Methodology and methods. Empirical methods

There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first step cognitive process— determination of what we don’t know. It is important to clearly and strictly define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. The problem(from the Greek problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that requires resolution.

The second step is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that requires testing.

If a hypothesis is proven by a large number of facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such as, for example, evolutionary theory, relativity theory, quantum theory, etc.

When choosing the best theory important role plays the degree of its verifiability. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.

Scientific facts

It is necessary to distinguish between objective and scientific data. Objective fact- this is a really existing object, process or event that took place. For example, the death of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. Scientific fact is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of a generally accepted system of knowledge.

Assessments are opposed to facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. Scientific facts usually record the objective world as it is, while assessments reflect a person’s subjective position, his interests, and the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.

Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of transition from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or reject it as incorrect.

Method(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is called a rule, technique, way of cognition. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allow one to study an object. F. Bacon called the method “a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark.”

Methodology is a broader concept and can be defined as:

• a set of methods used in any science;
• general doctrine of method.

Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical ways of knowing) and theoretical (logical procedures).

Empirical methods of cognition

basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrument data. These methods include:

• observation— purposeful perception of phenomena without interfering with them;
• experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
• measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured quantity to
• standard (for example, meter);
• comparison— identification of similarities or differences between objects or their characteristics.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even simple observation requires preliminary theoretical foundations - choosing an object for observation, formulating a hypothesis, etc.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods rely on rational cognition (concept, judgment, inference) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

• analysis- the process of mental or real division of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
• synthesis - combining the aspects of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
• — combining various objects into groups based on common characteristics (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
• abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object for the purpose of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
• formalization - display of knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
• analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects;
• modeling— creation and study of a proxy (model) of an object (for example, computer modelling human genome);
• idealization— creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it (geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
• deduction - movement from the general to the specific;
• induction- movement from the particular (facts) to a general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, therefore it is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical one. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All of the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Method approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, the hermeneutic method, etc. The extremely general methods-approaches are the philosophical methods:

• metaphysical— viewing an object askew, statically, out of connection with other objects;
• dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interconnection, internal contradiction and unity.

Absolutization of one method as the only correct one is called dogmatics(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical accumulation of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.

Methods of empirical research in science and technology include observation, comparison, measurement and experiment, among several others.

Observation . Observation is understood as a systematic and purposeful perception of an object of interest to us: things, phenomena, properties, states of something. This is the simplest method, which, as a rule, acts as part of other empirical methods, although in a number of sciences it can also be used independently or as the main method, as in weather observation, observational astronomy, etc. The invention of the telescope allowed man to extend observation to previously inaccessible region of the megaworld, the creation of the microscope marked an invasion of the microworld. The X-ray machine, radar, ultrasound generator and many other technical means of observation have led to unprecedented growth in scientific and practical value this research method. There are also methods and techniques for self-observation and self-control in psychology, medicine, physical education and sports. The very concept of observation in the theory of knowledge generally appears in the form of the concept of contemplation; it is associated with the categories of activity and activity of the subject.

To be fruitful and productive, observation must satisfy the following requirements.

Be deliberate, i.e., carried out to solve well-defined problems within the framework of a common goal scientific activity and engineering practice.

Be systematic, i.e., consist of observations following a specific plan, pattern, resulting from the nature of the object, as well as the goals and objectives of the study.

Be targeted, i.e., fix the observer’s attention only on the objects that interest him and not dwell on those that fall outside the observation tasks. Observation aimed at the perception of individual details, sides, aspects, parts of an object is called fixing, and covering the whole, subject to repeated observation, is called fluctuating. The combination of these types of observation ultimately gives a holistic picture of the object.

Be active, i.e., when an observer purposefully searches for objects necessary for his tasks among a certain set of them, considers individual aspects, properties, and aspects of these objects that interest him, while relying on his own stock of knowledge, experience and skills.

Be systematic, that is, when the observer conducts his observation continuously, and not randomly and sporadically, according to a certain, pre-thought-out scheme, in various or strictly specified conditions.

Comparison - This is one of the most common and universal methods of cognition. The famous aphorism “Everything is known by comparison” - the best for that proof. Comparison is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. various kinds, their sides and aspects, in general – objects of research. As a result of comparison, what is common to two or more objects is established - in this moment or in their history. In sciences of a historical nature, comparison was developed to the level of the main method of research, which was called comparative historical. Identification of the general, recurring in phenomena is a step on the path to knowledge of the natural.

In order for a comparison to be fruitful, it must satisfy two basic requirements: only such aspects and aspects, objects as a whole, between which there is an objective commonality, should be compared; the comparison should be based on the most important, significant characteristics in a given research or other task. Comparison based on unimportant characteristics can only lead to misconceptions and errors. In this regard, one must be careful when drawing conclusions “by analogy.” The French even say that “comparison is not proof!”

