Post art of Byzantium. Art of Byzantium

Art historians divide this period into three parts: the "Dark Age", the "Macedonian Renaissance" and the Comnenian "Renaissance".
Let's look at them in order, but first let's briefly summarize the development of architecture in the Eastern Roman Empire in the 5th-6th centuries. This will help us remember the “golden age” and quickly get into the topic. So, at that time the foundations of an artistic style were laid, which entered the history of world artistic culture as Byzantine style .

By combining basilica and cross-dome architectural structures, a new type of religious structure was created - the domed basilica, the most common architectural form of the Renaissance in Italy.
Decorative means of design were found that were capable of expressing the most abstract ideas. The leading place belongs to mosaics - the Byzantines created golden smalt.
Was created type of cross-domed church, meeting the requirements of Christian worship, the idea of ​​multiple chapters was developed.
These achievements made it possible in subsequent centuries to develop a unique system of decorative decoration for the Orthodox cross-domed church.

At the end of the 7th century, a great turmoil began, which brought the state to almost complete disorder, so the period from the second half of the 7th century. and until the beginning of the 9th century. called the "dark time".
In Byzantium, the culture is increasingly influenced by the Greeks (generations appear who were brought up in a different cultural environment, having lost many concepts of Roman or Roman - ancient culture), there is a gradual simplification of architectural forms, the main task now is to unload the internal space. For example, the Church of St. Sophia in Thessaloniki - the main nave and 2 side neves, a simple middle cross with a dome cannot withstand any comparison with Sophia of Constantinople. In the dome there is the Savior in power, the Mother of God in the faceted apse, the altar is shifted to the apse, there is no iconostasis, only a low altar barrier.

on the left is the Church of St. Sofia, Thessaloniki/Thessaloniki, Greece
on the right is the Church of St. Sofia, view from the east

In 867, Basil I the Macedonian ascended the throne, marking the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty, which ruled in the 9th-10th centuries. This period marks the activity of two great Slavic educators, Cyril and Methodius.

Beginning with "Macedonian Renaissance" The cross-domed shape of the temple received classical completeness, becoming the main type of Byzantine architectural structure. Let us remember that its basis is a square, divided by four supports into three naves in the longitudinal and transverse directions. The supporting pillars carry a ceiling system in the form of semicircular vaults and a central dome, supported by arches and four pillars. This design system made it possible to create a large number of options. Depending on the tasks set, it was possible to change the scale of the structure, leaving the central core unchanged:
1. by adding a couple more pillars, the temple was increased in length;
2. By adding two rows of columns and bringing the number of naves to five, the temple was expanded in width.

on the left is a plan of a single-nave Byzantine temple
on the right is a plan of a three-nave Orthodox Byzantine cross-domed church

With the continued simplification of the general culture, the cross-domed system of temples, becoming a distinctive feature of the “Macedonian Renaissance,” became complete and widespread precisely during the period of Middle Byzantine architecture.

general design of the cross-domed church

The most important part of the cross-domed church, like other Christian churches, was altar, indicated by a semicircular protrusion - apse, extending beyond the square of the plan.

How is the altar constructed?

In the central part of the apse there was throne; in the northern part - altar, where they prepared bread and wine for communion; in the southern part - deacon, a place for storing church vessels, vestments, books and other valuables.

Thus, the main efforts of the architects were aimed at organizing the space under the dome and the altar as the focus of the cult action and at realizing the symbolic idea stairs- the mystical biblical ladder along which communication between heaven and earth takes place.

symbolism of the space of the cross-domed church

Not only individual significant details, but also the overall structure of the temple had a symbolic meaning. The four walls of the temple, united by one chapter, symbolized the four cardinal directions under the rule of a single universal Christian church (so dreamed). The altar in all churches was placed in the east, because according to the Old Testament, Eden was located there, and according to the New Testament, the ascension of Jesus Christ took place in the east. During the same period, rules began to emerge for the arrangement of subjects on the walls of churches: the apse was dedicated to the Mother of God, the dome to Christ.

During the period of the “Macedonian Renaissance,” an iconographic canon was developed, according to which, for example, John Chrysostom was depicted as an old man with an ascetic face, a short rounded beard and a bald head; Basil the Great - an old man with a wedge-shaped long beard, the Mother of God - in a veil-maphoria with three stars (on the shoulders and head). For more detailed stories about this, see my publications on the topics of Byzantium. Mosaics..., Byzantine icon and Byzantine canon in LiveJournal Travel and culture - my life, website

XI-XII centuries - the reign of the Komnenos dynasty, the brilliant flowering of Byzantine art, called Komnenian "Renaissance" or second golden age .
From the 11th century the internal space of temples is becoming more complex, which indicates some development of architecture.

left - Daphnia Monastery, general view, Athens, Greece
on the right - Daphnia monastery, interior space

Mass construction of monasteries began, which were a complex of buildings surrounded by walls and towers with only one entrance. The outlines of the walls formed a polygon in plan, connected with the terrain.
In the center of the monastery courtyard there were, as a rule, a single-domed cross-domed church and buildings of utilitarian significance: a refectory, a hospital, a library and, as a rule, a scriptorium (a workshop where books were copied). One of the most significant, with an extensive library and scriptorium, was the Monastery of John the Theologian on the island of Patmos, founded in 1085.

on the left is the Monastery of St. John the Theologian. Patmos, Greece
on the right is the interior space of the Monastery of St. John the Theologian, Fr. Patmos, Greece

Another interesting example of Byzantine churches from this period is the katholikon (main church) of the monastery of Hosios Loukas, named after St. Luke of Styria, built around 1020.

left - Hosios Loukas Monastery, exterior view, Delphi, Greece
on the right is a plan of the churches of the monastery of Hosios Loukas, at the top is the Church of the Virgin/Theotokas (c. 1040), below is the katholikon (c. 1020)

The interior of the catholicon with contrasts of light and shadow, open and closed planes, smooth marble covering and faceted mosaics is an example of the continuation of Justinian architecture of the 6th century. with its mystical mystery.

interior of the katholikon of Hosios Loukas

A characteristic feature of Byzantine churches from the 11th century. the order of the cells of their plan becomes staggered. It resembles the pattern of five in dominoes. Square or rectangular, they are divided into nine bays, the middle of which is a large domed square. This square is surrounded by four bays with barrel vaults, as well as four smaller squares at the corners, which are also covered with domes.
The plan of St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560) is closest to the plans of such churches. A number of art publications emphasize that this unique plan was invented by Russian architects (or architects), and they/he may simply have known the Byzantine heritage very well and developed it in relation to new conditions (this does not at all detract from their contribution to the history of world architecture and architecture).

plan of St. Basil's Cathedral, Moscow, Russia

On Mount Athos, the spiritual center of monasticism (the Chalkidiki peninsula in the Aegean Sea), a unique type of temple has developed - triconcha, with altar projections on the east, north and south sides.

Cathedral of the Great Lavra, view from the west of the altar apse, Athos, Greece

The masonry system, combining stone blocks and flat bricks, gave special expressiveness to the monastery buildings - plinth, which made it possible to decorate the walls with a decorative pattern. More details about the features of Byzantine construction equipment and technology in the next publication.

Cathedral of the monastery of Esphigmen, Greece

After the division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox in 1054 and the deepening differences in church ceremonies, the need to create a system of internal decoration of an Orthodox Byzantine church that carries deep meaning acquired great importance.
Decorative decoration of temple interiors with mosaics has practically ceased - it is too expensive, fresco paintings are replacing them. However, works made using the Byzantine mosaic technique acquire even greater value, so the Greeks restored them.

on the left - golden mosaics of Hosios Loukas in Phokis, Delphi, Greece
right - Introduction to the Temple, mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, Daphne Monastery, Greece

Since Byzantine churches became much smaller in size, it was impossible to depict the Universe through the means of architecture, as in St. Sophia of Constantinople, was no longer possible, so the importance of paintings, denoting the symbolic meaning of various parts of the interior space of the church, increased immeasurably. As a result, a three-part multifaceted symbolism of the organization of the internal space of the temple gradually emerged.

Space symbolism - the temple as a reduced model of the Universe: the vaults and domes represent the sky, the space near the floor - the earth, the altar symbolized heaven, the western part of the temple - hell. In accordance with these divisions, the themes of the paintings are placed.
At the highest point of the temple on the dome vault is an image of the Pantocrator/Pantocrator or the Savior in Power - the Creator and Head of the Universe, usually surrounded by archangels.

Savior in power, dome of the Church of St. Sofia, Thessaloniki, Greece

In the apse, on the vault of the high altar arch, the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God - an earthly woman in the image of Oranta/Praying, was depicted.

Our Lady of Oranta, apse of the Church of St. Sofia, Thessaloniki, Greece

On the drum of the dome, in the spaces between the windows, there were figures of the twelve apostles, disciples of Christ, sometimes with symbols of the Holy Spirit descending on them. The number 12 is associated with the number of sons of Jacob (the forefather of Christ) and, accordingly, with the 12 tribes of Israel. Twelve is the product of three and four, where three is a symbol of the divine essence and the “heavenly world,” and four is the number of elements, cardinal points and the “downstream world.”

12 apostles in the dome of the Church of St. Sofia, Thessaloniki, Greece

The four “sails” depicted the four evangelists, or their symbols: Matthew - an angel, Mark - a lion, Luke - a calf, John - an eagle. This is symbolic of the theological organization of the church: the dome of the temple rests on pillars, just as the universal church rests on the four gospels.

Evangelists on sails and 12 apostles on the drum of the dome, St. Stamp, Venice, Italy

On the pillars are the great martyrs, “pillars of the Christian faith.”
Thus, Jesus Christ yesterday, today and always, through the Mother of God, the apostles, evangelists and great martyrs, is in unity with the earthly church, that is, with those praying in the temple.

symbolism of the architecture of the Orthodox church

Topographic symbolism connected each place in the temple with places in Palestine where the corresponding event in the life of Christ took place. Entrance to the temple with a baptismal font - baptism in the Jordan River; apse - Bethlehem Cave, birthplace of Christ. The throne in the altar is Golgotha ​​(at the same time the place of the crucifixion, the Holy Sepulcher, the Resurrection and the place of God's presence in heaven); pulpit - Mount Tabor (at the same time the place of the Transfiguration, Jesus' reading of the Sermon on the Mount, as well as the stone from which the angel proclaimed the Resurrection of Jesus Christ).

Temporary symbolism - a system for placing paintings in the upper part of the walls. In the cross-domed church, movement in a circle dominates; each day of the church calendar marks not a simple memory of long-past events, but as if they were happening again. Circular arrangement of scene paintings holiday cycle at the level of the second tier, including the “sleeves” of the architectural cross of the temple, means that the past and present coexist simultaneously and eternally. This tradition of painting the temple developed in the 11th century.

Then he appeared iconostasis- an altar barrier separating the “ship of salvation,” the location of believers, from the altar. The iconostasis was a marble or wooden structure with a crowning horizontal beam - architrave. At the top, in the center, is a cross, the ancient sign of Christ. Below, most often, two large or several small icons were placed, among which two cycles stood out, the most important for the subsequent development of the iconostasis - Deesis And holidays.

iconostasis, Hosios Loukas temple, Greece

In the XI-XII centuries. Byzantine architects and icon painters were widely known and worked in many countries. This is the period of greatest influence of Byzantine culture in the south and southeast of Europe, and in Rus'. At this time, architectural ensembles and paintings were created in the Palatine Chapel in Palermo, St. Sophia of Kyiv, St. Sophia of Novgorod and other churches.

To be continued…

One of the most important centers of medieval art was Byzantium, a state that was formed in 395 on the basis of the Eastern Roman Empire and existed until 1453. The first rise of Byzantine art occurred in the 6th century. It reached a brilliant peak under Emperor Justinian I (527-565), when the foundations of Byzantine statehood were laid and attempts were made to revive the former power of the empire. The main artistic center became Constantinople with its mixed Greek, Oriental and barbarian population, with its contrast of wealth and poverty, the noise of theological disputes, and mass uprisings. Back at the beginning of the 5th century. the city with its vast squares, decorated with triumphal arches, crowned with statues of emperors, baths, aqueducts, hippodromes, palaces with vast domed halls, was fortified by powerful walls with loopholes, numerous towers and bastions, and the majestic Golden Gate.

The architecture of monastic ensembles and churches, distinguished by a variety of types, acquired a leading role. Among them, longitudinal-basilica and central-domed churches, created on the basis of the tradition of ancient public buildings, are especially characteristic of Byzantium. In them, the main role was played by the internal space, which was decided in accordance with the characteristics of the Christian cult, which required the presence of the entire community in the temple. Three-nave basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna (early 6th century)

The most perfect type of centric temple is the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna (532-548). Octagonal at the base, it is covered with a dome (diameter 15 m), resting on eight pillars, and is surrounded by a bypass gallery receiving a spreader. Colored marble and richly colored mosaics cover the walls and vaults of the church.

