Human anatomy and physiology. Human anatomy and physiology, basic knowledge
Man is the most advanced living creature living on Earth. This opens up opportunities for self-knowledge and studying the structure of one’s own body. Anatomy studies the structure of the human body. Physiology studies the functioning of organs and the entire human body.
The human body is a kind of hierarchical sequence, from simple to complex:
Cell;
- Textile;
- Organ;
- System.
Cells of similar structure are combined into tissues that have their own clear purpose. Each type of tissue is folded into specific organs, which also carry individual functions. Organs, in turn, form systems that regulate human life.
Each of the 50 trillion microcells in the body performs a specific function. In order to better understand human anatomy and physiology, it is necessary to consider all systems of the body.
For a person to exist fully, 12 systems blink:
Skeletal or supporting (bones, cartilage, ligaments);
- Muscular or motor (muscles);
- Nervous (brain, spinal cord nerves);
- Endocrine (hormonal regulation);
- Blood circulation (responsible for feeding cells);
- Lymphatic (responsible for fighting infections);
- Digestive (digests food, filtering nutrients);
- Respiratory (human lungs);
- Integumentary, protective (skin, hair, nails);
- Reproductive (male and female reproductive organs);
- Excretory (frees the body from excess or harmful substances);
- Immune (responsible for the state of immunity in general).
Skeletal or musculoskeletal (bones, cartilage, ligaments) system
The basis of our movement is the skeleton, which is the main support for everything else. Muscles are attached to the skeleton, they are attached with the help of ligaments (muscles can stretch, but there are no ligaments), thanks to this the bone can be raised or moved back. 
Analyzing the properties of the skeletal system, it can be noted that the main thing in it is support for the body and protection internal organs. The supporting human skeleton includes 206 bones. The main axis consists of 80 bones, the accessory skeleton consists of 126.
Types of human bones
There are four types of bones:
Tubular bones. Tubular bones line the limbs; they are long and suitable for this.
Mixed dice. Mixed dice can contain all of the above types of bone in two or three variations. An example is the bone of a vertebra, collarbone, etc.
Flat bones. Flat bones are suitable for attaching large muscle groups. In them, width prevails over thickness. Short bones are bones in which the length is equal to the width of the bone.
Short bones. Short bones are bones in which the length is equal to the width of the bone.
Bones of the human skeletal system
Main bones of the human skeletal system:
Scull;
- Lower jaw;
- Clavicle;
- Spatula;
- Sternum;
- Rib;
- Shoulder;
- Spinal column;
- Elbow;
- Radial;
- Metacarpal bones;
- Phalanges of the fingers;
- Taz;
- Sacrum;
- Femoral;
- Knee cap;
- Tibia;
- Tibia;
- Tarsal bones;
- Metatarsal bones;
- Phalanges of the toes.
Structure of the human skeleton
The structure of the skeleton is divided into:
Skeleton of the body. The skeleton of the body consists of the spine and rib cage.
- Skeleton of limbs (upper and lower). The skeleton of the limbs is usually divided into the skeleton of the free limbs (arms and legs) and the skeleton of the girdle (shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle).
The hand skeleton consists of:
The shoulder, consisting of one bone, the humerus;
- the forearms, which form two bones (radius and ulna) and hands.
The leg skeleton is divided into three sections:
The thigh, which consists of one bone, the femur;
- lower leg formed by the fibula and tibia);
- the foot, which includes the tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges of the toes.
The shoulder girdle is formed by two paired bones:
Spatula;
- collarbone.
The skeleton of the pelvic girdle consists of:
Paired pelvic bones.
The skeleton of the hand is formed:
Wrists;
- metacarpus;
- phalanges of fingers.
Structure of the human spine
Man became upright thanks to the special structure of his spine. It runs along the entire body and rests on the pelvis, where it gradually ends. The last bone is the coccyx, it is assumed that it used to be the tail. There are 24 vertebrae in the human spinal column. The spinal cord passes through it and connects to the brain.
The spine is divided into sections, there are five in total:
The cervical region consists of 7 vertebrae;
- the thoracic region consists of 12 vertebrae;
- the lumbar region consists of 5 vertebrae;
- the sacral section consists of 5 vertebrae;
- the coccygeal consists of 4-5 rudimentary vertebrae fused together.
Muscular system
The main function of the muscular system is to contract under the influence of electrical impulses, thereby providing the function of movement. 
Innervation occurs at the cellular level. Muscle cells are the structural unit of muscle fiber. Muscles are formed from muscle fibers. Muscle cells have a special function - contraction. Contraction occurs under the influence of a nerve impulse, thanks to which a person can perform actions such as walking, running, squatting, even blinking is performed by muscle cells.
The muscular system consists of three types:
Skeletal (cross-striped);
- Smooth;
- Muscles of the heart.
Striated muscles
Striated muscle tissue has a high contraction rate, so it performs all motor functions.
Striated muscles are:
Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle tissue contracts autonomously under the influence of adrenaline and acetylcholine, and the rate of contraction is noticeably lower. Smooth muscles line the walls of organs and blood vessels and are responsible for internal processes, such as food digestion and blood movement (due to the constriction and dilation of blood vessels).
Muscles of the heart
Cardiac muscle - this consists of striated muscle tissue, but works autonomously.
Nervous system
Nervous tissue serves to receive and transmit electrical impulses. 
Nerve tissue has three types:
The first type perceives signals from the external environment and sends them to the central nervous system. The largest number of receptors are located in the mouth.
The second type is contact neurons; their main task is to receive, process and transmit information; they can also store impulses passing through it.
The third type is motor, they are also called efferent; they deliver impulses to the working organs.
The nervous system is controlled by the brain and consists of billions of neurons. The brain, in combination with the spinal cord, form the central nervous system, and the nerves constitute the peripheral system.
It is fashionable to highlight several main nerve endings:
Brain;
- Cranial nerve;
- Nerve going to the hand;
- Spinal nerve;
- Spinal cord;
- Nerve going to the leg.
Endocrine system
The endocrine system is a set of biologically active elements that regulate growth, weight, reproduction and many other vital processes of the body. 
Hormones are chemical messengers released by the endocrine system into the blood. The glands of the endocrine system are located in the cranium, sternum and abdominal cavity.
Identify the main parts of the endocrine system:
Pituitary;
- Epiphysis;
- Thyroid;
- Thymus (thymus gland);
- Adrenal gland;
- Pancreas;
- Ovaries (produce female sex hormone);
- Testes (produce male sex hormone).
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is one of the main human systems. 
The circulatory system is presented:
Heart;
- Blood vessels;
- Blood.