Objects of interest to a researcher, engineer, or designer can be compared either directly or indirectly through a third object. In the first case, they receive qualitative assessments: more - less, lighter - darker, higher - lower, closer - further, etc. True, here you can get the simplest quantitative characteristics: “twice as high”, “twice as heavy”, etc. When there is also a third object in the role of a standard, measure, scale, then they receive especially valuable and more accurate quantitative characteristics.

Measurement developed historically from observation and comparison. However, unlike a simple comparison, it is more effective and accurate. Modern natural science, which began with Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton, owes its heyday to the use of measurements. It was Galileo who proclaimed the principle of a quantitative approach to phenomena, according to which the description physical phenomena must be based on quantities that have a quantitative measure - number. He believed that the book of nature was written in the language of mathematics. Engineering, design and construction continue this same line in their methods.

Measurement is a procedure for determining the numerical value of some characteristic of an object by comparing it with a unit of measurement accepted as a standard by a given researcher or all scientists and practitioners. As is known, there are international and national units of measurement of the basic characteristics of various classes of objects, such as hour, meter, gram, volt, bit, etc.; day, pud, pound, verst, mile, etc. Measurement presupposes the presence of the following basic elements: an object of measurement, a unit of measurement, i.e. a scale, measure, standard; measuring device; measurement method; observer.

Measurements can be direct or indirect. In direct measurement, the result is obtained directly from the measurement process itself (for example, using measures of length, time, weight, etc.). With indirect measurement, the desired value is determined mathematically on the basis of other values ​​previously obtained by direct measurement. This is how you get, for example, specific gravity, area and volume of bodies of regular shape, speed and acceleration of the body, power, etc.

Measurement allows us to find and formulate empirical laws and fundamental world constants. In this regard, it can serve as a source for the formation of even entire scientific theories. Thus, long-term measurements of the motion of the planets by Tycho Brahe later allowed Johannes Kepler to create generalizations in the form of the well-known three empirical laws planetary movements. The measurement of atomic weights in chemistry was one of the foundations for Dmitri Mendeleev’s formulation of his famous periodic law in chemistry, etc. Measurement provides not only accurate quantitative information about reality, but also allows one to introduce new qualitative considerations into the theory. This is what ultimately happened with the measurement of the speed of light in the Michelson–Morley experiment for Einstein’s creation of the theory of relativity. The examples can be continued.

The most important indicator of the value of a measurement is its accuracy.

The accuracy of measurements depends on the available instruments, their capabilities and quality, the methods used and the training of the researcher. Please note that there are certain requirements for the level of accuracy. It must be in accordance with the nature of the objects and with the requirements of the cognitive, design, construction or engineering task. Thus, in engineering and construction they constantly deal with measuring mass, length, etc. But in most cases absolute precision is not required here, moreover, it would look completely ridiculous if, say, the weight of a support column for a building was checked to thousandths of a gram. There is also the problem of measuring bulk material associated with random deviations, as happens in large aggregates. Such phenomena are typical for objects of the microworld, for biological, social, economic and other similar objects. The search for a statistical average and methods specifically focused on processing randomness and its distributions in the form of probabilistic methods are applicable here. To eliminate random and systematic measurement errors, to identify errors and errors associated with the nature of the instruments and the observer himself, a special mathematical theory of errors has been developed.

In connection with the development of technology, measurement methods in conditions of rapid processes in aggressive environments, where the presence of an observer is excluded, acquired particular importance in the 20th century. Methods of auto- and electrometry, as well as computer information processing and control of measurement processes, came to the rescue here. The developments of scientists from the Novosibirsk Institute of Automation and Electrometry SB RAS, as well as NSTU, played an outstanding role in their creation. These were world class results.

Measurement, along with observation and comparison, is widely used at the empirical level of cognition and human activity in general; it is part of the most developed, complex and significant method - experimental.

Experiment . An experiment is understood as a method of studying and transforming objects when the researcher actively influences them by creating artificial conditions necessary to identify any properties, characteristics, aspects of interest to him, consciously changing the course of natural processes, while conducting regulation, measurement and observation. The main means of creating such conditions are a variety of instruments and artificial devices. An experiment is the most complex, comprehensive and effective method of empirical knowledge and transformation of objects of various kinds. But its essence is not in complexity, but in purposefulness, intentionality and intervention through regulation and management during the studied and transformed processes and states of objects.