The need for a building that could accommodate masses of people arose in the 5th and 6th centuries. a new type of temple - a domed basilica, most adapted to the complex ritual of worship. In the central domed part of it, a church service was held. The side and upper galleries, separated from the center, were intended for townspeople and the nobility. Architecture, painting (mosaics, paintings, icons), applied art (precious utensils, rich vestments of priests), the entertainment of church ceremonies, polyphonic choirs - this whole single grandiose artistic ensemble served the church.

The new type of structure was brilliantly embodied in the grandiose church of St. Sophia in Constantinople (532-537). The builders of the temple, the Asia Minor architects Anthimius of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus, using to a certain extent the experience of the Pantheon and the Basilica of Maxentius, created the image of a different artistic system. In the design of the church of St. Sophia, as one of the main parts of the imperial palace, triumphs the idea of ​​​​the people of that era about the immensity of the universe, its comprehensive integrity and reasonable harmony. By the boldness of construction techniques, the Church of St. Sofia was superior to all previous and contemporary buildings. The main thing that strikes you in the temple is the solid, light, freely developing internal space, formed from the merging of individual volumes. At the base of the church of St. Sophia is based on the plan of a three-nave basilica in combination with a developed type of centric building. Mosaics with symbolic images of the cross were used in the decoration of the vaults and domes. To decorate the Church of St. Malachite and porphyry columns were brought to Sofia from Asia Minor, Greece and Egypt. The harmonious and majestic church of St. Sofia became a model for the construction of all Orthodox churches. With the increasing role of the church interior in the Byzantine church, new principles of art synthesis were formed, embodied in wall and ceiling paintings. Developing the traditions of late antique painting, the Byzantines for the first time combined emotional and spiritual content with decorative principles. Mosaic became the favorite technique of monumental painting in Byzantium. The pictorial principle of ancient mosaic, designed to merge individual spots of color in visual perception, was further developed here. Possessing all the richness of the colorful spectrum, shades of varying light intensity and density, the Byzantines reproduced the form with a spot of color. Along with colored stones, mosaicists used smalt (cubes made of colored glass alloys), which are distinguished by the depth and sonority of their tones. Golden backgrounds create a feeling of festivity and detachment from real life. Their heights vary, and the cubes located on the concave surface of the vaults are uneven, all this contributes to the impression of a shimmering environment.

In Ravenna mosaics of the 5th century. You can find scenes from paintings from Christian catacombs. (“Christ the Good Shepherd”, Tomb of Galla Placidia); in the cycle from the life of Christ (the upper part of the temple of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, early and mid-6th century), characteristic medieval stylistic features had already appeared - frontal compositions, a clear outline, a golden background.

A rare example of Byzantine secular painting are two large mosaics on the side walls of the apse of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna (546-548). They testify to the direct influence of court and church ceremonial on the nature of images in 6th century painting. One of the mosaics depicts Emperor Justinian with his retinue, and the other depicts Empress Theodora with her entourage. The modern specific event is interpreted as a theme of solemn ceremony and exaltation of imperial power. In the sharpness of the characteristics of those depicted, the Byzantine master is not inferior to the creators of the Fayum portraits.

The period of iconoclasm lasted from 726 to 843, during which time the secular traditions of ancient art, folk art of the East, and abstract symbolism were revived. The flourishing of book ornament is associated with the iconoclasm movement. After the defeat by the feudal reaction of the popular movement, icon veneration was again restored, and popular influence in art was pushed aside. Subject-based church painting began to revive. In wall paintings, a complete canonical system was formed with a strict hierarchy of saints and a precise order of subordination of main and secondary motifs, a semantic or temporal sequence of plots. The location of mosaics and paintings was determined by the new architectural design of temples and the themes of religious compositions. Painting fills walls, vaults, supports, domes; it creates a single emotional environment with architecture. In the dome, personifying heaven, Christ the Pantocrator (Pantocrator) was depicted, on four sides of him there were angels - guardians of the four cardinal points, evangelists - in the four sails of the dome, the Mother of God - in the apse, apostles, martyrs - on vaults and pillars, etc. .

The character of the images becomes more complex and enriched, and the craftsmanship becomes more sophisticated. Generalizing symbols and allegories, which served as an expression of philosophical views before iconoclasm, the passive contemplation of images are replaced by active moral preaching, expressed through the emotional interpretation of the spiritual world of man, his condition. In the second half of the 11th-12th centuries. under Komnenos, the classical solemn Byzantine style was established. The frontally standing figures, not connected to each other, lose their materiality, are placed outside the real environment on a golden background, their faces acquire an ascetic character. In painting, the linear principle is growing. The spatial environment is schematized, the color, laid out in an even layer, becomes dense and conventional. Mosaics are laid in regular rows of cubes with a gradual transition of similar tones. A classic work of Byzantine painting of the late 11th century - the mosaics of the Church of the Assumption of the Daphne Monastery (near Athens).

The main form of easel painting in Byzantium was icon painting, its importance increased in the post-iconoclast period; The icons, executed in the technique of encaustic and egg tempera, perhaps go back to ritual Fayum portraits. However, in the icon image a person was depicted as if in an otherworldly, sacred image that had lost its earthly shell. Individual features were replaced by the canonized face of a saint, which was determined by iconographic rules. Masterpiece of Byzantine painting 11 - early. 12th century - icon “Our Lady of Vladimir” (Moscow, Tretyakov Gallery), iconographic type “Tenderness” (the baby presses its cheek to the mother’s cheek).

In the 12-14 centuries, during the reign of the Palaiologan dynasty, Byzantine art experienced its last heyday. Later Byzantine art manifested itself most clearly in painting, in mosaics and frescoes of the Chora Monastery (Kahrie-Jami) in Constantinople (1312-1320). In the 15th century art has lost its monumental scope and significance. The conquest of Byzantium by Turkey in 1453 changed the further fate of its art.

The centuries-old art of Byzantium played a big role in the history of world culture. Here new types of monumental public religious buildings were created with decorative emotional-narrative pictorial cycles, with in-depth characteristics of images that became widespread in the medieval art of Europe, the South Slavs, Ancient Rus', and Transcaucasia. The problems of the synthesis of spatial arts were solved in a new way, and unique artistic forms were created. The historical mission of Byzantium was that it developed and passed on to subsequent centuries the ancient tradition and the conquests of the culture of the Hellenized Near East, enriching them with new discoveries. Many Byzantine craftsmen worked outside the empire. Italian, Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Georgian, and Armenian masters turned to Byzantine art.

"The Art of Byzantium"

INTRODUCTION

BYZANTINE ART - (Byzantian art from the Greek Bysantion - a city in Asia Minor on the shores of the Thracian Bosphorus, the strait connecting the Black and Mediterranean seas, now Istanbul) - a historical-regional type of art, part of the historical type of medieval art. Inherits the achievements of ancient art of Greece and Rome and Hellenistic art of the East. Bysantes is the name of an ancient Greek hero, the son of the god of the seas Poseidon. He founded the city and gave his name. According to legend, Apollo and Poseidon helped to strengthen the city of Byzantine. This city was of particularly important geographical and historical significance. In 330, due to civil strife and unrest that engulfed the huge, but already poorly governed Roman Empire, Emperor Constantine I (306-337), nicknamed the Great, moved his capital to the city of Byzantine (from the 1st century BC. part of the Roman Empire). The emperor renamed the city Constantinople. In 395, after the death of Emperor Theodosius I (379-395), the Roman Empire finally split into Western and Eastern.

The transfer of the imperial residence to the border of Europe with Asia was a necessary measure: the western provinces were exhausted by continuous wars, while the eastern ones prospered. Perhaps, over time, Constantine intended to return to Rome. He could hardly have imagined that the “Eternal City” would be captured by the barbarians, and with the overthrow of the last emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476 by King Odoacer, the Western Empire would fall, and the Eastern Empire would exist for another whole millennium, until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453.

In the Middle Ages, Byzantium was called Romania, considered the official successor of imperial Rome, the Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans, and their culture - Roman (Greek romaios). The national composition of the empire was very diverse, but starting from the 7th century, the majority of the population were Greeks. Since then, the Byzantine emperor began to be called in Greek - “basileus”. In the 9th and 10th centuries, after the conquest of Bulgaria and the subjugation of the Serbs and Croats, Byzantium became essentially a Greco-Slavic state. On the basis of religious community, a vast “zone of orthodoxy (Orthodoxy)” developed around Byzantium, including Rus', Georgia, Bulgaria, and most of Serbia.
Until the 7th century, the official language of the empire was Latin, but there was literature in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, and Georgian. In 866, the “Thessalonica brothers” Cyril (c.826-869) and Methodius (c.815-885) invented Slavic writing, which quickly spread in Bulgaria and Rus'.
Despite the fact that the entire life of the state and society was imbued with religion, secular power in Byzantium was always stronger than church power. The Byzantine Empire was always distinguished by stable statehood and strictly centralized governance. By its political structure, Byzantium was an autocratic monarchy. All power was in the hands of the emperor (basileus). He was the highest judge, led foreign policy, made laws, commanded the army, etc. His power was considered divine and was practically unlimited, however (paradox!) it was not legally hereditary. The result of this was constant unrest and wars for power, ending with the creation of another dynasty. A simple warrior, even a barbarian, or a peasant, thanks to his dexterity and personal abilities, could often occupy a high position in the state or even become an emperor. The history of Byzantium is full of such examples.

From the time of its founding until the second half of the 12th century, it was the powerful, richest and most cultural state in Europe. The Byzantine Empire, spread over three continents - Europe, Asia and Africa - included the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean, possessions in the Crimea and the Caucasus. Its total area was about 1 million square meters. km, population - 30-35 million inhabitants. Its emperors tried to act as the supreme overlords of the Christian world. There were legends about the wealth and pomp of the Byzantine imperial court. From the moment of its birth, Byzantium was a “country of cities” (with an almost entirely literate population) and a great maritime and trading power. Its merchants penetrated into the most remote corners of the then known world: India, China, Ceylon, Ethiopia, Britain, Scandinavia. The Byzantine gold solidus played the role of an international currency.

Byzantium survived the invasion of the Crusaders (1204, IV Crusade), but with the formation and strengthening of the Ottoman Empire on its borders, its end became inevitable. The West promised help only on condition of conversion to Catholicism (Ferraro-Florentine Union, which was indignantly rejected by the people).
In April 1453, Constantinople was surrounded by a huge Turkish army and two months later it was taken by storm. The last emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, died on the fortress wall with weapons in his hands. Since then, Constantinople has been called Istanbul.

1. History of Byzantium (Cultural aspect)

In artistic creativity, Byzantium gave the medieval world lofty images of literature and art, which were distinguished by noble elegance of forms, imaginative vision of thought, sophistication of aesthetic thinking, and depth of philosophical thought. The direct heir of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, in terms of the power of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries. The process of artistic development of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had eras of rise and decline, periods of triumph of progressive ideas and dark years of domination of reactionary ones. There were several periods, more or less prosperous, marked by a special flowering of art:

1. The time of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) - the “golden age of Byzantium”

and the so-called Byzantine Renaissance:

2. The reign of the Macedonian dynasty (mid-9th - end of the 11th century) - “Macedonian Renaissance”.

3. The reign of the Komnenian dynasty (late 11th - late 12th centuries) - “Comninian Renaissance”.

4. Late Byzantium (from 1260) - “Palaeologian Renaissance”.

1.1. The time of Emperor Justinian.

As mentioned above, the power of the Byzantine emperors (basileus) was not legally hereditary. In fact, anyone could be on the throne. The most famous Byzantine emperors were not of high birth. So, in 527, Justinian became emperor - a poor Illyrian peasant, a soldier, who reached the pinnacle of power thanks to luck and determination, a rare combination of lust for power and personal asceticism, generosity and deceit. An extremely ambitious, intelligent and educated man, he remained in the history of Christianity as a ruler who significantly influenced the fate of the Church.

Under Justinian, Byzantium became not only the largest and richest state in Europe. But also the most cultural. Justinian strengthened law and order in the country. During his time, Constantinople turned into the famous artistic center of the medieval world, into the “palladium of sciences and arts,” followed by Ravenna, Rome, Nicaea, Thessalonica, which also became the focus of the artistic Byzantine style. Under Justinian, wonderful churches were built that have survived to this day - the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna.