The heart is a so-called pump that pumps blood in one direction through the circulatory network. The length of blood vessels in the human body is about 150 thousand kilometers, each of which performs an individual function.
Large vessels of the circulatory system:
Jugular vein;
- Subclavian vein;
- Aorta;
- Pulmonary artery;
- Femoral vein;
- Carotid artery;
- Superior vena cava;
- Subclavian artery;
- Pulmonary vein;
- Inferior vena cava;
- Femoral artery.
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system filters intercellular fluids and destroys pathogens. The main functions of the lymphatic system are tissue drainage and a protective barrier. The lymphatic system permeates 90% of the body's tissues. 
High-quality work of the lymphatic system occurs due to the following organs::
The thoracic tributary flows into the left subclavian vein;
- Right lymphatic tributary flowing into the right subclavian vein;\
- Thymus;
- Thoracic duct;
- The spleen is a kind of blood depot;
- The lymph nodes;
- Lymphatic vessels.
Digestive system
Main and main function The digestive system is the process of digesting food. 
The process of digesting food includes 4 stages:
Ingestion;
- Digestion;
- Suction;
- Removal of waste.
Each stage of digestion is assisted by certain organs that make up the digestive system.
Respiratory system
For proper functioning, a person needs oxygen, which enters the body thanks to the work of the lungs - the main organs of the respiratory system. 
First, the air enters the nose, then, after which, passing the pharynx and larynx, it enters the trachea, which, in turn, divides into two bronchi and enters the lungs. Thanks to gas exchange, cells constantly receive oxygen and are freed from carbon dioxide, which is harmful to their existence.
Integumentary system
The integumentary system is the living membrane of the human body. Skin, hair and nails are a “wall” between a person’s internal organs and the external environment. 
The skin is a waterproof shell capable of maintaining body temperature within 37 degrees. The skin protects internal organs from infection and harmful sun rays.
Hair protects the skin from mechanical damage, cooling and overheating. Hair is absent only on the lips, palms and soles of the feet.
Nail plates contain protective function sensitive tips of fingers and toes.
Reproductive system
The reproductive system saves the human species from extinction. Male and female reproductive organs are different in their functions and structure. 
The male reproductive system consists of the following organs:
Vas deferens;
- Urethra;
- Testicle;
- Epididymis;
- Penis.
The structure of the female reproductive system is radically different from the male one:
Uterus;
- Fallopian tube;
- Ovary;
- Cervix;
- Vagina.
Excretory system
Excretory system - removes the original metabolic products from the body, preventing its poisoning. The release of harmful substances occurs through the lungs, skin, liver and kidneys. The main one is the urinary system. 
The urinary system consists of the following organs:
2 kidneys;
- 2 ureters;
- Bladder;
- Urethra.
The immune system
The human body is constantly threatened by pathogenic viruses and bacteria; the immune system is a fairly reliable defense against such exposure. 
The immune system is a collection of leukocytes, white blood cells, they recognize antigens and help in the fight against pathogenic microorganisms.
Finally
Over the course of many centuries, the idea of the structure and functioning of the human body has changed dramatically. Thanks to observations and the emergence of anatomical science, a global study of human physiology became possible.
Anatomy of life and death. Vital points on the human body Momot Valery Valerievich
Brief information on the anatomy and physiology of the human body
To better understand the material presented below, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the elementary fundamentals of human anatomy and physiology.
The human body consists of countless numbers of cells in which certain life processes. Cells in combination with intercellular substance form various types of tissues:
Integumentary (skin, mucous membranes);
Connective (cartilage, bones, ligaments);
Muscular;
Nervous (brain and spinal cord, nerves connecting the center to the organs);
Various tissues, connecting with each other, form organs, which, in turn, united by a single function and connected in their development, form an organ system.
All organ systems are interconnected and united into a single whole - the body.
The following organ systems are distinguished in the human body:
1) motor system;
2) digestive system;
3) respiratory system;
4) excretory system;
5) reproductive system;
6) circulatory system;
7) lymphatic system;
8) sensory system;
9) system of internal secretion organs;
10) nervous system.
The motor and nervous systems are of greatest interest from the point of view of damage to vital points.
ENGINE SYSTEM
The human motor system consists of two parts:
Passive or supporting;
Active or motor apparatus.
The supporting part is called so because it itself cannot change the position of the parts and the entire body in space. It consists of a number of bones interconnected by ligaments and muscles. This system serves as support for the body.
The bones of the skeleton are built from strong bone tissue, consisting of organic matter and salts, mainly from lime; the outside is covered with periosteum, through which blood vessels pass that feed the bone.
The shape of the bones is: long, short, flat and mixed. Let's take a closer look at the supporting part of the motor system. The skeleton of the body consists of the spine, rib cage, bones of the shoulder girdle and bones of the pelvic girdle.
The basis of the skeleton of the body is spine. His cervical department consists of 7 vertebrae, chest- of 12 vertebrae, lumbar- of 5 vertebrae, coccyx- from 4–5 vertebrae. The holes in the vertebrae form in the spine channel. It contains spinal cord, which is a continuation of the brain.
The moving part of the spine is its cervical and lumbar regions. There are 4 bends in the spine: forward - in the cervical and lumbar parts and back - in the thoracic and sacral parts. These curves, together with the cartilage discs lying between the vertebrae, serve as shock absorbers when pushing, running, jumping, etc.
The chest contains the lungs, airways, heart, blood vessels and esophagus.
The rib cage is formed by the thoracic vertebrae, twelve pairs of ribs and the breastbone. The last two rows of ribs have only one attachment, and their anterior ends are free.
Thanks to the special shape of the joints between the ribs and vertebrae, the chest can change its volume during breathing: expand when the ribs are raised upward and narrow when lowered. The expansion and reduction of the volume of the chest occurs due to the action of the so-called respiratory muscles attached to the ribs.
The mobility of the chest largely determines the performance of the respiratory organs and is especially important during intense muscular work, when deep breathing is necessary.
The skeleton of the shoulder girdle consists of collarbone And shoulder blades. The clavicle is connected at one end by a low-moving joint to the sternum, and at the other it is attached to the process of the scapula. Spatula- flat bone - lies freely behind the ribs, more precisely on the muscles, and, in turn, is also covered with muscles.
A number of large back muscles are attached to the scapula, which, when contracted, secure the scapula, creating, in necessary cases, complete immobility with resistance. The process of the scapula forms the shoulder joint with the spherical head of the humerus.
Thanks to the movable connection of the clavicle with the sternum, the mobility of the scapula and the structure of the shoulder joint, the arm has the ability to produce a wide variety of movements.