The distinctive features of an experiment are the possibility of studying and transforming an object in a relatively pure form, when all the side factors that obscure the essence of the matter are eliminated almost entirely. This makes it possible to study objects of reality under extreme conditions, i.e. at ultra-low and ultra-high temperatures, pressures and energies, process rates, electric and magnetic field strengths, and interaction energies. Under these conditions, it is possible to identify unexpected and surprising properties of ordinary objects and thereby penetrate deeper into their essence and mechanisms of transformation.

Examples of phenomena discovered under extreme conditions are superfluidity and superconductivity at low temperatures. The most important advantage of the experiment was its repeatability, when observations, measurements, tests of the properties of objects are carried out repeatedly under varying conditions in order to increase the accuracy, reliability and practical significance of previously obtained results, and to verify the existence of a new phenomenon in general.

An experiment is used in the following situations: when they are trying to discover previously unknown properties and characteristics of an object - this is a research experiment; when the correctness of certain theoretical positions, conclusions and hypotheses is checked - a theory-testing experiment; when checking the correctness of previously carried out experiments - an empirical verification experiment; educational and demonstration experiment.

Observations, measurements and experiments are mainly based on various instruments. What is it device in terms of its role for research? In the broad sense of the word, instruments are understood as artificial, technical means and various kinds of devices that allow us to study any phenomenon, property, state, or characteristic that interests us from a quantitative perspective, as well as create strictly defined conditions for their detection, implementation and regulation; devices that allow observation and measurement at the same time.

It is equally important to choose a reference system and create it specifically in the device. Under reference systems understand objects that are mentally accepted as initial, basic and physically at rest, motionless. This is clearly visible when measurements are made using different reading scales. For example, in astronomical observations it is the Earth, the Sun, and conventionally fixed stars. Physicists call the “laboratory” frame of reference that coincides with the place of observation and measurement. In the instrument itself, the reference system is an important part of the measuring device, a conventionally graduated measuring rod on the scale, where the observer records, for example, the deviation of the needle or light signal from the beginning of the scale. In digital measurement systems, we still have a reference point known to the observer based on knowledge of the features of the countable set of measurement units used here. Rulers, clocks with a dial, and most electrical meters and thermometers have simple and understandable scales.

The creation of instruments and the invention of new ones, both for measurements and experiments, has long been a special area of ​​activity for scientists and engineers, requiring enormous experience and talent. Today it is also a modern, increasingly actively developing industry of production, trade and related marketing. The instruments and devices themselves as products of technology, scientific and technical instrument making, their quality and quantity are essentially an indicator of the degree of development of a particular country and its economy.

Scientific knowledge can be divided into two levels: theoretical and empirical. The first is based on inferences, the second - on experiments and interaction with the object under study. Despite their different natures, these methods are equally important for the development of science.

Empirical research

The basis of empirical knowledge is the direct practical interaction of the researcher and the object he is studying. It consists of experiments and observations. Empirical and theoretical knowledge are opposites - in the case of theoretical research, a person makes do with only his own ideas about the subject. As a rule, this method is the province of the humanities.

Empirical research cannot do without instruments and instrumental installations. These are means associated with organizing observations and experiments, but in addition to them there are also conceptual means. They are used as special scientific language. It has a complex organization. Empirical and theoretical knowledge are focused on the study of phenomena and the dependencies that arise between them. By conducting experiments, a person can identify objective law. This is also facilitated by the study of phenomena and their correlation.

Empirical methods of cognition

According to the scientific concept, empirical and theoretical knowledge consists of several methods. This is a set of steps necessary to solve a certain problem (in this case we are talking about identifying previously unknown patterns). The first empirical method is observation. It is a purposeful study of objects, which primarily relies on various senses (perceptions, sensations, ideas).

On your own initial stage observation gives an idea of ​​the external characteristics of the object of knowledge. However final goal This lies in determining the deeper and internal properties of the object. A common misconception is the idea that scientific observation is passive - far from it.

Observation

Empirical observation is detailed in nature. It can be either direct or mediated by various technical devices and instruments (for example, a camera, telescope, microscope, etc.). As science develops, observation becomes more complex and complex. This method has several exceptional qualities: objectivity, certainty and unambiguous design. When using instruments, deciphering their readings plays an additional role.

In the social and human sciences, empirical and theoretical knowledge takes root heterogeneously. Observation in these disciplines is particularly difficult. It becomes dependent on the personality of the researcher, his principles and life attitudes, as well as the degree of interest in the subject.

Observation cannot be carried out without a certain concept or idea. It must be based on a certain hypothesis and record certain facts (in this case, only related and representative facts will be indicative).

Theoretical and empirical studies differ in detail. For example, observation has its own specific functions, which are not typical for other methods of cognition. First of all, it is providing a person with information, without which further research and hypotheses are impossible. Observation is the fuel on which thinking runs. Without new facts and impressions there will be no new knowledge. In addition, it is through observation that one can compare and verify the truth of the results of preliminary theoretical studies.