During the glorious reign of Emperor Justinian I, Italy was temporarily recaptured from the barbarians. To commemorate this event, a church dedicated to the holy martyr Vitaly (San Vitale) was built in the former capital of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric, the city of Ravenna. This is one of the most ancient Byzantine churches, built at a time when neither the cross-domed architectural canon nor the iconographic canon had yet been formed, therefore both the architecture of the temple and the mosaic decoration of its walls are individual and this is why they are especially interesting.

The Church of San Vitale is an example of a centric building; the plan is octagonal with a faceted altar. The structure is based on 8 supports supporting dome . The supports are connected by semicircular two-story arches.

Like all early Christian churches, it surprises, first of all, with the contrast between the rich interior decoration and the ascetic to the point of poverty exterior. The monotony of its facades is broken only by powerful buttresses . This is a typical example of internal architecture, as if emphasizing that it is not the outer shell that is important, but only the inner essence, that this is a place for gathering believers, prayers and church services. Don't stand on the threshold, come in and pray. The interior of the church is magnificent: lacy capitals of the columns, countless arches, continuous mosaic of the walls, the predominant color is gold.

The young Christ hovers on the mosaic of the altar, holding out a martyr’s wreath to Saint Vitaly. On the right, Saint Ecclesius, the builder of the first church standing on this site, holds out a model of the temple to Christ. Saints do not see each other. They never met during their lives; time separated them, but Eternity united them. Of particular interest are two mosaics on the side walls of the altar - two processions bringing gifts to the temple. One is headed by Emperor Justinian himself, the other by his wife Empress Theodora. Their images are still very far from canonized, but they no longer contain any hint of the extraordinary personal qualities of the originals. The faces are frozen, the poses are monotonous, the figures are hidden by the folds of ceremonial clothing - ideal images of rulers in the blaze of Divine glory. But the faces do not yet show that stern detachment, which would later become the general rule for Byzantine painting. The faces of those close to him clearly bear the imprint of a portrait resemblance, their eyes look with interest. There are still many everyday details on the mosaics: there is a fountain, and multi-colored curtains - none of this will happen later.

The Hagia Sophia, built during the time of Justinian, is certainly the most outstanding work of Byzantine architecture, a symbol of the “golden age” of Byzantium.
The main cathedral of the empire, which replaced the basilica that had existed on the same site since the time of Emperor Constantine I, was built by architects Amphimius of Thrall And Isidore of Miletus. This cathedral is, without any exaggeration, a miracle of engineering.

In plan, the cathedral is a cross, 70x50 m. It is a three-nave basilica with a quadrangular cross, topped with a dome. The main difficulty that had to be overcome during construction was the enormous size of the building ordered by the emperor. To erect a structure of such length and width, and cover it with a brick dome (the diameter of which is 32 m) was a revolutionary task in those years. To compensate for the enormous force of pressure (“thrust”) of the dome, the thickness of the walls could be increased, however, the temple should not appear massive, and besides, it is difficult to make windows in a wall that is too thick.

The cathedral's gigantic dome system became a masterpiece of architectural thought of its time. The main load is borne by numerous arches and vaults, not massive, but intricately woven. In the east-west direction, the thrust is damped as follows - two large semi-domes adjoin the central dome on both sides, and they, in turn, are adjacent to smaller semi-domes. The force of the thrust spreads and is crushed until it is absorbed by special column pylons.
The windows at the base of the dome, placed very close to each other, visually cut it off from the lower part of the temple. To those who enter the temple, it seems that its huge dome has no real support; it seems to be hanging in the air. Regarding the sun-drenched hemisphere of the dome, as if floating in the air, the writer Procopius of Caesarea (VI century) said: “This aerial structure is held in the air in a completely incomprehensible way, as if not on a solid basis, but hanging from the sky on a golden rope. ... Everyone immediately understands that such a thing was completed not by human power or art, but by God’s will.”

The interior decoration of the temple continued for several centuries. Naturally, it was particularly luxurious (mosaics on the golden floor, 8 green jasper columns from the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus). The walls of the temple are also completely covered with mosaics; nowhere is their flat character disturbed by convex patterns. Part of the wall mosaic was lost during the period of “iconoclasm”, but was restored later.
One of the first to be recreated was a magnificent mosaic - the Virgin and Child Christ (IX century), created by an unknown master during the “Macedonian Renaissance”,

Now the Hagia Sophia is the Hagia Sophia mosque, surrounded by four minarets. The Turks built many mosques on the territory of the former Byzantine Empire, created in the image and likeness of the great and unsurpassed Church of Hagia Sophia.

1.2. The period of "iconoclasm" (730-1046)

In the history of the Middle Ages (and not only the Middle Ages) there were many dramatic moments when, due to political or economic reasons, a certain genre of art suddenly became objectionable. Artists working in this genre, as well as its admirers, were subjected to repression, destroyed morally or physically. The clearest example is the period of iconoclasm in Byzantium.

In 717, when Islam conquered Asia and threatened Europe, Leo III (675-741), nicknamed the Isaurian, ascended to the shaky Byzantine throne. It is not known whether he actually came from the tribe of the Isaurians (a wild and warlike people), but it is known for certain that he was a brave and brilliant commander who managed to protect the country from the Arabs and significantly strengthen the foreign policy position of Byzantium.

Wasting no time, Leo the Isaurian resolutely took up internal reforms and, in particular, paid close attention to the Church. At the same time, he found that the veneration of relics (the remains of saints and sacred objects) and icons took on unprecedented proportions, essentially turning into superstition. Sacred images and icons, designed to help a person penetrate the spirit of prayer and get closer to God, were sometimes given such honor that the true meaning of Christian art began to be replaced by pagan idolatry. The clergy often cleverly used the superstitions and pagan habits of their flock for the purpose of enriching themselves and increasing their influence. It is not surprising that the cult of icons in its perverted form became an excellent target for ridicule by Muslims who adhered to strict monotheism. It was obviously of the utmost importance to Leo to refute the charges of idolatry leveled against Christians.
The ideological basis for iconoclasm was the biblical commandment “Do not make for yourself an idol or any image of what is in heaven above or what is on earth below...”. Among the ideological iconoclasts there were mainly residents of the East, whose traditions did not allow the depiction of a person at all (which was enshrined in the Muslim religion).

The views of the emperor himself were completely Orthodox, and he could have made a noticeable contribution to the defense of Christian truths if other, purely political motives had not been mixed into his fight against idolatry. Church historians believe that Leo the Isaurian’s struggle against excessive veneration of icons was only part of his extensive plans to reorganize the entire
state-church system of the Byzantine Empire. The purpose of this struggle was to limit the rights and influence of the higher clergy who occupied leading government positions.

In 726, the emperor promulgated a decree in which it was forbidden to worship icons as divine images and instructed to hang them in churches at a considerable height. The clergy, naturally, met this order with hostility - the emperor was accused of insulting Christian shrines. The population of the empire was divided in two: iconoclasts and icon-worshipers. A series of bloody events immediately began: in Constantinople, the iconoclasts tried to publicly destroy the icon of Christ, but were torn to pieces by a crowd of icon-worshippers, the latter were caught and executed, the beloved Patriarch Germanus was deposed, who refused to obey the decree, in response to this, the Byzantine fleet openly went over to the side of the icon-worshipers and moved to the capital in order to depose the emperor, but was burned by “Greek fire” and the country was left without a fleet...

The mutual confrontation between the parties became heated and led to the iconoclastic heresy - the emperor generally imposed a ban on church images. To save the icons, staunch Christians risked their lives. Many ended their lives on the chopping block, others were torn to pieces by the crowd. The real civil war lasted until the death of Leo III and continued under his successor Constantine Copronymus. The emperors' supporters were clearly winning. Now only secular painting was allowed (mainly portraits of the emperor); icon painting was preserved only in remote provincial monasteries.

Christian thinkers understood the danger of the heresy of iconoclasm. The issue, in essence, was not about icons. By denying divine images, the iconoclasts thereby denied the possibility of spiritualization of matter, which contradicted the foundations of Christian teaching. The leading figures of the Church led a decisive struggle against iconoclasm. Pope Gregory II, and after him Gregory III, strongly condemned this heresy. Gregory III ordered to stop collecting taxes in favor of Byzantium, making it clear that from now on he did not consider himself a subject of the Byzantine emperor. This speech of Gregory III was supported by all of Italy.

By the end of the 8th century, the iconoclast movement began to decline. The regent of the Byzantine throne, Irina, an Athenian by birth, a beautiful, powerful and treacherous woman, was a zealous admirer of icons. Having become empress, she convened the VII Ecumenical Council, which opened in 786 in Constantinople. The Council was attended by legates of Pope Adrian I. However, clashes occurred between supporters and opponents of iconoclasm; the Council was disrupted and reopened only a year later.

Icon veneration won. The Council decided: “We inviolably preserve all church traditions, approved in writing and non-written. One of them commands us to make picturesque church images, since this, in accordance with the history of the Gospel preaching, serves as confirmation that God is a true word, and did not become a ghostly man, and serves us well." Icons were recognized as “reminders” and honors were allowed to be given to them
only as images. Thus, the Council, rejecting the heresy of iconoclasm, at the same time overcame the extremes of icon veneration. The iconoclast bishops received forgiveness at the Council. The ideas of icon veneration were theoretically substantiated in the works of John of Damascus, which laid the foundation for the process of canonization of icon painting.

However, the ordeal of icon veneration is not over yet. The political situation was changing quickly. The West grew stronger, the Arabs flourished during the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, and Byzantium continued to weaken. In 802, Irina was overthrown and sent into exile. In 815, Patriarch Theodotus again solemnly proclaimed the legality of the iconoclastic edicts. The violent reaction began again. Monasteries were closed, their lands were confiscated, monks were exiled or executed. It all ended only in 843, when Patriarch Methodius convened a new Council and confirmed the decisions of the VII Ecumenical Council on the veneration of icons.
On March 11, 843, the Church celebrated the Triumph of Orthodoxy for the first time. Since then, this event has been celebrated annually during the first week of Great Lent, which is called the “week of the Triumph of Orthodoxy.”

It was a sad victory. Orthodoxy triumphed, but the very fact that the emperors became the decisive judges in the life of the Church, and that the fate of Orthodoxy depended on their will, testifies to complete victory Caesar-Papism in Byzantium. Since the 9th century, true Byzantine Christians either emigrated or increasingly moved away from the world - to Mount Athos, in the desert, behind the strong stone walls of monasteries. At the same time, the religious activity of the laity, which so favorably distinguished Byzantium from the barbarian peoples of modern Europe, also disappears. The level of theology is sharply declining, the literacy of the population, which previously was almost universal, is decreasing. The spiritual life of the East begins to fade.

1.3. Byzantine Renaissance.

There were several periods in the history of Byzantium when interest in antiquity was awakened and cultivated in society, when the ancient heritage was actively studied and rethought. Since the worldview as a whole remained Christian, and the power of the church was quite strong, these “renaissances” were temporary and affected mainly the ruling elite of society and the educated metropolitan elite. Much depended on the personality of the emperor, his education, tolerance and interest in antiquity.

Macedonian Renaissance (867-1057)

The founder of the dynasty, the Macedonian peasant Vasily, was hardly an art connoisseur. For his ability to tame horses and great physical strength, he fell into the favor of Emperor Michael III, who (it happens) made him his co-ruler. Thus, Mikhail signed his own death warrant - he was soon found stabbed to death in his own bedroom. Vasily strengthened his position on the throne and founded the Macedonian dynasty, which ruled the country for almost two centuries. Among Vasily's descendants there were very educated people who had a favorable attitude towards ancient culture (Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, a passionate lover of books, Leo VI, a theologian and poet). Some patriarchs of this time (Photius) were also experts and connoisseurs of antiquity.

During the reign of the Macedonian dynasty, mathematics, natural sciences flourished (encyclopedias on medicine and agricultural technology were compiled), and military affairs. Scientists, theologians, philosophers, poets, historians and orators created masterpieces of literature and art. Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, who occupied the Byzantine throne from 913 to 959, himself took up titanic work, putting in order the entire amount of knowledge of his era. Possessing remarkable literary talent, he wrote a number of medical, historical and agricultural treatises. He also collected and processed many biographies of saints. He had his own workshop for creating copies of ancient manuscripts. Amazing miniatures of the so-called Parisian Psalter have reached us, apparently copied from an Alexandrian manuscript of the 4th century, imbued with the charm of antiquity. The outstanding historian Leo the Deacon worked in the same era. The capital of the empire during this period amazed with its almost fabulous luxury and splendor. Full of ceremonial splendor, luxurious temples, precious jewelry, sparkling palaces, it made an irresistible impression on the guests. The desire for luxury and elegance has increased in society. Jewelry and applied arts flourished. When decorating works of applied art, antique subjects were almost always used. The number of monasteries increased sharply. Each emperor, prominent dignitary, and commander built his own monasteries, endowing them with rich possessions. The largest monasteries interfered in politics, while secularists, in the struggle for power, sought the support of monasticism. Athos became the center of the spiritual, mystical life of Byzantium, and then of the entire East during this period.