Pelvis educated sacrum And two nameless bones. The bones of the pelvis are tightly connected to each other and to the spine, since the pelvis serves as a support for all overlying parts of the body. For the heads of the femoral bones of the lower extremities, there are articular cavities on the lateral surfaces of the innominate bones.
Each bone occupies a specific place in the human body and is always in direct connection with other bones, closely adjacent to one or more bones. There are two main types of bone connections:
Continuous connections (synerthroses) - when the bones are connected to each other using a spacer between them made of connective (cartilage, etc.) tissue;
Discontinuous joints (diarthrosis) or joints.
HUMAN SKELETON
Main bones of the body
Torso bones: 80 bones.
Scull: 29 bones.
Torso bones: 51 bones.
Sternum: 1 bone.
Spine:
1. Cervical region - 7 bones.
2. Thoracic region - 12 bones.
3. Lumbar - 5 bones.
4. Sacrum - 1 bone.
5. Coccyx - 4–5 bones.
Bones of the upper limbs(total 64 pcs.):
1. Clavicle - 1 pair.
2. Spatula - 1 pair.
3. Humerus - 1 pair.
4. Radius - 1 pair.
6. Carpal bones - 2 groups of 6 pieces.
7. Hand bones - 2 groups of 5 pieces.
8. Finger bones - 2 groups of 14 pieces.
Bones of the lower extremities(total 62 pcs.):
1. Ilium - 1 pair.
2. Vesicle bone - 1 pair.
3. Patella - 1 pair.
4. Tibia - 1 pair.
5. Tarsal bones - 2 groups of 7 pieces.
6. Metatarsal bones - 2 groups of 5 pieces.
7. Toe bones - 2 groups of 14 pieces.
The joints are quite mobile and therefore special attention is paid to them in martial arts.
Ligaments stabilize joints and limit their movement. Using one or another painful technique, they rotate the joints against their natural movement; in this case, the ligaments are the first to suffer.
If a joint is twisted to the limit and continues to be impacted, the entire joint suffers. The shape of the articular surfaces of bones can be compared to segments of various geometric bodies. In accordance with this, joints are divided into spherical, ellipsoidal, cylindrical, block-shaped, saddle-shaped and flat. The shape of the articular surfaces determines the volume and direction of movements that occur around three axes. Flexion and extension are performed around the frontal axis. Abduction and adduction occur around the sagittal axis. Rotation is performed around the vertical axis. In this case, inward rotation is called pronation, and outward rotation - supination. In spherical ellipsoidal joints of the limbs, peripheral rotation is also possible - a movement in which the limb or part of it describes a cone. Depending on the number of axes around which movements are possible, joints are divided into uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial (multiaxial).
Uniaxial joints include cylindrical and trochlear joints.
Biaxial - ellipsoidal and saddle-shaped.
Triaxial (multiaxial) joints include spherical and flat joints.
The skeleton of the hand is divided into three parts: the shoulder, the forearm, formed by two bones - the ulna and radius, and the hand, formed by 8 small bones of the wrist, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 bones (phalanxes) of the fingers.
The connection of the shoulder with the bone of the scapula and clavicle is called shoulder joint. It allows movements forward, backward, down and up. The connection between the upper arm and the forearm forms the elbow joint. There are mainly two movements at the elbow joint: extension and flexion of the arm. Thanks to the special design of the elbow joint, rotation of the radius, and with it the hand, outward and inward is possible. The connection of bones between the forearm and hand is called wrist joint.
The bones of the skeleton of the lower extremities consist of three parts: hips, shins And feet.
The connection between the femur and the pelvis is called the hip joint. It is strengthened by strong ligaments that limit the backward movement of the leg. The tibia is formed by two bones: tibial And fibular. Contacting its upper end with the lower end of the femur, the tibia forms knee-joint. There is a separate bone in front of the knee joint - knee cap, which is strengthened by the quadriceps tendon. The knee joint can produce flexion and extension of the leg. Therefore, when performing sharp techniques on the legs (especially in the knee joint): impacts, lateral or rotational movements, or excessive extension/flexion (pressure), serious damage is possible. The foot consists of three parts:
Red tarsus, consisting of 7 bones,
Metatarsus - made of 5 bones and
14 finger bones (phalanxes).
The bones of the foot are connected by ligaments and form the arch of the foot, which acts as a shock absorber when pushing or jumping. The connection between the lower leg and the foot is called ankle joint. The main movement in this joint is extension and flexion of the foot. Injuries (sprain, rupture of ligaments, etc.) often occur in the ankle joint with sharp techniques.
JOINTS AND JOINTS OF HUMAN BONES
1. Ligaments of the upper and lower jaw.
2. Shoulder joint.
4. Intervertebral joints.
5. Hip joint.
6. Pubic joint.
7. Wrist joint.
8. Joints of the fingers.
9. Knee joint.
10. Ankle joint.
11. Toe joints.
12. Tarsal joints.
Elbow joint (closed)
Hip joint (closed)
Muscles are the active part of the human locomotor system. The skeletal muscles consist of large number individual muscles. Muscle tissue, consisting of muscle fibers, has the property of contracting (shortening in length) under the influence of irritation brought to the muscles from the brain through the nerves. Muscles, having their ends attached to bones, often with the help of connecting cords - tendons, during their contraction bend, straighten and rotate these bones.
Thus, muscle contractions and the resulting muscle traction are the force that moves parts of our body.
In the thoracic part, the pectoralis major muscle starts from the sternum and collarbone with a wide base and is attached with the other, narrow end to the humerus of the upper limb. The pectoralis minor muscle attaches to the process of the scapula above and to the upper ribs below. Intercostal muscles - external and internal, located between the ribs and in the intercostal spaces.
The abdominal muscles consist of several layers. The outer layer consists of the rectus abdominis muscles, which lie in front as a wide band and are attached above to the ribs, and below to the pubic joint of the pelvis.
The next two layers are formed by the oblique abdominal muscles - external and internal. All preparatory exercises associated with bending the torso forward, to the side and rotating it lead to strengthening the abdominal press.
The back muscles are located in several layers. The muscles of the first layer include the trapezius and broad back. The strong trapezius muscle is located in the upper back and neck. Attaching to the occipital bone of the skull, it goes to the scapula and to the collarbone, where it finds its second attachment.
When the trapezius muscle contracts, it tilts the head back, pulls the shoulder blades together and, pulling up the outer edge of the clavicle and the shoulder blade, raises the arm above shoulder level.
The broad muscle occupies a significant part of the entire back. Covering it, it starts from the sacrum, lumbar and half of the thoracic vertebrae, and attaches to the humerus. The latissimus dorsi muscle pulls the arm back and, together with the pectoralis major muscle, brings it to the body.
