of this teaching - about changing the punishment of the church into the punishment of Purgatory - were definitely sown while the bishops were sleeping.

12. Previously, church punishments were imposed not after, but before the remission of sins, as tests of true repentance.

13. The dead are redeemed by death, and they, being already dead according to church canons, according to the law are exempt from them.

14. The imperfect consciousness, or grace of the deceased, inevitably brings with it great fear; and the smaller the grace itself, the greater it is.

15. This fear and horror in themselves are sufficient (for I will keep silent about other things) to prepare for suffering in Purgatory, because they are the closest to the horror of despair.

16. It seems that Hell, Purgatory and Heaven are different from each other, just as despair, the proximity of despair and serenity are different.

17. It seems that just as fear inevitably decreases in souls in Purgatory, so grace increases.

18. It appears that it has not been proven either on reasonable grounds or Holy Scripture that they are outside the state of [acquiring] merit or communion of grace.

19. It also seems unproven that they are all confident and calm about their bliss, although we are completely convinced of this.

20. So, the pope, giving “full forgiveness of all punishments,” does not mean exclusively all, but only those imposed by himself.

21. Therefore, those preachers of indulgences are mistaken who declare that through papal indulgences a person is freed from all punishment and saved.

22. And even the souls who are in Purgatory, he does not exempt from the punishment that they had to, according to church law, atone for in earthly life.

23. If anyone can be given complete forgiveness of all punishments, it is certain that it is given to the most righteous, that is, to the few.

24. Consequently, the majority of the people are deceived by this equal and pompous promise of freedom from punishment.

25. Whatever power the pope has over Purgatory in general, every bishop or priest has in his diocese or parish in particular.

26. The Pope does very well that not by the power of keys (which he does not have at all), but by intercession he gives forgiveness to souls [in Purgatory].

27. Human thoughts are preached by those who teach that as soon as the coin rings in the box, the soul flies out of Purgatory.

28. Truly, the sound of gold in a box can only increase profit and greed, but church intercession is solely in God’s will.

29. Who knows whether all the souls in Purgatory wish to be ransomed, as happened, they say, with St. Severin and Paschal.

30. No one can be sure of the truth of his repentance and - much less - of receiving complete forgiveness.

31. As rare as a truly repentant person is, just as rare is one who buys indulgences according to the rules, in other words - in highest degree rare

32. Those who believed that through letters of absolution they had gained salvation will be condemned forever along with their teachers.

33. We should especially beware of those who teach that papal indulgences are God's priceless treasure, through which man is reconciled to God.

34. For their venial grace is addressed only to the punishments of church repentance, established humanly.

35. Those who teach that repentance is not required to redeem souls from Purgatory or to receive a letter of confession do not preach Christianly.

36. Every truly repentant Christian receives complete liberation from punishment and guilt, prepared for him even without indulgences.

37. Every true Christian, both living and dead, takes part in all the benefits of Christ and the Church, given to him by God, even without letters of release.

38. Papal forgiveness and participation should in no case be neglected, for it (as I have already said) is an announcement of God's forgiveness.

39. It became an overwhelming task even for the most learned theologians to simultaneously praise before the people both the generosity of indulgences and the truth of repentance.

40. True repentance seeks and loves punishment, but the generosity of indulgences weakens this desire and inspires hatred towards them, or at least gives a reason for this.

41. Papal indulgences must be preached with caution, so that the people do not falsely understand that they are preferable to all other acts of beneficence.

42. Christians must be taught: the Pope does not consider the purchase of indulgences even in the slightest degree comparable to works of mercy.

43. Christians must be taught: he who gives to a beggar or lends to a needy person does better than he who buys indulgences.

44. For by good deeds grace increases and a person becomes better; through indulgences he does not become better, but only freer from punishment.

45. Christians must be taught: he who, seeing a beggar and despising him, buys indulgences, will not receive papal forgiveness, but will incur the wrath of God upon himself.