The reconstruction of the mosaics of the St. Sophia Cathedral, destroyed during the period of “iconoclasm”, has begun. Fine art associated with the church continued to develop within the strictest iconographic canons, however, there were also striking exceptions to the rules - the mosaic of the Mother of God in the apse of St. Sophia Cathedral. Created by an unknown author, this mosaic has nothing to do with iconographic canons. The Mother of God here is much more reminiscent of the Madonnas of the Renaissance than of her contemporary Madonnas of Byzantine writing. However, the woman and her son sitting in the golden radiance are so charming that Patriarch Photius was forced to remark: “Apparently, the painter’s art was inspired from above: he imitates nature so faithfully.” Yes, the canons existed, but true talent simply swept them out of his way, and the church fathers bowed before his creation. In that era, the leading role in painting in general (in icon painting, miniature painting, and fresco in particular) was acquired by metropolitan schools, marked by the stamp of special perfection of taste and technique.

At this time, one of the most exquisite examples of a cross-domed church was created, which was called the temple “on four columns.” Unlike the huge, spacious temples of early Byzantium, these were small-sized buildings that gave the impression of extraordinary lightness. The domed arches were not supported by pillars, but by graceful, thin columns. Thanks to the wide openings in the walls and windows in the dome, the building was permeated with light. Perhaps in no other architecture have architects been able to achieve such complete reflection of the spiritual principle in matter.

Comnenian Renaissance (1057-1024)

During this period, the same trends in the struggle between religious and secular culture were observed. Secular genres (satire, love poetry, courtly romance) developed rapidly in literature. Traveling singers, mimes and actors gained enormous popularity. The craving for luxury and grace intensified, all types of decorative and applied arts flourished (including the art of ornament and cloisonne enamel). Patronage is flourishing, and “learned circles” are being created at the courts of the nobility. Ignorance and illiteracy become the subject of ridicule. In painting, despite the preservation of the canon, the technique has become more complex, the individualization of images has increased, and the ideal of beauty has apparently changed.

In architecture, starting from the 11th century, there was a craving for the external decoration of temples, which was absent in earlier periods. The windows are decorated with deep niches made of brick ( plinths ) lay out ornaments - circles, crosses, introduce glazed tiles into the masonry, combine brickwork with light stone.

Palaiologan Renaissance (1261-1453)

This is the last period of the existence of Byzantium and the time of the last flowering of its culture. The main trend of this era, both in painting and in architecture, is the elimination of monumentality. Many original works of both church and secular architecture were created. In general, the size of buildings has become much more modest. This was caused, on the one hand, by the impoverishment of the empire after its plunder by the crusaders (1204-1261), on the other hand, by the philosophy of a new sense of contact with God - not through general prayer, but through individual internal concentration. New temples are increasingly gravitating towards centric buildings.

Monumental painting is also undergoing changes. Expensive mosaic is increasingly giving way fresco . However, it was at this time that the famous monastery of St. Horus or, in Turkish, Kahrie Cami, which means “mosaic mosque,” ​​was built and decorated. The mosaics and frescoes of the Chora Monastery are considered unsurpassed monuments of the Palaiologan era.

The number of subjects in icon painting is increasing; in search of new themes, masters resort to the apocryphal Gospels (i.e., not accepted by the official church). They are no longer satisfied with the static nature prescribed by the canon. Everything now acquires movement. Folds of clothing flutter, the saints do not take poses, but move, although the figures remain disproportionate and never step on a full foot (to convey their lightness, as if immateriality). A landscape and architectural background appears, and the space deepens. Normal human feelings appear on the faces of the saints (for example, the paternal joy of Joachim carrying the newborn Mary, mosaic of the Chora Monastery (Kahrie Jami), 1303). Often religious scenes approach purely genre scenes.

Scientists argue about whether the “Palaeologian Renaissance” could have smoothly transitioned into the present Renaissance, especially since the fascination with ancient philosophy during this period had already reached the point of direct calls to eliminate private property and replace outdated Christianity with a new religion. However, the Ottoman Turks did not give History time to resolve this issue.

2. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.

In Byzantium, unlike Western Europe, the technical architectural techniques of antiquity were not forgotten and were widely used. Thus, before the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople began, one of the main architects, Isidore of Miletus, summarized the works of Archimedes and composed a commentary on the work of Heron of Alexandria on the design of vaults. The techniques of ancient architecture were supplemented and creatively processed, which eventually led to the development of their own Byzantine architectural canons. Two types of buildings were inherited from antiquity - centric (going back to ancient mausoleums) and basilica (dating back to ancient public buildings). The centric buildings were small in size and served as baptismal sanctuaries ( baptisteries ) or martyriums . In plan they were a square, a Greek cross, a circle (rotunda) or an octagon. An example is a church cruciform in plan - the mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the octagonal church of San Vitale (all in Ravenna).

Basilicas, as a rule, were larger; inside they were divided into naves . There could be three, five, or less often seven or nine naves. The central nave was wider than the side ones (usually twice as wide) and was covered with a gable roof. Windows in the upper high part of the middle nave provided uniform illumination of the interior space. An example is the three-nave Basilica of San Apolinare de Nuovo (Ravenna). The achievements of Roman architects were widely used - arched and vaulted ceilings and a dome. However, the temple and public buildings of the ancient world did not satisfy the requirements for a Christian temple, either functionally or symbolically. The ancient temple was never a place for prayers or mass worship. Processions walked around the temple without entering it. The ancient temple is an example of typical outdoor architecture. The outside certainly dominates the inside, the façade over the interior. A Christian temple is an example of internal (internal-external) architecture. It should be spacious and, if possible, richly decorated inside.

Each part of the Christian temple has its own symbolic meaning :
the vault is the vault of heaven, the dome is the “sky of heaven,” the pulpit is the mountain from which Christ preached, the throne is the place of the Holy Sepulcher, the four corners of which are the four cardinal directions. In addition, the church is an image of the crucifixion of Christ, therefore it seems desirable that the symbol of Christianity - the cross - be imprinted in the very structure of the temple. The temple should be directed east, towards Jerusalem, where the Second Coming of Christ is expected. A long architectural search to find the best match between the symbolic and functional requirements of the temple resulted in an ideal solution. A new type of church building - a cross-domed church - became a model for the entire Orthodox world (starting from the 9th century).

2.1. Byzantine cross-domed temple

The most successful type of temple for Byzantine worship turned out to be a shortened one. basilica , crowned with a dome, and, according to the Apostolic Decrees, facing altar to the East. This composition was called cross-dome.

In the classical cross-domed church, the building, square in plan, was divided by rows of pillars or columns into naves - inter-row spaces running from the entrance to the altar. There were, as a rule, 3, 5 or 7 naves, and the width of the central nave was twice the width of the side ones. Exactly in the center of the building in the central nave, four main pillars were located symmetrically, carrying dome . These pillars marked out another nave in the space of the temple - transverse or transept . The square under-dome space between the main pillars, which is the intersection of the central nave and transept, is called crosshair . Arches carrying semi-cylindrical (barrel) vaults spanned from the pillars to the walls. A drum with skylights supporting the main dome of the temple rested on four main pillars. The central dome could be adjacent to 4 to 12 smaller domes (the main dome symbolizes Christ, 5 domes - Christ with the evangelists, 13 domes - Christ with the apostles).

Entrance to the temple, framed portal , located on the west side. If they wanted to give the building a more elongated rectangular shape, they added narthex . The narthex was necessarily separated from the central part of the temple - pump - a wall with arched openings leading to each of the naves.
On the east side there was altar , where the most important part of Christian worship took place. In the area of ​​the altar, the wall jutted out with semicircular projections - apses (apses), covered semi-domes - conchs .
If the dome symbolized the heavenly Church, then the altar symbolized the earthly Church. The altar housed throne - the elevation on which the sacrament took place Eucharist - transubstantiation of the Holy Gifts (transformation of bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ). Later, to the north of the altar they began to arrange altar (also with a throne, but smaller), and to the south - deacon - a room for storing liturgical vessels and clothes. Around the 4th century, the altar began to be separated altar barrier (the construction of the first altar barrier is attributed to St. Basil the Great). The barrier separated the clergy from the laity and gave the Eucharistic action a special solemnity and mystery.

The interior decoration and painting of the temple were supposed to reflect the entire essence of Christian teaching in visual images. The characters of the Sacred History were placed in strict order in the painting of the temple. The entire space of the temple was mentally divided into two parts - “heavenly” and “earthly”. In the “heavenly” part, under the dome, is the kingdom of Christ and the heavenly army. The apostles should have been depicted on the drum of the temple, and the four evangelists (“pillars of the gospel teaching”) on the main pillars. In the apse, in the center of the “earthly” part of the temple, the Mother of God was depicted (usually Oranta ), intercessor of all people before God. The northern, western and southern parts of the temple, as a rule, were painted in several tiers, and the upper tiers were filled with scenes from the earthly life of Christ, miracles and passions. In the lower tier, at the height of human growth, they wrote the Fathers of the Church, martyrs and righteous people, who, as if together with the parishioners, offered a prayer to God.

The cross-domed composition became widespread, both in Byzantium and in the zone of orthodoxy that developed around it, especially in Rus'. The temple shown in the figure is a Russian temple, fully consistent with the Byzantine architectural canon, but at the same time having purely Russian features (for example, an onion-shaped dome is characteristic of Russian architecture; Byzantine architects preferred semicircular domes).

2.2. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia and Church of San Apolinare de Nuovo
in Ravenna (V-VI centuries).

During the periods of the decline of ancient Rome and the early Middle Ages, the small Italian town of Ravenna was constantly at the center of events. The Romans were replaced by the Byzantines, then the Ostrogoths came, led by King Theodoric, the Byzantine emperor Justinian expelled the Ostrogoths and again annexed Italy for a while, etc. To the credit of the conquerors, it must be said that they all tried to commemorate their victories by building new buildings and places of worship , decorate and improve the city. Now Ravenna is a unique monument of Roman, Byzantine, barbarian and Catholic cultures.

The Mausoleum of Galla and the Church of San Apolinare are the oldest Byzantine religious buildings that have survived to this day. Byzantine architecture inherited from ancient architecture two types of buildings - centric and basilica. The mausoleum is an example of the first type, the church - of the second.

The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (first half of the 5th century) received its name in honor of the untimely death of the daughter of Emperor Theodosius the Great. In fact, it is not a mausoleum, since Galla Placidia is buried in Rome. Apparently, this was a chapel dedicated to the martyr Lawrence, especially revered in the family - at least, his image is located directly opposite the entrance.

This centric building, cruciform in plan, is a typical example of the internal architecture so characteristic of early Christian churches: its ascetic, unpretentious appearance contrasts sharply with the richness of the interior. The outer brick surface of the walls is “decorated” only by flat vertical projections - blades, connected to equally flat arches (“blind arcade”).

Inside the mausoleum, the walls are lined with polished marble at half their height. The remaining surfaces of the walls, the dome and the lunettes of the arches are completely covered with magnificent mosaics, in which antique motifs are still very strong. Under the dome, stars shine in the bright blue sky, doves drink from a bowl, deer graze by the lake, gilded vines climb through the arches.

The Church of San Apolinare (early 6th century) was built by the Ostrogoth king Theodoric, who made Ravenna his capital (493). Apparently, many of its mosaics were made already in the 9th century, when the church added the epithet “Nuovo” (new) to its name.

The Church of San Apolinare is a large three-nave basilica. 24 columns in two orderly rows enclose the central nave. The entire field of the walls above their non-classical “flattened” capitals is occupied by mosaics: on the left is a procession of martyrs, on the right - martyrs (large inscriptions indicate their names). They all walk to the altar, holding their martyr's crowns in their hands.

These are very interesting images, very different from those that can be seen on later Byzantine icons and mosaics. The martyrs differ in age and the shape of their beards, but they are all of the same height and all equally courageous. All the martyrs are alike, like sisters: equally young, pretty, beautifully combed and elegantly dressed. The girls are so graceful that it seems as if they are ready to dance.

Interestingly, both the mausoleum and the church contain images of Christ as the Good Shepherd - an image that clearly came from antiquity and is rarely found in later Byzantine icon painting. “I am the good shepherd, the good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep,” says the Gospel of John.

In the mausoleum of Galla, the young Christ in simple clothes modestly sits on a hillock. Sheep are walking around him on the green grass, and he touches one of them affectionately. The liveliness of the pose, like the entire composition, is clearly inherited from antiquity. However, the Good Shepherd does not rely on the shepherd's crook, but on the cross, as if establishing it above the world as a sign of the triumphal march of Christianity.