For example, if you grab your opponent’s arm, he usually tries to snatch it away by sharply bending the arm at the elbow joint and bringing the humerus toward the body. When bringing the humerus to the body, the latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major muscles play an important role.
Muscles, carrying work trunk extensors are located in the deep layer of the back muscles. This deep layer starts from the sacrum and is attached to all vertebrae and ribs. When working, these muscles have great strength. The posture of a person, the balance of the body, lifting weights and the ability to hold it in the desired position depend on them.
The musculature of the upper limb consists for the most part of long muscles thrown over the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints.
The deltoid muscle covers the shoulder joint. It is attached, on the one hand, to the collarbone and scapula, on the other hand, to the humerus. The deltoid muscle abducts the arm from the body to shoulder level and is partially involved in abducting the arm forward and abducting the arm backward.
HUMAN MUSCLES
Human muscles: front view
1. Palmaris longus muscle.
2. Superficial flexor digitorum.
4. Triceps brachii muscle.
5. Coracobrachialis muscle.
6. Teres major muscle.
7. Latissimus dorsi muscle.
8. Serratus anterior muscle.
9. External oblique abdominal muscle.
10. Iliopsoas muscle.
11.13. Quadriceps.
12. Sartorial muscle.
14. Tibialis anterior muscle.
15. Achilles tendon.
16. Calf muscle.
17. Slender muscle.
18. Superior extensor retinaculum
19. Tibialis anterior muscle.
20. Peroneal muscles.
21. Brachioradialis muscle.
22. Long extensor carpi radialis.
23. Extensor digitorum.
24. Biceps brachii muscle.
25. Deltoid muscle.
26. Pectoralis major muscle.
27. Sternohyoid muscle.
28. Sternocleidomastoid muscle.
29. Chewing muscle.
30. Orbicularis oculi muscle
Human muscles: rear view
1. Sternocleidomastoid muscle.
2. Trapezius muscle.
3. Deltoid muscle.
4. Triceps brachii muscle.
5. Biceps brachii muscle.
6. Flexor carpi radialis.
7. Brachioradialis muscle.
8. Aponeurosis of the biceps brachii muscle.
9. Gluteus maximus muscle.
10. Biceps femoris muscle.
11. Calf muscle.
12. Soleus muscle.
13.15. Peroneus longus muscle.
14. Tendon of the long extensor finger.
16. Iliotibial tract (part of the fascia lata of the thigh).
17. Muscle that tenses the fascia lata of the thigh.
18. External oblique abdominal muscle.
19. Latissimus dorsi muscle.
20. Rhomboid muscle.
21. Teres major muscle.
22. Infraspinatus muscle.
Biceps arm (biceps), being on the anterior surface of the humerus, produces mainly flexion of the arm at the elbow joint.
Triceps muscle (triceps), being on the back surface of the humerus, produces mainly extension of the arm at the elbow joint.
The flexors of the hand and fingers are located on the front of the forearm.
The extensors of the hand and fingers are located on the back surface of the forearm.
The muscles that rotate the forearm inward (pronation) are located on its anterior surface, the muscles that rotate the forearm outward (supination) are located on the posterior surface.
The muscles of the lower extremities are more massive and strong than the muscles of the upper extremities. Starting from the lumbar vertebrae of the inner surface of the innominate bone, the psoas muscle extends in front through the pelvic bones and attaches to the femur. She flexes the thigh at the hip joint. This muscle plays a role in stepping, as the leg is forced into different flexion positions. One of the elements of flexion is the “carry” position, where the leg is raised forward and upward.
The gluteus maximus muscle controls the extension of the hip back. It starts from the pelvic bones and is attached at the lower end to the femur at the back. The hip abductor muscles are located under the gluteus maximus and are called the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus.
A group of adductor muscles is located on the inner surface of the thigh. The strongest of all leg muscles, the quadriceps muscle, is located on the front of the thigh, its lower tendon is attached to the tibia, that is, below the knee joint. This muscle, together with the iliopsoas muscle, flexes (raises) the thigh of the leg forward and upward. Its main action is the extension of the leg at the knee joint (it plays an important role when kicking).
The leg flexors are located primarily on the back of the thigh. The extensors are located on the anterior surface of the lower leg, and the flexors of the foot are located on the posterior surface. The strongest muscle in the lower leg is the triceps muscle (gastrocnemius or "calf"). With its lower end, this muscle is attached by a strong cord, the so-called Achilles tendon, to the heel bone. By contracting, the triceps muscle flexes the foot, pulling the heel upward.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The brain and spinal cord form the so-called nervous system. Through the senses, it perceives all impressions from the outside world and encourages the muscles to make certain movements.
The brain serves as an organ of thinking and has the ability to direct voluntary movements (higher nervous activity). The spinal cord controls involuntary and automatic movements.
As white cords, the nerves that emerge from the brain and spinal cord branch like blood vessels throughout the body. These threads connect the centers with the nerve terminal apparatuses embedded in various fabrics: in the skin, muscles and various organs. Most of the nerves are mixed, that is, they consist of sensory and motor fibers. The former perceive impressions and direct them to the central nervous system, the latter transmit impulses emanating from the central nervous system. nervous system to muscles, organs, etc., thereby causing them to contract and act.
At the same time, the nervous system, having a connection with the outside world, also establishes a connection with the internal organs and supports their coordinated work. In this regard, let us examine the concept of reflex.
For the movement of certain parts of the body, the participation of many muscles is necessary. In this case, not only certain muscles are involved in movement, but each muscle must develop only a strictly defined force of movement. The central nervous system is in charge of all this. First of all, responses to irritation (reflex) always go from it along the motor nerves to the muscles, and through the sensory nerves to the brain and spinal cord. Therefore, the muscles, even in a calm state, are under some tension.
If an order is sent to any muscle, for example, to the flexor, to bend a joint, irritation is simultaneously sent to the antagonist (opposite to the acting muscle) - the extensor, but not of an exciting, but an inhibitory nature. As a result, the flexor contracts and the extensor relaxes. This all ensures consistency (coordination) of muscle movement.
For practical study of the art of hitting vital points, it is especially important to study the nerves of the central nervous system, their roots in the body and the places where they are closest to the surface of the skin. These places are subject to compression and impact.
When a nerve ending is hit, a person feels like an electric shock and loses the ability to defend himself.
There is a division into nerves of the skin, muscles, joints - on the one hand, and nerves regulating internal organs, the circulatory system and glands - on the other hand.
There are four main motor nerve plexuses:
Cervical plexus;
Brachial plexus;
Lumbar plexus;
Sacral plexus.