46. Christians must be taught: if they do not have wealth, they are obliged to leave what they need in their home and in no case spend their wealth on indulgences.

47. Christians must be taught: the purchase of indulgences is voluntary and not forced.

48. Christians must be taught: the pope both needs and desires more, when selling absolutions, a pious prayer for him than the money received.

49. It should teach Christians: papal absolutions are useful if they do not place hope in them, but are very harmful if through them they lose the fear of God.

50. Christians must be taught: if the pope had learned about the abuses of the preachers of absolution, he would have considered it best to burn down the church of St. Peter than to build it from the skin, meat and bones of his sheep.

51. Christians must be taught: the pope, as his duty obliges him to do, is what he really wants, even if it is necessary to sell the church of St. Peter - to give from his money to many of those from whom some preachers of emancipation have defrauded them of their money.

52. The hope of salvation through letters of release is in vain, even if the commissioner, moreover, the pope himself, would pledge his own soul for them.

53. The enemies of Christ and the Pope are those who, for the sake of preaching absolution, order that the word of God be completely silent in other churches.

54. Harm is done to the word of God if in one sermon equal or more time is spent on absolution than on it.

55. The opinion of the pope is certainly that if indulgences - the most insignificant good - are glorified with one bell, one procession and prayer service, then the Gospel - the highest good - must be preached with a hundred bells, a hundred processions and a hundred prayer services.

56. The treasures of the Church, from where the pope distributes indulgences, are not sufficiently named and are unknown to Christians.

57. There is no doubt that their value is - and this is obvious - eternal, for many preachers do not distribute them as generously as they willingly collect them.

58. Neither are they the merits of Christ and the saints, for they constantly - without the assistance of the pope - bestow grace on the inner man, and the cross, death and Hell on the outer man.

59. “Treasures of the Church,” said St. Lawrence is the poor of the Church,” but he used this word according to the custom of his time.

60. We rashly declare that the keys of the Church, bestowed by the ministry of Christ, are that treasure.

61. For it is clear that for release from punishment and for forgiveness, in certain cases, the power of the pope is sufficient.

62. The true treasure of the Church is the most holy Gospel (Good News) about the glory and grace of God.

63. But it is deservedly very hateful, for it makes the first last.

64. The treasure of indulgences is deservedly very beloved, for it makes the last first.

65. So, the treasures of the Gospel are the nets with which people were previously caught from riches.

66. The treasures of indulgences are the nets by which people’s wealth is now caught.

67. Indulgences, which preachers proclaim to have “supreme grace,” are truly so because they bring profit.

68. In reality, they can least be compared with God's grace and mercy of the Cross.

69. Bishops and priests are charged with the duty of receiving commissioners of papal dispensations with all reverence.

70. But even more so they are charged with the duty of looking with all their eyes, listening with all their ears, so that instead of the papal commission they preach their own inventions.

71. Whoever speaks against the truth of papal absolution - let him be anathematized and cursed.

72. But whoever stands guard against the unbridled and insolent speech of the preacher - may he be blessed.

73. How rightly the pope strikes with excommunication those who plot all sorts of tricks to harm the trade in scapegoats.

74. Thus, much more terrible, he intends to strike with excommunication those who, under the pretext of absolution, are plotting to damage holy grace and truth.

75. To hope that papal pardons are such that they can forgive a person’s sin, even if he, assuming the impossible, dishonors the Mother of God, means to lose his mind.

76. We say against this, that papal pardons cannot remove the slightest venial sin, as far as guilt is concerned.

77. Claim that St. Peter, if he had been pope, could not have bestowed more blessings - there is blasphemy against St. Peter and dad.

78. We say against this that this and in general every pope bestows more benefits, namely: the Gospel, miraculous powers, gifts of healing, etc. - as stated in the First Epistle to the Corinthians, chapter 12.

79. To assert that a magnificently erected cross with the papal coat of arms is equivalent to the cross of Christ means blasphemy.

80. Bishops, priests and theologians who allow such speeches to be made before the people will be held accountable for this.