Experiment

Different theoretical and empirical methods of cognition also differ in the degree of their intervention in the process being studied. A person can observe it strictly from the outside, or can analyze its properties based on own experience. This function is performed by one of the empirical methods of cognition - experiment. In terms of importance and contribution to the final result of research, it is in no way inferior to observation.

An experiment is not only a purposeful and active human intervention in the course of the process under study, but also its change, as well as its reproduction in specially prepared conditions. This method of cognition requires much more effort than observation. During the experiment, the object of study is isolated from any outside influence. A clean and unpolluted environment is created. The experimental conditions are completely specified and controlled. Therefore, this method, on the one hand, corresponds to the natural laws of nature, and on the other hand, it is artificial, determined by man essence.

Experiment structure

All theoretical and empirical methods have a certain ideological load. The experiment, which is carried out in several stages, is no exception. First of all, planning and step-by-step construction take place (the goal, means, type, etc. are determined). Then comes the stage of carrying out the experiment. Moreover, it occurs under perfect human control. At the end of the active phase, it is time to interpret the results.

Both empirical and theoretical knowledge differ in a certain structure. In order for an experiment to take place, the experimenters themselves, the object of the experiment, instruments, and more are required. necessary equipment, a technique and a hypothesis that is confirmed or refuted.

Devices and installations

Every year scientific research becomes more and more complex. They require increasingly modern technology, which allows them to study what is inaccessible to simple human senses. If previously scientists were limited to their own vision and hearing, now they have at their disposal unprecedented experimental facilities.

When using the device, it may cause negative impact to the object being studied. For this reason, the result of an experiment sometimes diverges from its original goals. Some researchers are trying to achieve such results on purpose. In science, this process is called randomization. If the experiment takes on a random nature, then its consequences become an additional object of analysis. The possibility of randomization is another feature that distinguishes empirical and theoretical knowledge.

Comparison, description and measurement

Comparison is the third empirical method of knowledge. This operation allows you to identify differences and similarities between objects. Empirical and theoretical analysis cannot be carried out without deep knowledge of the subject. In turn, many facts begin to play with new colors after the researcher compares them with another texture known to him. Comparison of objects is carried out within the framework of features that are significant for a particular experiment. Moreover, objects that are compared based on one trait may be incomparable based on their other characteristics. This empirical technique is based on analogy. It underlies what is important to science

Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge can be combined with each other. But research is almost never complete without description. This cognitive operation records the results of previous experience. Scientific notation systems are used for description: graphs, diagrams, drawings, diagrams, tables, etc.

The last empirical method of knowledge is measurement. It is carried out through special means. Measurement is necessary to determine the numerical value of the desired measured value. Such an operation must be carried out in accordance with strict algorithms and rules accepted in science.

Theoretical knowledge

In science, theoretical and empirical knowledge have different fundamental supports. In the first case, this is the detached use of rational methods and logical procedures, and in the second, direct interaction with the object. Theoretical knowledge uses intellectual abstractions. One of its most important methods is formalization - the display of knowledge in a symbolic and iconic form.

At the first stage of expressing thinking, familiar human language is used. It is characterized by complexity and constant variability, which is why it cannot be a universal scientific tool. The next stage of formalization is associated with the creation of formalized (artificial) languages. They have a specific purpose - a strict and precise expression of knowledge that cannot be achieved through natural speech. Such a symbol system can take the format of formulas. It is very popular in mathematics and others where you cannot do without numbers.

With the help of symbolism, a person eliminates ambiguous understanding of the recording, makes it shorter and clearer for further use. Not a single study, and therefore all scientific knowledge, can do without speed and simplicity in the use of its tools. Empirical and theoretical study equally need formalization, but it is at the theoretical level that it takes on extremely important and fundamental significance.

An artificial language created within a narrow scientific framework becomes universal remedy exchange of thoughts and communication between specialists. This is the fundamental task of methodology and logic. These sciences are necessary to transmit information in an understandable, systematized form, free from the shortcomings of natural language.

The meaning of formalization

Formalization allows you to clarify, analyze, clarify and define concepts. The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge cannot do without them, therefore the system of artificial symbols has always played and will play a large role in science. Everyday and colloquial concepts seem obvious and clear. However, due to their ambiguity and uncertainty, they are not suitable for scientific research.

Formalization is especially important when analyzing alleged evidence. The sequence of formulas based on specialized rules is distinguished by the accuracy and rigor necessary for science. In addition, formalization is necessary for programming, algorithmization and computerization of knowledge.