The nerves responsible for the mobility of the upper limbs originate from the brachial plexus. When they are damaged, temporary or irreversible paralysis of the arms occurs. The most important of these are the radial nerve, median nerve and ulnar nerve.
The nerves responsible for the movement of the lower extremities emerge from the sacral plexus. These include the femoral nerve, sciatic nerve, superficial peroneal nerve, and saphenous nerve of the leg.
All motor nerves usually follow the contours of the bones and form a node with blood vessels. These motor nerves usually run deep within the muscles and are therefore well protected from external influences. However, they pass through the joints and in some cases even come to the surface (under the skin). It is these relatively unprotected places that should be struck.
WAYS TO DAMAGE VITAL POINTS ON THE HUMAN BODY
As already noted in the introduction, the classifications of vital points on the human body are quite diverse. At the same time, the topography of zones belonging to one or another classification group on the human body is often identical, but the results from different lesions can either coincide or be quite different.
An example of the coincidence of topography and the consequences of a lesion is a number of points around the elbow joint (we are not talking about energy points and corresponding methods of destruction here). Anatomically present in this area are: the joint itself, created by the articulation of the humerus, ulna and radius bones, the ulnar and radial nerves, passing in this place almost on the surface, as well as various muscles, some of which are thrown through the joint (not to mention large blood vessels ). Based on this, we can influence the joint by twisting it, bending it, etc., attack the nerves with a blow or pressure, or squeeze and twist the muscles. The consequences of the vast majority of the technical actions listed above are identical - the hand will be immobilized (joint fracture, muscle strain, brief paralysis, etc.).
But a grab and a strike performed in the area of the oblique abdominal muscles will be very different. When grabbed by a muscle, the opponent will feel a sharp pain, perhaps unbearable - but if the grab is released, the pain will stop almost immediately and no serious consequences (except for the usual “bruise” being considered a serious consequence) will not occur. However, if a blow is struck in the same area with sufficient force and at the right angle, the enemy can not only be severely maimed, but also killed almost immediately (which is possible, for example, if the spleen is ruptured).
From here the logical conclusion follows that the difference should be sought not so much in the points themselves, but in the methods of hitting them, which is what we want to say a few words about before we move on to the description of the vital points presented in our book. After the analysis carried out by the author in order to study methods of influencing points in various systems martial arts, a small list has emerged that quite fully reflects the entire range of influences that can be subjected to vital points on the human body. These methods are as follows:
Compression (clamp);
Twisting (twisting);
Squeezing (squeezing);
Pressure (pressing);
Impact (interruption).
All methods can be used either individually or in combination - in any of the groups of techniques presented below.
EFFECTS ON BONES AND JOINTS
A strong blow to a bone can destroy (break) it, which in itself leads to partial immobilization of the part of the body where this or that bone is located. Sharp, shocking pain occurs due to damage to the nerves that run almost close to the bone that is broken.
Therefore, if they want to immobilize an arm or leg, they first of all try to break one or another bone in the corresponding limb using a sharp and strong blow at the right angle, since this sometimes allows one to achieve the maximum possible effect with minimal effort.
In addition, a blow can be used to impact bones for another purpose - to damage nearby organs, nerves or blood vessels with fragments of broken bone or cartilage. For example, a broken rib causes severe pain, but much more serious consequences can occur if rib fragments pierce the lung and blood begins to flow into its cavities. In this case, hemothorax occurs and the person slowly and painfully dies from suffocation.
The joints are affected in order to disrupt their physiological functioning. If a joint is blocked or damaged, it cannot move. Compared to breaking a bone, this is a more gentle method, since it is not at all necessary to completely destroy a joint in order to subjugate the enemy to your will. The fact is that when the joint is impacted, the adjacent ligaments, muscles and nerves also suffer, which leads to severe pain. All this makes the enemy incapable of further resistance. It should be noted that techniques related to this type, can only be applied to the moving joints of the human body.
IMPACT ON MUSCLES
Muscles are most often affected by grasping, pressing or twisting, but impact damage to one or another muscle is also possible. Any effect on a muscle is based on principles common to all methods. As you know, each muscle serves to flex or extend the limbs, turn the head, etc., any movement is accompanied by muscle contraction. Extension or flexion depends on the location of the muscle. A good example biceps and triceps can serve. Here, one muscle is responsible for flexion, and the other for extension of the arm at the elbow joint. If any of these muscles are caught or compressed in a particular sensitive area, they are forced into an unnatural position, which excites the nerves, causing severe pain and local paralysis.
Muscle twisting refers to the stretching and twisting of certain muscle groups. When a muscle becomes pulled and twisted, it temporarily loses its ability to function. Movement of the part of the body for which the muscle is responsible may be difficult or even impossible. In addition, during this exposure the nerves are compressed, which causes severe pain.
Grabbing and pressing techniques do not require much precision, since the target is a specific area, not a point. To effectively influence muscles, it is enough to apply adequate external influence in the form of pressure, twisting or impact.
IMPACT ON THE RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULAR ORGANS
Impact on the respiratory organs can be carried out in three main ways: by squeezing, squeezing or interrupting the windpipe, squeezing the diaphragm or hitting it, and hitting or pressing sensitive points of the so-called. “respiratory” muscles responsible for the expansion and contraction of the ribs. To compress the lungs, one must have a fairly intimate knowledge of the nerves that span the large array of muscles that encircle the lungs. By influencing these nerves, it is possible to force the muscles to contract with such force that the opponent will lose consciousness from pain and as a result of lack of oxygen.
The most accessible areas for pressure to block blood vessels are points located on and near the carotid artery and jugular vein. As a result of blocking of these largest vessels, blood stops flowing to the brain, which leads to loss of consciousness and death. In addition, a correctly delivered blow to the heart, liver, spleen, kidneys or abdominal aorta also leads to very severe damage circulatory system organism, often with fatal consequences.
IMPACT ON NERVES AND INTERNAL ORGANS
The main areas where nerve damage points are located can be considered: nerve connections; unprotected nerves; nerve cavities.
In addition, there are many important points related to both the central and autonomic nervous systems, which are extremely important for defeating the enemy’s internal organs.
Nerve junctions usually refer to points located where nerves cross joints. Places such as knees, wrists, fingers, elbows, and ankles are not protected by muscles. Twisting will easily cause pain and damage. Other places where nerves are close to the surface of the skin may also be attacked.
For example, in the elbow joint, the ulnar nerve is located close to the surface and is not protected by muscles. If the elbow is bent at a certain angle, exposing the nerve, a gentle blow or compression of the area is enough to cause the arm to become numb and lose sensation.