81. This daring preaching of absolution leads to the fact that reverence for the pope even learned people It is not easy to defend against slander and, moreover, insidious questions from the laity.

82. For example: Why doesn’t the pope liberate Purgatory for the sake of the most holy love for one’s neighbor and the extremely plight of souls - that is, for the most important reason - if at the same time he saves an incalculable number of souls for the sake of despicable money for the construction of a temple - that is, for the most insignificant reason ?

83. Or: Why do funeral services and annual commemorations of the dead continue to be held and why does the Pope not return or allow the funds donated for them to be withdrawn, while it is sinful to pray for those already redeemed from Purgatory?

84. Or: What is this new grace of God and the Pope, that for money they allow an atheist and enemy of God to acquire a pious and beloved soul to God, but for suffering they do not save the same pious and beloved soul unselfishly, out of mercy?

85. Or: Why are the church rules of repentance, which in fact have long been abolished and dead due to disuse, are still paid for in money for indulgences granted, as if they were still in force and alive?

86. Or: Why does the pope, who is now richer than the richest Croesus, build this only temple of St. Peter would rather not use his own money, but rather the money of poor believers?

87. Or: What does the Pope forgive or absolve those who, through true repentance, are entitled to full forgiveness and absolution?

88. Or: What could add more good to the Church, if the pope did what he now does once, a hundred times a day, endowing every believer with this forgiveness and remission?

89. If the pope seeks to save souls through absolutions rather than through money, why does he revoke the bulls and absolutions previously granted, while they are equally effective?

90. To suppress these very crafty arguments of the laity only by force, and not to resolve them on a reasonable basis, means exposing the Church and the Pope to ridicule by the enemies and making Christians unhappy.

91. So, if indulgences are preached in the spirit and according to the thought of the pope, all these arguments are easily destroyed, moreover, they simply do not exist.

92. Therefore, let all the prophets be scattered, preaching to the people of Christ: “Peace, peace!” - but there is no peace.

93. It is good for all the prophets who preach to the people of Christ: “Cross, cross!” - but there is no cross.

94. Christians should be exhorted to strive joyfully to follow their head, Christ, through punishment, death and hell.

95. And they hoped more to enter heaven through many sorrows than through serene calm.

Edition: Luther Martin. Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentianum. Dispute on clarifying the effectiveness of indulgences(95 theses). St. Petersburg, publishing house "Germenevt", 1996. Transl. from Latin: A.I. Ruban, ed. Yu.A. Golubets

Literature:

Soloviev E.Yu. The past interprets us. Essays on the history of philosophy and culture. M., 1991
Christianity. encyclopedic Dictionary, vol. 1–3. M., 1993–1995
Luther M. The time for silence has passed. Selected works 1520–1526 . Kharkov, 1994
Luther M. Selected works. St. Petersburg, 1997
Porozovskaya B.D. Martin Luther. His life and reform activities. St. Petersburg, 1997

Who is Luther in history? Here is the official version of the death of the reformer Martin Luther

Luther's theological views

Historical significance of Luther's work

Luther and anti-Semitism

Luther and music

Biography from Wikipedia

In Wittenberg

Reform activities

Luther's theological views

Historical significance of Luther's work

Luther and anti-Semitism

Luther and music

Luther in art

Essays

Editions of Luther's works

Luther's 95 Theses (briefly)

Luther's burning of a papal bull

Luther at the Diet of Worms 1521 and at Wartburg Castle

Martin Luther's Reformation (briefly)

Luther's personality

Luther's meaning

Taking vows and entering the monastery.

Teaching in Wittenberg.

Indulgences for the Cathedral of St. Petra.

Ninety-five theses.

Luther's dispute with Eck.

Subsequent essays.

Worms Reichstag.

Luther in the Wartburg.

Church reform.

Revolt of radical reformers.

Marriage and last years of life.

95 THESIS. DISPUTE ON CLARIFYING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INDULGENCES.

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