Axiomatic method

Another method of theoretical research is the axiomatic method. It is a convenient way of deductively expressing scientific hypotheses. Theoretical and empirical sciences cannot be imagined without terms. Very often they arise due to the construction of axioms. For example, in Euclidean geometry at one time the fundamental terms of angle, straight line, point, plane, etc. were formulated.

Within the framework of theoretical knowledge, scientists formulate axioms - postulates that do not require proof and are the initial statements for further theory construction. An example of this is the idea that the whole is always greater than the part. Using axioms, a system for deriving new terms is constructed. Following the rules of theoretical knowledge, a scientist can obtain unique theorems from a limited number of postulates. At the same time, it is much more effectively used for teaching and classification than for discovering new patterns.

Hypothetico-deductive method

Although theoretical and empirical scientific methods are different, they are often used together. An example of such an application is using it to build new systems of closely intertwined hypotheses. Based on them, new statements concerning empirical, experimentally proven facts are derived. The method of drawing a conclusion from archaic hypotheses is called deduction. This term is familiar to many thanks to the novels about Sherlock Holmes. Indeed, the popular literary character often uses the deductive method in his investigations, with the help of which he builds a coherent picture of the crime from many disparate facts.

The same system operates in science. This method of theoretical knowledge has its own clear structure. First of all, you become familiar with the invoice. Then assumptions are made about the patterns and causes of the phenomenon being studied. For this, all kinds of logical techniques are used. Guesses are evaluated according to their probability (the most probable one is selected from this heap). All hypotheses are checked for consistency with logic and compatibility with the main scientific principles(for example, the laws of physics). Consequences are derived from the assumption, which are then verified through experiment. The hypothetico-deductive method is not so much a method of new discovery as a method of substantiating scientific knowledge. This theoretical tool was used by such great minds as Newton and Galileo.

Empirical level of knowledge- this is the process of mental - linguistic - processing of sensory data, in general information received through the senses. Such processing may consist of analysis, classification, generalization of material obtained through observation. Here concepts are formed that generalize observed objects and phenomena. Thus, the empirical basis of certain theories is formed.

Theoretical level of knowledge is a process that is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking and “ mental operations" Living contemplation, sensory cognition is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process. Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational data processing empirical knowledge. This processing is carried out using systems of “higher order” abstractions - such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc.

Empirical methods include:

Observation- purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena. Scientific observations are carried out to collect facts that strengthen or refute a particular hypothesis and form the basis for certain theoretical generalizations. The result of observation is a description of the object, recorded using language, diagrams, graphs, diagrams, drawings, digital data, etc. There are two main types of observation - qualitative and quantitative. The first is aimed at a qualitative description of phenomena, and the second aims to establish and describe the quantitative parameters of objects. The basis of quantitative observation is the measurement procedure.

Description- recording information about objects using natural or artificial language.

Measurement- this is the material process of comparing a quantity with a standard, a unit of measurement. The number expressing the ratio of the measured quantity to the standard is called numerical value this value.

Experiment- a method of research that differs from observation by an active nature. This is observation under special controlled conditions. The experiment allows, firstly, to isolate the object under study from the influence of side phenomena that are not significant for it. Secondly, during the experiment the course of the process is repeated many times. Thirdly, the experiment allows you to systematically change the very course of the process being studied and the state of the object of study.

The value of the experimental method lies in the fact that it is applicable not only to cognitive, but also to practical human activity. Experiments are carried out with the aim of testing any projects, programs, new forms of organization, etc. The results of any experiment are subject to interpretation from the point of view of the theory that sets its framework conditions.

Theoretical methods include:

Formalization– construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the phenomena being studied.

Axiomatization - a method of constructing a scientific theory in which it is based on certain initial provisions - axioms or postulates, from which all other statements of the theory are deduced deductively in a purely logical way, through proof. This method of theory building involves extensive use of deduction. A classic example of constructing a theory using the axiomatic method is the geometry of Euclid.

Hepotico-deductive method– creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived. Knowledge is probabilistic. Includes the relationship between hypotheses and facts.

We will consider the arsenal of private methods using the example of systems analysis methods. The most commonly used are the following: graphical methods, scenario method (attempts to describe the system); goal tree method (there is an ultimate goal, it is divided into subgoals, subgoals into problems, etc., i.e. decomposition into problems that we can solve); method of morphological analysis (for inventions); methods of expert assessments; probabilistic and statistical methods (theory of mathematical expectation, games, etc.); cybernetic methods (object in the form of a black box); vector optimization methods; methods simulation modeling; network methods; matrix methods; methods economic analysis And etc.