Another example. If you hit your opponent lightly on the outside of the kneecap, it will damage the peroneal nerve. As a result, his leg will become numb and he will be temporarily unable to use it. A weak blow leads to temporary incapacity, a strong one can cripple.
Some joints, such as elbows, knees, shoulders and hips, also have nerves that run within the joint or are protected by a thick layer of muscle. However, other nerves in the same locations - such as those in the armpit or abdomen - are covered only by thin tissue. Depending on the strength of the attack in these areas, you can either temporarily neutralize the enemy, cripple him, or kill him.
Although the nerves of the head, neck and torso are often deep inside and well protected, there are specific points that can be attacked.
In any cavity in the human body, the nerves can be attacked with great effectiveness. A depression is a depression in the body where the covering tissue is soft. For example, the notches above and below the collarbone are where many of the nerves that control arm movement are located. You can also give an example of a depression behind the ear or behind the lower jaw. Many nerves of the brain are located here, these places can be effectively attacked, causing pain, numbness and temporary loss of consciousness in the enemy.
There are many vulnerable points to attack on the neck and back. These points are directly connected to the central nervous system, so exposure to them almost always leads to death.
Active effects on the nerves of the autonomic nervous system can also be fatal. This is possible due to the fact that the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the functions of internal organs. Blows to the liver, spleen, stomach, heart can be fatal if delivered with the proper force and at the right angle. A blow to the solar plexus causes pain and spasms in the abdominal muscles, as well as breathing problems. The enemy is unlikely to be able to provide any effective counteraction after such an impact.
On the next page we provide a list of points described in our book. Since most of these points are taken from Gyokko-ryu, all point names are given in Japanese (their translations are given in parentheses).
We tried to pay enough attention to each point, indicating not only its location, direction of impact and possible consequences of the injury, but also the corresponding anatomical data on the nerves, muscles or internal organs that are targeted. We believe that this data will not be superfluous and the reader will pay enough attention to it when reading the book.
LIST OF POINTS COVERED IN THE BOOK
The crown and articulation of the frontal and temporal lobes of the skull.
- I'm a man(Arrow hitting the head) - base of the back of the head.
- Kasumi(Haze, fog) - temple.
- Jinchu(Human center) - base of the nose and tip of the nose.
- Menbu(Face) - bridge of the nose.
- In(Shadow) - the angle between the upper and lower jaw.
- Happa(Eight ways to leave) - clap on the ear.
- Yugasumi(Evening fog) - soft spot under the ear.
- Hiryuran(Flying dragon hit) - eyes.
- Tenmon(Heaven's Gate) - the protruding edge of the zygomatic bone near the zygomatic cavity
- Tsuyugasumi(The darkness dissipates) - jaw ligaments.
- Mikatsuki(Jaw) - lateral part of the lower jaw on the left and right
- Asagasumi, Asagiri(Morning Fog) - bottom edge
- Uko(Door in the rain) - side of the neck.
- Katyu(Middle of the neck) - back of the neck.
- Matsukaze(Wind in the Pines) - upper and lower ends of the carotid artery
- Murasame(Rain in the village) - in the middle of the carotid artery.
- Tokotsu(Independent bone) - Adam's apple.
- Ryu fu(Breath of the willow) - above and below the Adam's apple.
- Sonu(Trachea) - interclavicular fossa.
- Sakkotsu(Collarbone) - collarbone.
- Ryumon(Dragon Gate) - above the collarbone near the shoulder.
- Dantu(Center of the chest) - the upper part of the sternum.
- Soda(Large Spear) - the seventh protruding vertebra.
- Kynketsu(Forbidden move) - sternum.
- Butsumetsu(Buddha's Death Day) - ribs under pectoral muscles in the front and in the back.
- Jujiro(Crossroads) - right on the shoulder.
- Daimon(Big Gate) - middle of the shoulder at the junction
- Say(Star) - right in the armpit.
- Hurray canon(Externally the devil opens) - lower ribs under the pectoral muscles
Sin tu(Heart center) - the middle of the chest.
- Danko(Heart) - area of the heart.
- Wakitsubo(Side of the body) - last ribs on the side under the arms.
- Katsusatsu(Point of life and death) - spine at lumbar level
- Suigetsu(Moon on water) - solar plexus.
- Inazuma(Lightning) - liver area, “floating” ribs.
- Kanzo(Liver area behind) - back at the lumbar level on the right
- Jinzo(Kidneys) - on both sides of the spinal column just above the katsusatsu point
- Sisiran(Tiger is amazed) - stomach.
- Gorin(Five rings) - five points around the center of the abdomen.
- Kosei(Power of the Tiger) - groin and genitals.
- Kodenko(Small heart) - sacrum.
- Bitey(Coccyx) - at the end of the spine between the buttocks.
- Koshitsubo(Cauldron of the thighs) - the inner ridge of the pelvic bones, the fold of the groin.
- Sai or nasai(Leg) - inside and outside the middle of the thigh.
- Ushiro Inazuma(Zipper at the back) - behind the thigh, starting from the buttocks and to the middle of the muscle
- Ushiro hizakansetsu(Knee joint) - knee joint front and back.
- Uchikorobushi(Shin bone from the inside) - just above the head of the bone from the inside.
- Kokotsu(Small bone) - tibia from the inside.
- Sobi(Gastrocnemius muscle) - calf muscle.
- Kyokei(Hard directions) - on top of the foot.
- Akiresuken(Achilles tendon) - directly above the heel.
- Dzyakkin(Weak muscle) - in the upper part of the arm between the bone and muscle
- Hoshizawa(Cliff under the stars) - “shock” point just above the elbow joint
- Udekansetsu(Arm joint) - area under the elbow.
- Kotetsubo(Forearm point) - radial nerve in the upper part of the forearm
- Miyakudokoro(Inner slope of the cliff) - at the bend of the wrist from the inside.
- Sotoyakuzawa(Outer cliff face) - at the crook of the wrist outside
- Kote(Forearm) - head of the ulna.
- Yubitsubo(Finger cauldron) - the base of the thumb.
- Gokoku(Five Directions) - a point in the hole between the thumb and index finger.
- Haixu(Palm outside) - outer side hands.
VITAL POINTS: FRONT VIEW
VITAL POINTS: SIDE VIEW
VITAL POINTS: REAR VIEW
VITAL POINTS: UPPER AND LOWER LIMITS
1. TEN TO, TEN DO(TOP OF HEAD) - articulation of the frontal and parietal bones of the skull ( TEN TO) and the articulation of the occipital and parietal bones of the skull ( TEN DO)
Skull: top view
With a moderate impact - concussion, loss of coordination of movements, fainting. A strong blow with a fracture of the skull leads to death due to damage from fragments of the parietal bones to the tissues and arteries of the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebrum. The direction of the blow is to the center of the head (the shock wave should ideally reach the corpus callosum, thalamus and then the optic chiasm and pituitary gland).