The good shepherd from the church of San Apolinare no longer takes much interest in his sheep (they are already completely obedient, lined up in a line and do not take their eyes off the Shepherd). Christ is dressed in luxurious clothes, and his gaze is directed into the distance, as he sees completely different flocks of “Christ’s sheep”, eager to touch his teaching.

3.BYZANTINE PAINTING.

Oddly enough, both Renaissance painting and medieval icon painting have a common ancestor - ancient painting, the transformation of which into icon painting began in the days of the first Christians, long before the official establishment of the Christian Church. Canons Icon paintings developed gradually over many centuries.

At a time when Christianity was a prohibited and persecuted religion, the place where believers gathered for joint prayer were secluded places, often catacombs. Christians of Rome and Naples, Kerch and Syracuse, Milos and Alexandria built entire underground labyrinths, which were for them a church, a cemetery, and martyria . The walls of the catacombs were whitewashed and covered with paintings that used the artistic language and subjects of antiquity. There were still many vases, flowers, fruits, animals, cupids. However, gradually the ancient images began to acquire a new, symbolic and allegorical meaning.

For example, the image of the lovely girl Psyche began to be interpreted as an image of the Christian soul. The palm branch - an attribute of imperial triumphs - began to symbolize heavenly bliss. Cupids easily turned into angels. Praying figures appear on the frescoes - figures with raised hands - orants. The vine and the bunch acquired a special meaning - they became a symbol of the main sacrament - the transubstantiation of bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ ( Eucharist ).

The transformation of the traditional antique image of a young sheep shepherd into the image of Christ is interesting. He began to be interpreted as the Good Shepherd (“I am the good shepherd, the good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep,” Gospel of John).

The principle of depicting faces on frescoes also originates in the ancient tradition - the tradition of funerary portraits.

Excellent examples of funerary portraits were discovered in the Egyptian oasis of El-Fayoum ("Fayoum Portraits" of the 1st-2nd centuries, some of which can be seen in the Moscow Museum of Fine Arts). The people in the portraits are, as it were, on the other side of earthly life. Their faces have a stern expression, the gaze of their huge eyes, directed past, through the viewer, sees something inaccessible to the living. This principle was used and developed to the limit in the Byzantine icon painting canon.

Artists are gradually but consciously moving away from the ancient interpretation of the human image in the harmonious unity of its moral and physical perfection, increasingly trying to convey the spiritual essence, neglecting the truthful rendering of the physical appearance. Thus, the Christian iconographic canon began to take shape spontaneously, and only much later was legitimized by the church and tradition.

3.1. Byzantine iconographic canon.

Canon- a set of strictly established rules and techniques for works of art of a given type. The Church “created art, guiding the hands of icon painters with its spiritual experience” (P. Florensky).

The Byzantine iconographic canon regulated:

• range of compositions and plots of sacred scripture
• image of figure proportions
• general type and general facial expression of the saints
• type of appearance of individual saints and their poses
• color palette
• painting technique.

Compliance with all canonical rules inevitably led to ignoring linear perspective and chiaroscuro. After the end of the period of “iconoclasm,” the issue of creating artistic means to embody “holiness” was especially acute. Thanks to the works of John of Damascus, it became clear What what can be depicted on an icon and what cannot be depicted. It remains to find out and regulate what How the appearance of saints and divine scenes should be depicted.

3.2. John of Damascus (c.675 - c.749) - icon painting theorist.

John (John-Mansur), nicknamed Damascene, is a great poet, a major theologian and fighter for Orthodoxy. He was born in Damascus, into a rich and noble Christian family, and received a varied and deep education. The father made sure that the teacher of the gifted and impressionable boy was a Christian. For this purpose, he bought a slave-monk, under whose guidance John studied philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and music. At first, John served at the Umayyad court, then retired to the monastery of St. Sava (near Jerusalem), where he lived until his death.

John of Damascus was a multi-talented person, interesting in many respects. His spiritual heritage is enormous; it constitutes a priceless treasure of the Church. Tradition calls John the author of wonderful church hymns, from which the Christian world still draws wisdom, strength and consolation. It is believed that it was he who composed the Easter canon, the mighty hymn “Having seen the Resurrection of Christ,” and wonderful funeral prayers. The laconicism and liveliness of the language, touching lyricism and depth of thought - all this makes Damascene the greatest poet of Byzantium and the entire Christian world. It is no coincidence that he was nicknamed “golden jet”. He was one of the first to compile a calendar of days of remembrance of Christian saints and ascetics. His musical activity also closely merges with the poetry of Damascus. He owned the first church system of notes and the design of most Christian chants in the collections “Typikon” and “Octoechos”.

John of Damascus is even more famous as a theologian. He created a fundamental work, “The Source of Knowledge,” consisting of three parts: the first, “Dialectics,” expounds the philosophical ideas of Aristotle, the second, “Book of Heresies,” lists and analyzes teachings that contradict Christianity, and the third, “Exact Exposition Orthodox faith", the Orthodox doctrine is systematized.
It was a system of ideas about God, the creation of the world and man, which determined his place in this and the other world. He examined and summarized both the natural scientific ideas of the ancients and the dogmas of his theologian predecessors, and carefully selected those of them that in no way contradicted the canons of the ecumenical councils. Damascene's main method of work was compilation (in accordance with his motto "I love nothing of my own") based on Aristotelian logic. From this point of view, the theology of Damascus, even by medieval standards, was devoid of originality. However, he did what needed to be done: thanks to the elimination of contradictions from church dogmas, Orthodox dogma was brought into a more or less coherent system.

This work had a huge influence on future generations of not only Orthodox, but also Catholic theologians. For the Orthodox Church, the work of John of Damascus is still the main source of the foundations of Christian doctrine.

However, from the point of view of artistic culture, John of Damascus is interesting to us, first of all, as a fierce opponent of “iconoclasm” and the creator of the theory of the Sacred Image, which laid the foundation for the canonization of icon painting.

According to his theory:

1. You can depict saints, but in a symbolic and allegorical form.

2. It is possible and necessary to depict what actually happened (scenes from the Holy Scriptures, Lives of the Saints).

3. You can paint Christ in the form in which he was on earth, but you cannot paint the image of God the Father.

4. Images of saints are necessary - they decorate churches, replace books for the illiterate, and constantly remind of deeds in the name of faith. However, an icon is not a painting, but a sacred image; when we worship an icon, we worship what is depicted on it (the “prototype”), and not the skill of the artist - icons must be anonymous.

5. Icons are miraculous because they carry part of the divine power of the one depicted on them.

He supported the last argument with an example from his own life.

The Caliph suspected John-Mansur of spying for Byzantium and ordered his right hand to be cut off, which was done immediately.

John put the severed hand in place, all night earnestly praying for healing to the icon of the Mother of God, according to legend, painted by the Evangelist Luke himself. The next morning the brush grew back. To commemorate this miracle, Damascus attached a hand cast from pure silver to the silver frame of the miraculous icon as a sign of eternal gratitude. This is how one of the canonical images of the Mother of God arose - the Mother of God of Three Hands.

3.3.Our Lady of Vladimir
(presumably the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century)

For centuries, the work of icon painters was constrained by strict canons, which, it would seem, did not leave the slightest place for creative imagination and human sympathy. And, despite this, how many images were created, full of exciting and deep beauty! Such a unique work of Byzantine art is the Mother of God of Vladimir (unknown author, early 12th century, era of the “Comnenian Renaissance”) - the most revered icon in Rus', with which many pages of Russian history are associated.

It is unknown how and when exactly the icon came to Rus', but it is known that from 1161 it was installed in the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir (the capital of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky), and later transferred to the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Currently, the icon is in the Tretyakov Gallery.

The rare subtlety of execution, the richness of color (all shades of brown, gold and red) speak of the hand of an outstanding master of the Constantinople school. But what is most striking is the extraordinary expressiveness of the mournful face and the touching maternal tenderness with which Mary clung to the baby. The face of the Mother of God with a pure oval, thin nose and large almond-shaped eyes is imbued with genuine human suffering. It seems incomprehensible how the artist managed to achieve such an impression, outwardly in nothing, without going beyond the canon of “Our Lady of Eleus” (“Tenderness”) - a half-length image of the Virgin Mary with Christ clinging to her cheek. Deep sorrow fills Mary’s bowed face, her dark eyes are sad, as in almost all examples of Byzantine art, from which the human smile has disappeared forever.

3.4. The life and work of Theophanes the Greek
(around 1340-1410).

This is one of the few Byzantine icon painters whose name remains in history, perhaps due to the fact that, being in the prime of his creative powers, he left his homeland and worked in Rus' until his death, where they knew how to appreciate the individuality of the painter. This brilliant “Byzantine” or “Grechin” was destined to play a decisive role in the awakening of the Russian artistic genius.

Brought up on strict canons, he already in his youth surpassed them in many ways. His art turned out to be the last flower on the dry soil of Byzantine culture. If he had remained to work in Constantinople, he would have turned into one of the faceless Byzantine icon painters, whose work emanates coldness and boredom. But he didn't stay. The further he moved from the capital, the wider his horizons became, the more independent his convictions.

In Galata (a Genoese colony) he came into contact with Western culture. He saw her palazzo and churches, observed free Western morals, unusual for a Byzantine. The businesslike nature of the inhabitants of Galata was sharply different from the way of Byzantine society, which was in no hurry, lived in the old fashioned way, and was mired in theological disputes. He could have emigrated to Italy, as many of his talented fellow tribesmen did. But, apparently, he was unable to part with the Orthodox faith. He directed his feet not to the west, but to the east. Feofan the Greek came to Rus' as a mature, established master. Thanks to him, Russian painters had the opportunity to get acquainted with Byzantine art performed not by an ordinary master craftsman, but by a genius.

His creative mission began in the 1370s in Novgorod, where he painted the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (1378). Prince Dmitry Donskoy lured him to Moscow. Here Theophanes supervised the paintings of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405). He painted a number of remarkable icons, including (presumably) the famous Our Lady of the Don, which became the national shrine of Russia. Initially, “Our Lady of the Don” was located in the Assumption Cathedral in the city of Kolomna, erected in memory of the victory of the Russian army on the Kulikovo Field. Ivan the Terrible prayed before her as he set out on a campaign against Kazan.

The Russians were amazed by his deep intelligence and education, which earned him fame as a sage and philosopher. “A glorious sage, a very cunning philosopher... and among painters - the first painter,” Epiphanius wrote about him. It was also striking that, while working, he never consulted samples (“copybooks”). Feofan gave the Russians an example of extraordinary creative daring. He created at ease, freely, without looking at the originals. He wrote not in monastic solitude, but in public, as a brilliant improvising artist. He gathered crowds of admirers around him, who looked with admiration at his cursive writing. At the same time, he entertained the audience with intricate stories about the wonders of Constantinople. This is how the new ideal of the artist was defined in the minds of the Russians - the isographer, the creator of new canons.

It is known that in Rus' Theophanes the Greek took part in the painting of dozens of churches. Unfortunately, most of his works have been lost. Unfortunately, it is not known whether a number of first-class works attributed to him belong to him or his students. What is known for certain is that he painted the Church of the Transfiguration in Novgorod. It is generally accepted to classify the work of Theophanes the Greek as a phenomenon of Russian culture. But in fact, he was a man of exclusively Byzantine culture, both as a thinker and as an artist. He was the last Byzantine missionary in Rus'. His works belonged to the past XIV century, crowning his achievements. They were tragic in nature, as they expressed the worldview of the decline of the Byzantine Empire and were imbued with apocalyptic forebodings of the imminent death of the Holy Orthodox Kingdom. They were full of prophecies of retribution to the Greek world, the pathos of stoicism.

Of course, such painting was in tune with the outgoing Golden Horde Rus'. But it absolutely did not correspond to the new moods, dreams of a bright future, of the emerging power of the Moscow kingdom. In Novgorod, Feofan's work aroused admiration and imitation. Victorious Moscow greeted him favorably, but with the brush of Andrei Rublev, he approved a different style of painting - “lightly joyful,” harmonic, lyrical-ethical.

Theophanes was the last gift of the Byzantine genius to the Russian. The “Russian Byzantine”, the expressively exalted Greek, the gloomy “Michelangelo of Russian painting” was replaced by “Raphael” - Andrei Rublev.

4. OTHER TYPES OF BYZANTINE ART.

Secular and church music, theater

Music occupied a special place in Byzantine civilization. The peculiar combination of authoritarianism and democracy could not but affect the nature of musical culture, which represented a complex and multifaceted phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era.