Let's look at some of them:

Graphic methods. The concept of a graph was originally introduced by L. Euler. Graphical representations allow you to visually display the structures of complex systems and the processes occurring in them. From this point of view, they can be considered as intermediate between methods of formalized representation of systems and methods of activating researchers. Indeed, tools such as graphs, diagrams, histograms, tree structures can be classified as means of activating the intuition of researchers. At the same time, there are methods that have arisen on the basis of graphical representations that make it possible to pose and solve problems of optimizing the processes of organization, management, design, and are mathematical methods in the traditional sense. These are, in particular, geometry, graph theory and the applied theories of network planning and management that arose on the basis of the latter, and later a number of methods for statistical network modeling using probabilistic estimates of graphs.

Brainstorming method. The concept of brainstorming or brainstorming has become widespread since the early 1950s. as a method of systematically training creative thinking, aimed at discovering new ideas and achieving agreement among a group of people based on intuitive thinking. Brainstorming is based on the hypothesis that among a large number of ideas, there are at least a few good ones that are useful for solving a problem that need to be identified. Methods of this type are also known as collective idea generation, idea conferences, and the method of exchanging opinions.

Depending on the adopted rules and the rigidity of their implementation, a distinction is made between direct brainstorming, the method of exchanging opinions, methods such as commissions, courts (in the latter case, two groups are created: one group makes as many proposals as possible, and the second tries to criticize them as much as possible). Brainstorming can be done in the form business games, using a training technique of stimulating observation, according to which the group forms an idea of problematic situation, and the expert is asked to find the most logical ways to solve the problem.

Scripting method. Methods for preparing and coordinating ideas about a problem or an analyzed object, set out in writing, are called scenario methods. Initially, this method involved the preparation of a text containing a logical sequence of events or possible solutions to a problem, unfolded in time. However, later the mandatory requirement of time coordinates was removed, and a script began to be called any document containing an analysis of the problem under consideration and proposals for its solution or for the development of the system, regardless of the form in which it is presented. As a rule, in practice, proposals for the preparation of such documents are first written by experts individually, and then an agreed text is formed.

The scenario provides not only meaningful reasoning that helps not to miss details that cannot be taken into account in a formal model (this is, in fact, the main role of the scenario), but also contains, as a rule, the results of quantitative technical-economic or statistical analysis with preliminary conclusions. The group of experts preparing the script usually enjoys the right to obtain the necessary information and consultations from the customer.

The role of specialists on system analysis when preparing a scenario - to help the leading specialists involved in the relevant fields of knowledge to identify general patterns of system development; analyze external and internal factors influencing its development and formulation of goals; analyze the statements of leading experts in periodicals, scientific publications and other sources of scientific and technical information; create auxiliary information funds that contribute to solving the relevant problem.

The script allows you to create a preliminary idea of ​​the problem (system) in situations that cannot be immediately represented by a formal model. However, a script is still a text with all the ensuing consequences (synonymy, homonymy, paradoxes) that make it possible for its interpretation to be ambiguous. Therefore, it should be considered as a basis for developing a more formalized understanding of future system or problem being solved.

Structuring method. Structural representations of various kinds make it possible to divide a complex problem with great uncertainty into smaller ones that are better amenable to research, which in itself can be considered as a kind of research method, sometimes called systemic-structural. Structuring methods are the basis of any system analysis technique, any complex algorithm for organizing design or making management decisions.

The “goal tree” method. The idea of ​​the goal tree method was first proposed by W. Churchman in connection with decision-making problems in industry. The term tree implies the use of a hierarchical structure obtained by dividing the overall goal into subgoals, and these, in turn, into more detailed components, which in specific applications are called subgoals of lower levels, directions, problems, and, starting from a certain level, functions. When using the goal tree method as a decision-making tool, the term decision tree is often used. When applying the method to identify and clarify the functions of a management system, they talk about a tree of goals and functions. When structuring the topics of a research organization, the term problem tree is used, and when developing forecasts, a tree of development directions (development forecasting) or a forecast graph is used.

Delphi type method. The Delphi method or the Delphi oracle method was originally proposed by O. Helmer and his colleagues as an iterative procedure during brainstorming, which would help reduce the influence of psychological factors during meetings and increase the objectivity of the results. However, almost simultaneously, Delphi procedures became a means of increasing the objectivity of expert surveys using quantitative assessments comparative analysis components of goal trees and when developing scenarios. The main means of increasing the objectivity of the results when applying the Delphi method are the use of feedback, familiarization of experts with the results of the previous round of the survey and taking these results into account when assessing the significance of expert opinions.

In specific techniques that implement the Delphi procedure, this idea is used to varying degrees. So, in simplified form a sequence of iterative brainstorming cycles is organized. In a more complex version, a program of sequential individual surveys is developed using questionnaire methods that exclude contacts between experts, but provide for familiarizing them with each other’s opinions between rounds.

Expert assessment methods. One of the representatives of these methods is voting. Traditionally, decisions are made by majority vote: the one of two competing decisions for which at least 50% of the votes and one more vote is cast is adopted.