Brain: direction of blows when hitting points ten then And ten do
2. I'M A MAN(ARROW HITING THE HEAD) - base of the head
Defeat a point I'm Maine largely depends on the direction of the blow, as well as its strength. A light blow directed strictly horizontally leads to muscle spasms of varying severity and headache (symptoms may appear the next day). A blow of the same force, but directed slightly upward, affects the cerebellum and leads to loss of consciousness. A blow of medium strength, directed upward at an angle of about 30 degrees, as well as with a slight deviation to the left or right, causes shock and loss of consciousness due to damage to the occipital nerves and short-term pinching of the spinal cord. A strong blow leads to immediate death due to fracture of the cervical vertebrae (in particular the processes atlanta), infringement of the spinal cord by cartilage fragments or its complete rupture, damage to the occipital and vertebral arteries by bone fragments.
Muscles of the back of the neck and back of the head
3. KASUMI (THIS, FOG)- temple
In case of a moderate impact - painful shock, concussion, loss of consciousness. At strong impact- fracture of flat bones and rupture of the temporal artery. A fracture in the temporal region of the skull involving the anterior and middle branches of the cerebral artery most often causes death. The cerebral artery supplies blood to the skull and the membrane covering the brain. The artery gives branches to the skull and contracts or expands if these branches are ruptured as a result of a fracture, which in best case scenario causes prolonged loss of consciousness.
Arteries of the head
1. Superficial temporal artery.
2. Occipital artery.
3. Sternocleidomastoid muscle (cut and turned back).
4. Lingual nerve cranial nerve XII.
5. Internal jugular vein.
6. Internal carotid artery.
7. Cutaneous branches of the cervical nerve plexus.
8. Cervical lymph node with lymphatic vessel.
9. Place of division of the carotid artery.
10. Temporalis muscle.
11. Maxillary artery.
12. Chewing muscle (together with the zygomatic arch is bent forward).
13. Lower jaw.
14. Facial artery.
15. External carotid artery.
16. Submandibular gland.
17. Larynx.
18. Common carotid artery.
19. Thyroid gland.
20. Posterior cerebral artery.
21. Cerebellar arteries.
22. Vertebral artery.
23. Anterior cerebral artery.
24. Middle cerebral artery.
25. S-shaped segment (carotid siphon) near the base of the skull.
26. Trapezius muscle.
4.JINTHU(HUMAN CENTER) - base of the nose
A split lip, broken or knocked out front teeth and watery eyes are the minimum result. Pain and lacrimation occur due to nerve endings located close to the surface of the skin. The impact may result in a fracture of the upper jaw due to the spherical nature of the skull.
The skull will compress to the limit and then “explode”, leading to a fracture. The broken area is usually on one side or the other, away from the impact point. Painful shock can be fatal.
Facial bones of the skull
5. MENBU(FACE) - bridge of nose
Facial bones of the skull: front and side views
Darkening of the eyes, fracture of the bridge of the nose with severe bleeding. A short-term loss of consciousness is possible. A compound fracture and/or displacement of the nasal bone and septum is the result of a blow to the top of the nose. Needless to say, a hematoma will follow due to the rupture of a large number of blood vessels in the area. Shock and pain can lead to loss of consciousness.
Temporary blindness may result from severe tearing due to damage to pain receptors in the nasal area (damage to the nasal portion of the anterior ethmoidal nerve, a branch of the trigeminal nerve). We must know that in many cases the blow itself cannot cause death, but accidental secondary circumstances arising from the blow inflicted can lead to death.
6. IN(SHADOW) - the angle between the upper and lower jaw
A sharp, shocking pain when the phalanx of a finger is strongly pressed deeply into a point towards the center of the head, leading to an instant spasm of the facial muscles (“grimace of pain”). Damage to the upper part of the facial nerve can lead to partial paralysis of the facial muscles. Possible rupture of the lower jaw ligaments.
Some muscles and nerves of the face
1. Frontalis muscle.
2. Orbicularis oculi muscle.
3. Zygomaticus major muscle.
4. Orbicularis oris muscle.
5. Depressor anguli oris muscle.
6. Superior branch of the facial nerve.
7. Inferior branch of the facial nerve.
8. Facial nerve, exiting the base of the skull.
9. Flat cervical muscle.
7. HAPPA(EIGHT WAYS OF WHITI) - clap on the ear
Ringing in the ears and darkening of the eyes (due to the branching of deep blood vessels in this area of the skull) will be the mildest result of the impact. The facial nerve passes along with the auditory nerve into the inner ear and under the mucous membrane of the middle ear follows to the base of the skull. It can be easily damaged by damage to the middle ear or trauma to the skull, so hearing and balance disorders are often accompanied by paralysis of the facial muscles. Concussion with dysfunction of the vestibular apparatus (from mild to severe), if the blow is delivered correctly. Ruptured eardrums, severe bleeding, deep fainting, shock.