In the V-VII centuries. The formation of Christian liturgy took place, new genres of vocal art developed. Music acquires a special civil status and is included in the system of representation of state power. The music of city streets, theatrical and circus performances and folk festivals retained a special flavor, reflecting the rich song and musical practice of many peoples inhabiting the empire. Each of these types of music had its own aesthetic and social meaning and at the same time, interacting, they merged into a single and unique whole. Christianity very early appreciated the special capabilities of music as a universal art and at the same time possessing the power of mass and individual psychological influence, and included it in its cult ritual. It was cult music that was destined to occupy a dominant position in medieval Byzantium.

Mass spectacles still played a huge role in the life of the broad masses. True, the ancient theater is beginning to decline - ancient tragedies and comedies are increasingly being replaced by performances of mimes, jugglers, dancers, gymnasts, and wild animal tamers. The place of the theater is now occupied by a circus (hippodrome) with its horse shows, which are extremely popular.

In the VIII-XII centuries. A special musical and poetic church art took shape. Thanks to his high artistic merits, the influence of folk music on church music, whose melodies had previously penetrated even into the liturgy, weakened. In order to further isolate the musical foundations of worship from external influences, the canonization of the laotonal system, the “octoecho” (eight notes), was carried out. Ikhos represented certain melodic formulas. However, musical theoretical monuments allow us to conclude that the ichos system did not exclude scale understanding. The most popular genres of church music were the canon (musical and poetic composition during a church service) and the troparion (almost the main unit of Byzantine hymnography). Troparions were composed for all holidays, all solemn events and memorable dates. The progress of musical art led to the creation of musical notation, as well as liturgical handwritten collections in which chants were recorded (either just the text or text with notation). Social life also could not exist without music. The book “On the Ceremonies of the Byzantine Court” reports almost 400 chants. These are procession songs, and songs during equestrian processions, and songs at the imperial feast, and acclamation songs, etc.

From the 9th century In the circles of the intellectual elite, interest in ancient musical culture grew, although this interest was predominantly of a theoretical nature: attention was attracted not so much by the music itself, but by the works of ancient Greek music theorists.

Literature

The general decline in creative activity during the “Dark Ages” had a particularly strong impact on the state of Byzantine literature. Vulgarization, lack of literary taste, “dark” style, stereotyped characteristics and situations - all this established itself for a long time as the dominant features of works of literature created in the second half of the 7th - first half of the 9th century. Imitation of ancient models no longer found an echo in society. The main customers and connoisseurs of literary work were the black clergy. Monks were often the authors of lives. Hagiography and liturgical poetry came to the fore. Preaching asceticism, humility, hopes for a miracle and otherworldly reward, glorifying religious feat is the main ideological content of literature of this kind.

Byzantine hagiography reached particular heights in the 9th century. In the middle of the 10th century. about one and a half hundred of the most popular lives were processed and rewritten by the prominent chronicler Simeon Metaphrastus (Logothetus). The decline of the genre became apparent in the 11th century: instead of naive but lively descriptions, dry schemes, stereotyped images, and stenciled scenes of the lives of saints began to dominate.

At the same time, the hagiographic genre, which invariably enjoyed wide popularity among the masses, had a noticeable influence on the development of Byzantine literature in both the 10th and 11th centuries. Vulgarization was often combined with vivid imagery, realistic descriptions, vitality of details, and dynamism of the plot. Among the heroes of the lives there were often the poor and the offended, who, committing martyrdom for the glory of God, boldly entered into the struggle with the strong and rich, with injustice, untruth and evil. The note of humanism and mercy is an integral element of many Byzantine lives.

Religious themes dominated this era in poetic works as well. Some of them were directly related to liturgical poetry (church chants, hymns), some were dedicated, like hagiography, to the glorification of religious feats. Thus, Fyodor the Studite sought to poeticize monastic ideals and the very routine of monastic life. The revival of the literary tradition, which consisted of focusing on the masterpieces of antiquity and reinterpreting them, became especially noticeable in the 11th-12th centuries, which affected the choice of plots, genres, and artistic forms.

As in antiquity, epistolography, replete with reminiscences from ancient Greco-Roman mythology, became a means of vividly emotional storytelling and self-expression of the author, rising to the level of exquisite prose. During this period, plots and forms of both Eastern and Western literature were boldly borrowed. Translations and revisions from Arabic and Latin are carried out. Experiments with poetic compositions in popular, spoken language appear. For the first time in the history of Byzantium since the 4th century. took shape and began to gradually expand from the 12th century. cycle of vernacular literature. The enrichment of the ideological and artistic content of literature by strengthening the folk tradition and heroic epic is most clearly represented in the epic poem about Digenis Akritos, created on the basis of a cycle of folk songs in the 10th-11th centuries. Folklore motifs also penetrate into the Hellenistic love-adventure novel, which was revived at that time.

The 11th century was a period of extraordinary growth book miniature. The center for the creation of truly magnificent codices was the imperial scriptorium in Constantinople. Here, by order of the emperors, real masterpieces of book miniatures were created. These include the manuscript “The Word” of John Chrysostom, made for Emperor Nicephorus Botaniates (1078-1081). One of the miniatures depicts Nikephoros Votanian himself in magnificent imperial robes, oriental (Armenian) features appear in his face, which speaks of the portrait resemblance captured by the artist.

Book miniatures are an important branch of Byzantine art. In ideological, stylistic and subject terms, it went through the same stages of development as monumental painting and icon painting. Byzantium inherited from antiquity a special love for books. Until the 9th century. Uncial writing with large letters dominated in the empire; it was used to create luxurious codes. From the 11th century minuscule was introduced, a small letter created on the basis of italics and suitable for business documents and letters. In the XI-XII centuries. a mixed minuscule dominated, combining beauty and elegance with practicality. The Book Code of Byzantium, as a rule, is a work of art where calligraphic handwriting, miniatures, headpieces and initials of letters are harmoniously combined. The format of the codex, artistic decoration, binding, and the color of parchment or paper were also carefully thought out. Paper came to Byzantium from the Arabs in the 10th-11th centuries, but for a long time both writing materials were used in the production of book codices: parchment and paper. Byzantine writing was more unified than in the West. The spread of literacy in Constantinople and other Byzantine cities amazed the Crusaders. Throughout Byzantine literature, heroes can read and write. Reed feathers or bird feathers were used for letters. The ink was made from a mixture of soot and gum or the sap of various plants. Paintings preserve images of books in the form of scrolls and codices, as well as pera-kalam.

Constantinople book miniatures reached amazing brilliance and perfection in the 11th and especially in the 12th centuries. A subtle, calligraphically clear ornament, a warm, yellowish parchment background, brown ink, an abundance of gold in the decoration, a soft color scheme of miniatures, classical proportions of the figures, the lightness and ease of their poses - all this creates a charming impression. In the 12th century. miniatures of book codes become especially colorful, their decor is complemented by the introduction of architectural landscapes, complex ornamentation, the movements of the figures become more impetuous and expressive, and a golden background is widely used. From the 12th century A fairly large number of monuments of Byzantine miniatures have been preserved; now they are stored in the libraries of many European countries, including our country. Among them, the manuscript of the works of Monk Jacob (XII century) with beautiful miniatures stands out. The multi-figure miniature “The Ascension of Christ” is especially impressive. The Ascension scene takes place in the colonnade of a huge Byzantine temple, topped with five domes and decorated with mosaics and various stones. The figures of Mary and the apostles are depicted in living, confused poses, the figure of Christ is placed in a medallion, carried into heaven by angels. The high artistic qualities and exceptional skill of the creators of these monuments put them in a prominent place among the works of medieval book miniatures. They find worthy parallels in Europe, perhaps, only in French manuscripts of the 13th-14th centuries.

The X-XII centuries - the period of a new rise in Byzantine monumental art and architecture - were also marked by the flourishing applied arts: jewelry making, bone and stone carving, production of glassware, ceramics and artistic textiles. Artistic creativity in Byzantium was subordinated to a single system of worldview, philosophical and religious worldview, and common aesthetic principles. Therefore, all types of art were closely connected with each other by a single system of artistic values, common themes, stylistic and compositional principles. Book miniatures and applied art also obeyed these general laws, although to varying degrees. Their evolution followed the qualitative changes in the entire artistic system of Byzantine society. Therefore, in Byzantium, like nowhere else in the medieval world, an organic artistic synthesis of architecture, painting, sculpture, and applied art was observed. Applied art in Byzantium, in addition to practical functions, often had a sacred, representative, symbolic purpose. Hence the highest aesthetic demands placed on the art of small forms. Church utensils, imperial regalia, clothing of church hierarchs and court nobility, reliquaries and caskets of emperors and empresses, luxurious jewelry worn not only by basilissas and court ladies, but also by emperors, high officials, and clergy - all these decorations often became an unattainable model for artists from other countries.

In the X-XII centuries. Constantinople remained the center of production of precious items of applied art. The products of the capital's craftsmen were famous for their refined taste and technical perfection. Luxury items decorated the palaces of the basileus, the mansions and estates of the nobility, and the interiors of temples. Works of Byzantine applied art were highly valued far beyond the borders of the empire.

The Byzantine Empire reached the highest level of development in this era. toreutics- production of artistic products from gold, silver, bronze and other metals. Religious objects - reliquaries, lamps, chandeliers, forged temple gates with reliefs, folds with samples of saints, frames of icons and books and many types of church utensils were true works of art.

Metal products were extremely widespread in the everyday life of emperors and the highest Byzantine aristocracy. Musical instruments, caskets, various dishes, dishes, bowls, cups made of gold and silver formed a necessary part of the court life of the empire and the imperial palace.

The dawn of applied art in the X-XII centuries. was associated with the triumph of the aesthetics of ceremony, pomp, and the cult of the emperor. The pomp of ceremonies, refined court etiquette, festive splendor, the splendor and elegance of court life, the ritual of processions and solemn religious rituals - all this gave rise to the aesthetics of light, splendor, and beauty. Hence the special love of the Byzantine aristocracy for products made of precious materials, toreutics, stones, shiny utensils, gold-woven clothes and the luxurious decoration of palaces and temples.

Wonderful works of applied art were at the same time an instrument of politics and diplomacy - the distribution of awards, gifts to temples and monasteries, bribery of the rulers of foreign states and their ambassadors, which contributed to the dissemination of precious works of art by Byzantine masters far beyond the borders of the empire. Complex ornamental motifs, combined with Christian subjects, penetrate the decoration of icon frames and liturgical books. Carpet patterns with foliage patterns, palmettes, and vines are often similar to the patterns of the headpieces of illuminated manuscripts. On secular objects - bowls, dishes, goblets - biblical and ancient motifs, scenes of myths and hunting, rich ornamentation - sometimes of an oriental character - coexist. Of course, mass production of metal was also widespread for the general population of the Byzantine state. Along with mosaics, toreutics and jewelry, the most striking manifestation of Byzantine artistic genius was cloisonne enamels on gold. Refined linear stylization, polychrome, brilliant golden background, purity and brightness of local colors, nobility of color combinations, spirituality of images - these are the characteristic features of Byzantine enamels, making them similar to the best works of monumental painting and book miniatures. Quite a few masterpieces of high art by Byzantine enamellers have been preserved. One of the first places among them belongs to the famous Pala d'Oro, distinguished from the Cathedral of St. Stamp in Venice. The Pala d'Oro is an altarpiece consisting of 83 gold enamel plates of Byzantine origin. In the center there is an image of Christ, on other enamels there are reproductions of biblical scenes, in particular a portrait of Basilissa Irina. This famous work was created at different times, but the best enamels date back to the 12th century. No less famous are the two crowns of the Hungarian kings, given to them by the Byzantine emperors. The first of them is a gift from Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh to the Hungarian King Andrew I (1047-1061). The crown consists of seven gold wings with cloisonné enamel, depicting Constantine IX Monomakh standing between his wife Zoe and her sister Theodora. The figures of dancers and the ornament of stylized birds and plants, located on the sides of the Byzantine rulers, testify to the lasting influence of Arab art on Byzantine artistic creativity of the 11th-12th centuries. Another crown was created in several stages. Originally it was a diadem with the image of Emperor Michael II Duka - a gift to the wife of the Hungarian king Geiza. In the second half of the 12th century. under the Hungarian king Bela III, the diadem was converted into a crown with a spherical top.

The applied art of Byzantium, which gave the world so many beautiful masterpieces, reflected the tastes, aesthetic ideas and interests of various social strata of Byzantine society. At its core, it was more closely connected with folk culture, often nourished by images and ideas generated by the social psychology of wide circles of the empire's population. At the same time, it was simultaneously subordinate to the general ideological principles and artistic canons that prevailed in Byzantine society. Craftsmen, naturally, had to take into account the tastes of noble customers, the imperial palace, and the church. And yet applied art more boldly moved away from thematic and stylistic cliches, drawing new impulses from the popular social consciousness, from the creativity of the masses.