Methods for organizing complex examinations. The disadvantages of expert assessments discussed above have led to the need to create methods that increase the objectivity of obtaining assessments by dividing the large initial uncertainty of the problem offered to the expert for assessment into smaller ones that are better amenable to comprehension. As the simplest of these methods, the method of a complicated expert procedure proposed in the PATTERN technique can be used. In this technique, groups of evaluation criteria are identified, and it is recommended to introduce weighting coefficients of the criteria. The introduction of criteria makes it possible to organize a survey of experts in a more differentiated manner, and weighting coefficients increase the objectivity of the resulting assessments.

Empirical methods

Perhaps the most common of them is the observation method. This is the researcher’s direct perception of the pedagogical phenomena and processes being studied. Along with direct tracking of the progress of observed processes, indirect tracking is also practiced, when the process itself is hidden, and its real picture can be recorded by some indicators. For example, observations are being made of the results of an experiment to stimulate the cognitive activity of students. In this case, one of the indicators of changes is the academic performance of schoolchildren, recorded in the forms of assessments, the pace of mastering educational information, the amount of material mastered, and the facts of students’ personal initiative in acquiring knowledge. As we see, the cognitive activity of students itself can be recorded not directly, but indirectly.

There are several types of observations. First of all, this is an observation direct and indirect, where the researcher himself or his assistants act, or the facts are recorded using several indirect indicators. Further highlighted solid or discrete observations. The first is to cover processes in their entirety, from their beginning to completion. The latter represent a dotted, selective recording of certain phenomena and processes being studied. For example, when studying the labor intensity of teaching and student work During the lesson, the entire learning cycle is observed from its start at the beginning of the lesson to the end.

Observation materials are recorded using such means as protocol, diary entries, video, film recordings, phonographic recordings, etc. In conclusion, it should be noted that the observation method, with all its capabilities, is limited. It allows one to detect only external manifestations of pedagogical facts. Internal processes remain inaccessible for observation.

The weak point of the organization of observation is sometimes the lack of thoughtfulness of the system of signs by which the manifestation of a particular fact can be recorded, the lack of unity of requirements in the application of these signs by all participants in the observations.

Survey methods. The methods of this group are relatively simple in organization and universal as a means of obtaining a wide range of data. They are used in sociology, demography, political science, and other sciences. Survey methods of science include the practice of government services for studying public opinion, population censuses, and collecting information for adoption. management decisions. Surveys of various population groups form the basis of government statistics.

In pedagogy, three well-known types of survey methods are used: conversation, questioning, interviewing.Conversation - dialogue between the researcher and the subjects according to a pre-developed program. TO general rules the use of conversation includes the selection of competent respondents (i.e., those who answer the questions), the justification and communication of the motives for the study, corresponding to the interests of the subjects, the formulation of variations of questions, including questions “on the head”, questions with hidden meaning, questions that test the sincerity of answers , and others. Open and hidden phonograms of research conversations are practiced.

Close to the exploratory conversation method interview method. Here the researcher, as it were, sets a topic to clarify the point of view and assessments of the subject on the issue being studied. The rules of interviewing include creating conditions that encourage subjects to be sincere. Both conversation and interviews are more productive in an atmosphere of informal contacts and sympathy evoked by the researcher among the subjects. It is better if the respondent’s answers are not recorded before his eyes, but are reproduced later from the researcher’s memory. The survey should not be allowed to resemble an interrogation.

Questioning as a written survey more productive, documented, flexible in the ability to receive and process information. There are several types of surveys. Contact survey carried out when the researcher distributes, fills out and collects completed questionnaires during his direct communication with the subjects. Correspondence survey organized through correspondent relations. Questionnaires with instructions are sent by mail and returned in the same way to the research organization. Press survey implemented through a questionnaire posted in the newspaper. After filling out such questionnaires by readers, the editors process the data received in accordance with the goals of the scientific or practical design of the survey.

Pedagogical consultation method involves a discussion of the results of studying the education of schoolchildren according to a certain program and according to common characteristics, a joint assessment of certain aspects of the personality, identifying the causes of possible deviations in the formation of certain personality traits, as well as the joint development of means to overcome shortcomings.

Diagnostic method tests. Such work can be written or laboratory-practical in nature. Their effectiveness is determined by a number of requirements:

1. The test should: a) provide information about all the main elements of students’ preparedness: factual knowledge, special skills, academic skills and cognitive activity; b) provide a sufficiently complete amount of information so that objective conclusions can be made about one or another aspect of students’ preparedness; c) ensure the validity of the information provided by each control method.
2. The methods used should provide information as quickly as possible, with optimal frequency and preferably at those moments when it is still possible to regulate the learning process.
3. The tasks included in the content of the tests must meet the following requirements: a) they must contain questions that are the most complex and difficult to master, as well as relevant for further stages of training; b) completing a set of tasks should provide materials for building a holistic idea of ​​the characteristics of the student’s mental activity; c) their implementation should reflect the formation of the most universal and integrated methods of educational work, difficult to master and relevant for the main stages of training.

Diagnostic work can be classified:

• by purpose - comprehensive, testing the entire path of the main parameters of educational opportunities, as well as local, testing individual parameters;
• in place in educational process- thematic, quarterly and annual;
• according to the form of organization - written control, current written, experimental work; preschool exercises;
• in terms of volume and structure of content - works on one topic, on a number of topics, programmed type, unprogrammed type;
• on the preparation of answers - work with a description of the course of reasoning, with laconic answers, with solutions without describing the course of reasoning;
• according to the location of tasks - work with an increase in the complexity of the task and a decrease in their complexity, with a varied alternation of tasks according to their complexity.

Method of pedagogical experiment. This method is considered the main one for pedagogical science. It is defined in a general sense as experimental testing of the hypothesis. The scale of experiments varies global, those. covering significant number subjects, local and micro-experiments, conducted with minimal coverage of their participants.

Certain rules for organizing pedagogical experiments have emerged. These include such as the inadmissibility of risks to the health and development of the subjects, guarantees against harm to their well-being from damage to life in the present and future. In organizing an experiment, there are methodological requirements, including the search for an experimental base according to the rules of a representative sample, the pre-experimental development of indicators, criteria and meters to assess the effectiveness of the influence on the results of training and education, and the management of hypothetical developments that undergo experimental testing.

A pedagogical experiment is a method of a complex nature, as it involves the joint use of observation methods, conversations, interviews, questionnaires, diagnostic work, the creation of special situations, etc. This method serves to solve the following research problems

• establishing a relationship between a certain pedagogical influence (or their system) and the results achieved in the training, education, and development of schoolchildren;
• identifying the relationship between a certain condition (system of conditions) and the achieved pedagogical results;
• determining the relationship between the system of pedagogical measures or conditions and the expenditure of time and effort of teachers and students to achieve certain results;
• comparison of the effectiveness of two or more options for pedagogical influences or conditions and choice for them optimal option from the point of view of some criterion (efficiency, time, effort, means, etc.);
• proof of the rationality of a certain system of measures according to a number of criteria simultaneously under appropriate conditions;
• detection of causal relationships.

The essence of an experiment is that it places the phenomena being studied under certain conditions, creates systematically organized situations, and reveals facts on the basis of which a non-random relationship is established between experimental influences and their objective results.

In contrast to the study of pedagogical phenomena in natural conditions Through direct observation, the experiment allows:

• artificially separate the phenomenon being studied from others;
• purposefully change the conditions of pedagogical influence on the subjects;
• repeat individual pedagogical phenomena being studied under approximately the same conditions.

Most important conditions experiment efficiency:

• preliminary thorough theoretical analysis of the phenomenon, its historical review, study mass practice in order to maximize the study of the field of experiment and its tasks;
• specification of the hypothesis so that it requires experimental proof due to novelty, unusualness, and discrepancy with existing opinions. In this sense, the hypothesis does not simply postulate that a given means will improve the results of the process (sometimes this is obvious without proof), but suggests that this means, from a number of possible ones, will be the best for certain conditions.

The effectiveness of an experiment depends on the ability to clearly formulate its objectives, develop signs and criteria by which phenomena and means will be studied, results will be assessed, etc.

• competence;
• creativity - the ability to solve creative problems;
• positive attitude towards examination;
• lack of tendency to conformism, i.e. excessive adherence to authority in science, scientific objectivity;
• analyticalness and breadth of thinking;
• constructive thinking;
• property of collectivism;
• self-criticism.

Self-esteem carried out according to a program that involves indicating the degree of difficulties that teachers experience in a particular type of activity. This program should cover all the main links in managing the process of training and education - planning, organization, stimulation, control and accounting.

The “pedagogical consultation” method. This method is a variation of the rating method. It involves a collective discussion of the results of studying the education of schoolchildren according to a certain program and according to common characteristics, a collective assessment of certain aspects of the personality, identifying the causes of possible deviations in the formation of certain personality traits, as well as the joint development of means to overcome detected deficiencies.

At the stage of empirical description it may be useful generalization of teaching experience, if the researcher clearly understands that this is only the first step in researching the problem, and not a self-sufficient procedure (as has already been discussed here). Generalization of experience begins with its description based on observation, conversations, surveys, and study of documents. Next, the observed phenomena are classified, interpreted, and brought under known definitions and rules.