CONCLUSION.

You can talk about Byzantium endlessly, but this is already the lot of specialists. At this stage in this work, the following conclusions can be drawn.

Preserving in its depths the fruits of ancient civilization, Byzantium served as an abundant source of knowledge and enlightenment for Western European peoples. Until the end of the 12th century, it is safe to say that Byzantium stood at a height unattainable for Western peoples in the field of theology, philosophy and literature.

The process of development of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had eras of rise and decline, periods of triumph of progressive ideas and dark years of domination of reactionary ones. But the sprouts of the new, living, advanced sprouted sooner or later in all spheres of life, at all times.

The experience of Byzantium played a significant role in the cultural development of the countries of Europe and the East, in the formation of the ideas of the Renaissance. She had a huge influence on the development of Orthodox culture in Eastern Europe and, especially in Ancient Rus'.

A brief dictionary of art historical terms.

Abse (apse) - a protrusion in the eastern part of the temple, semicircular or polygonal, covered with a semi-dome (conch). An altar was placed inside the apse.

The altar (from the Latin “alta ara” - high altar) is the main part of the Christian temple, located in its eastern part. In an Orthodox church it is separated by an altar partition or iconostasis. The altar housed a throne - an elevation for the celebration of the main Christian sacrament - the Eucharist.

A folding altar is an icon consisting of several folding boards covered with picturesque images on both sides (diptych, triptych, polyptych).

An altar barrier is a low wall or colonnade that fences off the altar part of the temple in Orthodox churches (from the 4th century). She separated the clergy from the laity and gave the Eucharist a special solemnity, shrouding it in secrecy.

Ambon - (from Greek) - an elevation in the center of the temple, from which sermons were delivered and the Gospel was read. As a rule, it was surrounded by columns carrying a roof (ciborium).

Flying buttress is an open semi-arch that serves to transfer pressure to the buttresses of the temple.

Atrium is an enclosed courtyard into which the rest of the rooms open.

The basilica is a rectangular building in plan, divided by columns (pillars) into several longitudinal galleries (naves).

Baptistery - baptismal place. A small centric building, round or octagonal in plan (example - the Baptistery in Ravenna, Italy).

Byzantine antique - works of early Byzantine art (IV-VII centuries), made in the ancient style. An example is silver dishes depicting scenes from ancient mythology and traditional ancient subjects - Silenus and Minada, Ajax and Odysseus, a shepherd with goats, frolicking dolphins, etc. All this is so reminiscent of the monuments of classical antiquity that only the Byzantine mark on silver made it possible to give them an accurate dating.

Deaconnik is a room in the altar part of an Orthodox church to the south of the altar.

The Eucharist is the main Christian sacrament - the Transubstantiation of the Holy Gifts, i.e. the transformation of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ.

Eleus - (“tenderness”) - one of the canonical images of the Mother of God (half-length image, Jesus touches the cheek of the Mother of God).

The altar is a room in the altar part of an Orthodox church to the north of the altar.

Keystone - a stone that ends a vault or arched opening.

Icon (from the Greek “image”) is a symbolic, allegorical image of the faces of saints and scenes of Holy Scripture, serving as an object of worship.

Iconography is a type of medieval monumental and easel painting with a clearly defined canon.

Canon is a set of strictly established rules that define the basic set of plots, proportions, compositions, designs, and colors for works of art of a given type.

A buttress is a vertical massive protrusion of a wall that strengthens the main supporting structure.

Concha - a semi-dome above the apse, niche. Often made in the form of a shell.

Dome - a covering in the form of a hemisphere, an overturned bowl, etc.

Martyrium is a type of early Christian funeral temple over the grave of a martyr.

Mosaic is a favorite type of monumental painting in the Middle Ages. The image is made from pieces of colored glass - smalt, natural stones. The pieces of smalt and stone have an irregular shape; the light on them is refracted many times and reflected at different angles, creating a magical shimmering glow that flutters in the semi-darkness of the temple.

Naos is the central part of the Byzantine cross-domed church, topped by the main dome.

Narthex is an extension on the western side of the temple, giving the building a more elongated rectangular shape. It was separated from the central part of the temple - the naos - by a wall with arched openings leading to each of the naves.

Rib - an arched rib in Gothic vaults.

Nave - (from the Greek "neus" - ship) - internal, separated from the others by a row of columns, part of the basilica.

Oranta - ("praying") - one of the three canonical images of the Mother of God (with her hands raised up). Palazzo is a palace, a city mansion in southwestern Europe.

A sail is an element of a dome structure in the shape of a spherical triangle. The main dome rests on the sails.

Plinth is a flat brick (usually 40x30x3 cm), a building material and an element of external decorative decoration of temples.

A portal is a decoratively designed doorway of a building.

Sredokrestie is the intersection of the central nave of the cross-domed church with the transept.

Travea is the space of the nave under the vault.

Transept is the transverse nave of a cross-domed church.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. World history of state and law. Encyclopedic Dictionary. / Edited by A.V. Krutskikh. – M.: Infra-M, 2001.

2. Culture of Byzantium. In 3 volumes - M., 1984-1991.

3. Internet resources.

Abstract topic: “The Art of Byzantium”

Introduction 1

1. History of Byzantium 2

1.1. Time of Emperor Justinian 2

1.2. Period of “iconoclasm” 4

1.3. Byzantine Renaissance 5

2. Architecture of Byzantium 8

2.1. Byzantine cross-domed temple 9

2.2. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia and Church of San Apolinare 10

3. Painting of Byzantium 12

3.1. Byzantine iconographic canon 12

3.2. John of Damascus 13

3.3. Our Lady of Vladimirskaya 14

3.4. The life and work of Theophanes the Greek 15

4. Other types of art of Byzantium 16

Conclusion 20

Brief dictionary of art historical terms 21

List of used literature 23

The historical and cultural significance of Byzantium is difficult to overestimate. In Russia, the Byzantine heritage can be found in both the spiritual and material spheres of life. went through several stages, and even in modern culture and architecture there are signs of this influence. In a global sense, Russian culture has become the main successor and continuer of the traditions and spiritual canons of Byzantium.

Origins of the Byzantine style

The collapse of the Roman Empire in 395 led to the emergence of a new empire, later called Byzantium. She is rightfully considered the successor of ancient traditions, culture and wisdom. The Byzantine style arises as a result of the concentration of existing architectural techniques. The architects of the new state immediately set themselves the task of surpassing Roman achievements. Therefore, having organically absorbed all the best that was invented by the Romans and Greeks, they create new masterpieces, accept the challenges of the time and find new constructive and planning solutions.

The formation of Byzantine culture occurred not only on the reproduction and improvement of the ancient Greco-Roman experience, but is also associated with a strong Eastern influence, which was reflected in the desire for luxury, scale, and decoration.

Due to the fact that the eastern branch of Christianity was establishing itself in Constantinople, the country needed new churches. A new ideology also needs its own surroundings. These problems are solved by the best artists of the world, who flock to Constantinople and create unique works, which become a new religious, cultural, state and architectural canon.

Features of the Byzantine style

The architects of Constantinople had to solve several important design problems that mainly appeared in temple architecture. The cathedral in Orthodoxy was supposed to make an indelible impression on the viewer with its scale and splendor; the temple was associated with the Kingdom of God and therefore the architects needed new means of expression, which they searched for. The basis for the layout of the Byzantine temple was not a Greek cathedral, but a Roman basilica. The walls of the cathedrals were built of brick with large layers of fastening mortar. This led to the formation of a distinctive feature of Byzantine buildings - facing buildings with brick or stone of dark and light colors. Arcades of columns with basket-shaped capitals were often placed around the façade.

The Byzantine style is associated with the cross-domed type of cathedral. The architects managed to find a simple solution for connecting a round dome and a square base, which is how “sails” appeared, which created a feeling of harmonious integrity. Narrowed windows with a rounded top, placed two or three side by side, are also an important feature of Byzantine buildings.

The external decoration of buildings was always more modest than the interior decoration - this is another feature of Byzantine buildings. The principles of interior design were sophistication, richness and grace; they used very expensive, spectacular materials that made a strong impression on people.

Influence of Byzantium on medieval architecture

In the Middle Ages, the influence of Byzantium spread to all European countries; it was political, economic and spiritual. The Byzantine style in medieval architecture turned out to be a powerful resource for renewal. Italy to a greater extent adopted the innovations of Byzantine architecture: a new type of temple and mosaic technique. Thus, in Ravenna, on the island of Torcello, in Palermo they became signs of this Byzantine influence.

Later the trends spread to other countries. Thus, the cathedral in Aachen in Germany is an example of Byzantine influence through the prism of Italian masters. However, Byzantium had the most powerful impact on those countries that adopted Orthodoxy: Bulgaria, Serbia, Armenia and Ancient Rus'. There is real cultural dialogue and exchange here, which leads to significant modernization of existing architectural traditions.

The influence of Byzantium on the architecture of Ancient Rus'

Everyone knows the story of how the Russian delegation, which visited Rome and Constantinople in search of a suitable religion, was shocked by the beauty of the Hagia Sophia, and this decided the outcome of the matter. From this time on, a powerful transfer of traditions, texts, and rituals to Russian soil began. An important aspect in this process is temple architecture, which is actively beginning to develop in a new form. The Byzantine style appeared due to the fact that entire teams of craftsmen came to Ancient Rus' to build cathedrals, transfer skills and form a new image of the country. Also, many architects visit Constantinople, learning the wisdom and tricks of construction.

Russian masters, starting from the 10th century, not only adopted Byzantine traditions, but also enriched them, supplementing them with solutions and details necessary for local churches. The traditional cross-domed Byzantine church in Rus' is acquiring additional naves and galleries for greater capacity. To create buildings in a new style, accompanying craft trends appear: brick making, bell casting, icon painting - all of this has Byzantine roots, but is processed by Russian craftsmen in the spirit of national art. The clearest example of such processing is the Cathedral of Sophia of the Wisdom of God in Kyiv, where the three-nave Byzantine form becomes five-nave and is also equipped with galleries, and the five chapters are supplemented by 12 more small chapters.

Byzantine model of the temple

The Byzantine style in architecture, the features of which we are considering, is based on the innovative layout of the temple. Its features were born from purely utilitarian needs: increasing the space of the temple, a simple connection between the dome and the base, sufficient illumination. All this led to the formation of a special type of structure, which subsequently changed the entire temple architecture of the world. The traditional Byzantine temple had a square or rectangular base and a cross-dome structure. Apses and galleries adjoin the central part. The increase in volume led to the appearance of additional supports in the form of columns inside; they divided the cathedral into three naves. Most often, a classical temple had one chapter, much less often 5. Windows with an arched opening were combined in groups of 2-3 under a common arch.

Features of the Byzantine style in Russian temple architecture

The first constructions of the temples of the new church were according to the Russian tradition; the Greeks could not influence them, since they built their temples from brick and stone. Therefore, the first innovation is multi-headedness, which was actively introduced into architectural solutions. The first stone church in Rus' appears at the end of the 9th century and has a cross-domed design. The temple has not survived to this day, so it is impossible to talk about its specifics. For churches in Rus', volume was very important, so even the first architects were forced to solve the problem of increasing the internal space of the temple by building additional naves and galleries.

Today, the Byzantine style in Russia, photos of buildings of which can be seen in many guidebooks, is represented by several main regions. These are buildings in Kyiv and Chernigov, Novgorod region, Pechery, Vladimir, Pskov region. There are many temples preserved here that have obvious Byzantine features, but are independent buildings with unique architectural solutions. The most famous include the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov, the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, and the Trinity Church in the Pechersky Monastery.

Byzantine style in European architecture

The state of Byzantium, which existed for more than 10 centuries, could not help but leave its mark on world history. In the architecture of Europe today you can see visible features of the Byzantine heritage. The period of the Middle Ages, when architects adopted the innovative ideas of their colleagues and built churches, was richest in borrowings and continuity, for example, in Italy, which was most susceptible to Byzantine influence. The Venetian Republic was greatly influenced by the artists who came from Byzantium and the huge number of artifacts brought here after the capture of Constantinople. Even the Cathedral of San Marco in Venice includes many Byzantine motifs and objects.

The architecture of Byzantium played an equally important role during the Renaissance. The dominant central-dome type of structure, which came from this country, is becoming widespread. Features of Byzantine temples can be found not only in religious buildings, but also in secular buildings. Architects, from Brunelleschi to Bramante, the elements and design solutions of the Byzantines are clearly visible in such famous buildings as the Cathedrals of St. Peter in Rome, St. Paul in London, and the Pantheon in Paris.

The Byzantine style in European architecture as such did not develop, if you do not take into account the Orthodox countries, but the elements of this system of architecture are still visible, they are rethought, modernized, but are the basis on which the architecture of Europe grows. Byzantium became a place for preserving ancient traditions, which then returned to Europe and began to be perceived by it as its historical roots.

Formation of the Russian-Byzantine style

The Byzantine style in Russian architecture is the result of centuries of rethinking and reworking the ideas of architects from Constantinople. This style, in which Eastern and Russian ideas already coexist on equal terms, was formed in the mid-19th century. It was then that architecture began to flourish, in which the achievements of Byzantine architects were creatively reworked, supplemented and applied in a new way. Therefore, the Byzantine style in Russia of the 19th century is not copying the achievements of Constantinople, but the creation of buildings “based on”, with a greater inclusion of Russian ideas themselves.

Periodization of the Byzantine style in Russian architecture

What is referred to in architectural theory as the “Byzantine style” was formed in the mid-19th century. Architect K. A. Ton became its ideologist and propagandist. Harbingers of the style appear in the 20s of the 19th century, they are noticeable in such buildings as in Kyiv, the Church of Alexander Nevsky in Potsdam.

But the first period of formation of the style occurred in the 40s and 50s, it is especially noticeable in the buildings of A.V. Gornostaev and D. Grimm. The second period is the 60s, when, in the spirit of dominant eclecticism, buildings were created that boldly mixed Byzantine and Russian features. During this period, the style was especially visible in the buildings of G. G. Gagarin, V. A. Kosyakov and E. A. Borisov.

The 70-90s were a time of more complex style; architects strived for greater decoration and the introduction of multi-style details into their buildings. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and at the beginning of the 20th century, the Byzantine style in Russia began to be interpreted more and more freely, uniting in the spirit of the advancing modernity with other styles. In the 90s of the 20th century, a pseudo-Byzantine style appeared, in which later layers are visible, but original features are discernible.

Reflection of the Byzantine style in the interior

The style of Constantinople was especially clearly manifested in the design of the interior decoration of buildings. Interiors in the Byzantine style are characterized by rich decoration and the use of expensive materials: gold, bronze, silver, expensive stone, precious wood. A striking feature of interiors in this style are mosaics on the walls and floor.

Reflections of the Byzantine style in Russian architecture of the 19th century

The most vibrant period in architecture based on the traditions of Constantinople occurred in the mid-19th century. At this time, the Byzantine style in the architecture of St. Petersburg became leading. The most striking examples of buildings in this style are in Galernaya Harbor (Kosyakov and Prussak), the Greek Church of Dmitry of Thessalonica (R.I. Kuzmina), and the Shtol and Shmit Trading House (V. Schroeter). In Moscow, these are, of course, Ton’s buildings: the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace.

Byzantine motifs in 20th century architecture

The post-Soviet period with its restoration of Orthodoxy led to the fact that the Byzantine style in Russian architecture again became relevant. Buildings in the Russian-Byzantine style appeared in many cities of Russia. A striking example is the Church on the Blood in the name of All Saints in the Russian Land who have shone in Yekaterinburg, designed by K. Efremov.

At the turn of the 20th-21st centuries, the so-called “second Russian-Byzantine style” was emerging, which appeared in new temple buildings. It includes such cathedrals as in Izhevsk, the Church of the Nativity of Christ in the Nativity of Christ in Moscow and numerous buildings in all corners of the country. This indicates that the ideas of Byzantium deeply penetrated Russian culture and are already inseparable from it today.

Modern buildings in Byzantine style

Modern architects, especially in temple architecture, return again and again to the traditions of Constantinople as a source of traditional solutions. They are, of course, being rethought, taking into account new technologies, but the spirit of Byzantium is felt in them. We can safely say that today the Byzantine style is alive in Russian architecture. Examples of this can be found in many cities of the country: the Church of the Holy Myrrh-Bearing Women in St. Petersburg, St. Nicholas Church in Nadym, St. Seraphim Church in Murom, etc.

Details Category: Fine arts and architecture of ancient peoples Published 01/28/2016 16:53 Views: 11648

“Byzantium created a brilliant culture, perhaps the most brilliant that the Middle Ages knew, undoubtedly the only one that before the 11th century. existed in Christian Europe.

Constantinople remained for many centuries the only great city of Christian Europe, unrivaled in splendor. With its literature and art, Byzantium had a significant influence on the peoples around it. The monuments and majestic works of art that remain from it show us the full splendor of Byzantine culture. Therefore, Byzantium occupied a significant and deserved place in the history of the Middle Ages” (Sh. Dil “Main problems of the Byzantine Empire”).
Byzantine artistic culture became the ancestor of some national cultures, including, for example, ancient Russian culture.
The Byzantine Empire (Byzantium) was formed in 395 as a result of the final division of the Roman Empire after the death of Emperor Theodosius I into western and eastern parts. After 80 years, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, and Byzantium became the historical, cultural and civilizational successor of Ancient Rome for almost 10 centuries.
In 1453, the Byzantine Empire finally ceased to exist under the onslaught of the Ottomans (Ottoman Empire).
The permanent capital and civilizational center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople, one of the largest cities of the medieval world. In South Slavic languages ​​it was called Tsargrad. Officially renamed Istanbul in 1930.

Justinian I. Mosaic from the Basilica of San Vitale (Ravenna)
Byzantium achieved the position of the most powerful Mediterranean power under Emperor Justinian I (527-565).

General characteristics of Byzantine fine art

I-III centuries – early Christian period(period of pre-Byzantine culture).
IV-VII centuries – early Byzantine period. It was called the "golden age" of Emperor Justinian I (527-565).
VIII-early IX centuries. – iconoclastic period at the direction of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (717-741). He issued an Edict banning icons.
867-1056 – Macedonian Renaissance period. Considered the classical period of Byzantine art. XI century - the highest point of the flowering of Byzantine art.
1081-1185 – period of conservatism. The reign of the emperors of the Comnena dynasty.
1261-1453 – period of the Palaiologan Renaissance. This is a time of revival of Hellenistic traditions.

Architecture of Byzantium

From the first days of its existence, Byzantium began to erect majestic structures. Oriental influences were mixed with Greco-Roman elements of art and architecture. Over the entire period of the existence of the Byzantine Empire, many wonderful monuments were created in all regions of the Eastern Empire. To this day, Byzantine motifs can be traced in the art of Armenia, Russia, Italy, France, Arab and Turkish art.

Features of Byzantine architecture

The forms of Byzantine architecture were borrowed from ancient architecture. But Byzantine architecture gradually modified them during the 5th century. developed its own type of structures. These were mainly temple buildings.
Its main feature was a dome to cover the middle part of the building (central dome system). The dome was already known in pagan Rome and Syria, but there it was placed on a round base. The Byzantines were the first to solve the problem of placing a dome over the base of a square and quadrangular plan with the help of so-called sails.
Sail- part of the vault, an element of the dome structure. By means of a sail, a transition is made from the rectangular base to the domed ceiling or its drum. The sail has the shape of a spherical triangle, with its apex pointing downwards. The bases of the spherical triangles of the sails together form a circle and distribute the load of the dome along the perimeter of the arches.
Inside Byzantine churches, around the middle dome space, with the exception of the altar side, there was a choir-type gallery (an upper open gallery or balcony inside the church, usually at the level of the second floor in the front hall.
In Western European churches, musicians, singers, and an organ are usually placed in the choirs. In Orthodox churches there is a choir (singers and readers).

Vladimir Cathedral in Kyiv. Choirs built above the side naves of the temple

From below, the gallery was supported by columns, the entablature (a beam covering a span or the end of a wall) of which was not horizontal, but consisted of semicircular arches spanned from column to column.

Columns supporting a gallery in the Hagia Sophia
The interior of the building was not distinguished by the richness and complexity of architectural details, but its walls were lined below with expensive types of marble, and at the top, like the vaults, they were richly decorated with gilding, mosaic images on a golden background or fresco paintings.

Interior of St. Sophia Cathedral

Mosaic image of the Virgin Mary
The masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is the St. Sophia Cathedral.

Hagia Sophia (Istanbul)
A former Orthodox cathedral, later a mosque, currently a museum; a world-famous monument of Byzantine architecture, a symbol of the “golden age” of Byzantium. The official name of the monument today is the Hagia Sophia Museum.
For more than a thousand years, St. Sophia's Cathedral in Constantinople remained the largest temple in the Christian world (until the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome). The height of the St. Sophia Cathedral is 55.6 m, the diameter of the dome is 31 m.
Church of Hagia Irene in Constantinople (Istanbul)
Represents something new for the 6th century. a type of basilica in the shape of a cross. The vestibule of the church is lined with mosaics from the time of Justinian. Inside there is a sarcophagus in which, according to legend, the remains of Constantine (Roman Emperor) rest.
After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the church was not converted into a mosque and no significant changes were made to its appearance. Thanks to this, to this day the Church of St. Irene is the only church in the city that has preserved its original atrium (a spacious, high room at the entrance to the church).

Modern church interior

Painting

The main type of painting was icon painting. Icon painting developed mainly on the territory of the Byzantine Empire and countries that adopted the eastern branch of Christianity - Orthodoxy. Icon painting, together with Christianity, came first to Bulgaria, then to Serbia and Rus'.

Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God (early 12th century, Constantinople)
According to church tradition, the icon was painted by the Evangelist Luke. The icon came to Constantinople from Jerusalem in the 5th century. under Emperor Theodosius.
The icon came to Rus' from Byzantium at the beginning of the 12th century. as a gift to the holy prince Mstislav from the Patriarch of Constantinople Luke Chrysoverg. At first, the Vladimir Icon was in the women's monastery of the Mother of God in Vyshgorod (not far from Kyiv). The son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Saint Andrei Bogolyubsky, brought the icon to Vladimir in 1155 (which is why it got its name). Kept in the Assumption Cathedral.
During the invasion of Tamerlane in 1395, the revered icon was moved to Moscow to protect the city from the conqueror. At the site of the “meeting” (meeting) of the Vladimir Icon by Muscovites, the Sretensky Monastery was founded, which gave the name to Sretenka Street. Tamerlane's troops, for no apparent reason, turned back from Yelets, before reaching Moscow, through the intercession of the Mother of God.
In the monumental painting of Byzantium, it became widespread mosaic.

Byzantine mosaic (5th century)

Mosaic from the time of Justinian I

Sculpture

Sculpture in the Byzantine Empire did not receive much development, because The Eastern Church did not take very kindly to statues, considering their worship to be in some way idolatry. Sculptural images became especially intolerant after the resolution of the Council of Nicea in 842 - they were completely eliminated from cathedrals.
Therefore, all that remained for sculpture was to decorate sarcophagi or ornamental reliefs, book bindings, vessels, etc. The material for them was, in most cases, ivory.

Porphyry tetrarchs
Four Tetrarchs- a sculptural composition made of dark red porphyry (dark red, purple rock), mounted in the southern facade of the Venetian Cathedral of San Marco. The statue was made in the first half of the 4th century. and was part of the Philadelpheion of Constantinople (one of the most important city squares of Constantinople), built next to the Column of Constantine (modern Cemberlitas Square).
Famous Barberini diptych- a Byzantine ivory product made in antique style. This depiction of an imperial triumph dates from the first half of the 6th century, and the emperor is usually identified with Anastasius I or, more likely, Justinian I.

Barberini diptych (V-VI centuries)

Arts and crafts

Carving and metal processing were developed, from which embossed or cast relief works were made.
There was another type of work (agemina): on the copper surface of doors or other surfaces, only a slightly in-depth outline was made, which was laid out with another metal, silver or gold. This is how the doors of the Roman basilica of San Paolo fuori le Mura were made, which were destroyed during a fire in 1823, as well as the doors in the cathedrals of Amalfi and Salerno near Naples.
In the same way, altar images, boards for the walls of thrones, frames for the Gospels, arks for relics, etc. were made.
Byzantine craftsmen were especially skilled in enamel products, which can be divided into two types: simple enamel and septum enamel. In the first, indentations were made on the surface of the metal using a cutter according to the design, and powder of a colored glassy substance was poured into these indentations, which was then fused over a fire and firmly adhered to the metal; in the second, the pattern on the metal was indicated by a wire glued to it, and the spaces between the resulting partitions were filled with a glassy substance, which then received a smooth surface and was attached to the metal together with the wire by melting.
An example of Byzantine enamel work is the famous Pala d'oro(golden altar). This is a kind of small iconostasis with miniatures using cloisonné enamel technique, decorating the main altar in the Venetian Cathedral of St. Brand.

Pala d'Oro
The iconostasis contains many miniatures.

Miniature depicting Christ

Jewelry was also made in Byzantium.

Wedding ring, blackened gold (Byzantium)