Organs of hearing and balance
1. Lateral ventricle of the brain.
2. Thalamus (diencephalon).
3. Island.
4. Third ventricle (diencephalon).
5. Temporal lobe.
6. The inner ear in the petrous part of the temporal bone - the cochlea and the internal auditory canal.
7. Middle ear with auditory ossicles.
8. External auditory canal and outer ear.
9. Eardrum and lateral semicircular canal.
10. Internal jugular vein.
11. Internal carotid artery and cervical section of the borderline (sympathetic) trunk.
12. Internal capsule.
13. Location of the primary acoustic center of the cortex (the so-called transverse gyrus of Herschl).
14. Location of the secondary acoustic center of the cortex (Wernicke’s speech center).
15. Auditory radiation, bundles of fibers of the central auditory tract.
16. Hippocampal cortex (limbic system).
17. Brain stem (midbrain).
18. Petrous part of the temporal bone.
19. Temporomandibular joint and head of the lower jaw joint.
20. Base of the skull.
21. Maxillary artery.
22. Muscles of the pharynx.
23. Vestibular-auditory nerve.
24. Facial nerve.
25. Internal auditory canal.
26. Snail.
27. Superior semicircular canal.
28. Ampullae of the semicircular canal with vestibular organs to coordinate balance.
29. Posterior semicircular canal.
30. Lateral semicircular canal.
31. Pressure equalization valve.
32. Medium geniculate body.
33. The lateral lemniscus is part of the auditory canal.
34. Cerebellum.
35. Diamond-shaped fossa.
36. Facial nerve canal.
37. Fossa of the sigmoid sinus of the brain.
38. Cast.
39. Furrow.
40. Vertebral artery.
41. The vestibule of the ear labyrinth with an elliptical sac and a membranous vesicle.
8. YUGASUMI(EVENING MIST) - soft place under the ear
Muscles of the head and face
Sharp, shocking pain when struck or pressed backwards inward with a fingertip. The lesion is directed to the facial and abducens nerves. The abducens nerve is the motor nerve of the facial muscles. It enters together with the auditory nerve into the temporal bone, then, close under the mucous membrane of the middle ear, it follows the canal of the facial nerve inside the parotid salivary gland and divides into branches. Damage to the nerve leads to paralysis of the facial muscles (relaxed sagging of the corners of the mouth, lower eyelids, etc.) and facial distortion. Hearing problems also occur. All sounds are perceived as painfully loud (so-called hyperacoustics).
Exit of the facial nerve from the base of the skull
1. Superior branch of the facial nerve.
2. Facial nerve emerging from the base of the skull.
3. Inferior branch of the facial nerve.
9. HIRYURAN(FLYING DRAGON HIT) - eyes
Loss of vision and loss of coordination and space, internal hemorrhage and damage to the cornea of the eye. With deep penetration of fingers into the eye sockets, complete irreparable loss of vision is possible due to the destruction of the eyeballs, rupture of the optic nerve. As a result deep penetration, damage to the cerebral cortex - instant death due to internal hemorrhage.
Organs of vision and eye muscles
2. Lens.
3. Cornea.
4. Sclera and retina.
5. Optic nerve with ciliary nerve.
6. Ring muscle of the eyelid.
7. Muscle that lifts the upper eyelid.
8. The muscle that lifts the eyelid (smooth muscle, contracts involuntarily, automatically).
9. Conjunctiva.
10. Rainbow defense.
11. Ciliary body and suspensory ligament of the lens.
12. Vitreous body (transparent).
13. Optic nerve papilla.
10. TENMON(HEAVEN'S GATE) - the protruding inner edge of the zygomatic bone at the articulation with the frontal bone near the eye socket
Facial part of the skull, side view
Sharp pain, severe hematoma, constant lacrimation, shock due to a fracture and damage to the eye from bone fragments. Temporary or irreversible paralysis of the eye muscles leads to abnormal eye position (squint). If the superior branch of the cranial nerve is damaged, the eyeball may no longer be able to rotate outward. The result will be a convergent squint. If the autonomic (parasympathetic) nerve fibers for the internal eye muscles are damaged, accommodation and pupillary motility may be impaired.
Branching of the cranial nerve (closed)
11. TSUYUGASUMI(THE GLOSS IS DISPERSED) - jaw ligaments
Facial nerves
1. Trochlear nerve going to the oblique superior eye muscle.
2. Nerve of the eye muscles.
3, 4. Glossopharyngeal nvrv.
5. Vagus nerve.
6. Abducens nerve.
Sharp pain, involuntary opening of the mouth, “grin of pain” occurs when a finger (fingers) presses strongly on one or both sides on the area where the lower and upper jaws meet. Damage to the glossopharyngeal nerve due to a fracture of the condylar or coronoid processes can seriously affect the masticatory and speech apparatus, including paralysis of the masticatory muscles.
Muscles and ligaments of the jaw
12.MIKATSUKI(JAW) - lateral part of the lower jaw on the left and right
Lower jaw
Severe pain up to loss of consciousness due to a crack or fracture of the bone. A fracture or displacement of the mandible is the result of a blow to either side of the mandible bone. If two blows are delivered simultaneously, a double fracture (on both sides) is evident. But if one blow was struck earlier, the jaw is pushed towards the second blow weapon, and a fracture is possible on only one side. To prevent future jawline deformation, teeth and splinters must be temporarily secured. Of course, it will be very difficult to eat and talk until everything falls into place.
Lower jaw
Direction of blows
13. ASAGIRI(MORNING MIST) - lower edge of the chin
14. Brief conclusions The need to write this chapter is caused by the general psychological mechanism of cognitive processes: when getting acquainted with something fundamentally new, a person nevertheless looks for relevant analogies in his past experience. And precisely in the wrong selection of analogies
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Modern anatomy makes extensive use of experiment and has the latest research methods, including modern optics, x-ray radiation, uses radio telemetry methods, plastic materials, alloys, preservatives and is based on the laws of physics, chemistry, cybernetics, cytology, etc.
Physiology can be divided into three sections - general, comparative and special. General physiology explores the basic patterns of response of living organisms to environmental influences. Comparative physiology studies the specific features of the functioning of the whole organism, as well as tissues and cells of organisms related to different types. Comparative physiology is closely related to evolutionary physiology. In addition, there are special sections of physiology studying physiology various types animals (for example, agricultural, carnivorous, etc.) or the physiology of individual organs (heart, kidneys, liver, etc.), tissues, cells.
Used to study body functions various methods. These include short-term or long-term observation of the functioning of organs when the functional load increases, the action of irritants on them or when nerves are cut, the introduction of drugs, etc. Instrumental methods of study are also widely used, which exclude any damage to the tissues and organs of animals. Using various instruments, you can obtain information about the electrical processes occurring in the body, about the state of the nervous system, heart and other organs. Modern methods make it possible to record the electrical activity of any organ. Using optical methods, they study the inner surface of the wall of the stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, etc. Examination of the body using x-rays makes it possible to study the functioning of the digestive, cardiovascular and other systems in a healthy and sick person. Radiotelemetric methods of transmitting information about physiological processes are becoming increasingly important. For example, radio telemetry is used to study the human condition during space flights. To assess the functional activity of human organs, biochemical studies of tissues, body fluids - blood, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, etc. are widely used. Thus, only through a comprehensive study of the body can one deeply understand the principles of its functioning at the cellular, tissue, organ and system levels.
Anatomy and physiology form the basis of medical science. Modern advances in medicine are amazing: operations on the brain, heart, transplantation of tissues and rejected body parts, blood transfusions, plastic surgery; Hormones and vitamins have been synthesized and successfully used, many diseases are treated and prevented with the help of medications, artificial respiration and circulatory apparatus, and an artificial “kidney” are used.
Physiology.
Anatomy
Lecture No. 1. “Anatomy and physiology as sciences that study the structures and mechanisms of satisfying human needs. Man as a biosocial being. Anatomical and physiological aspects of human needs. Man as a subject for the study of anatomy and physiology." 4
Lecture No. 2. "Fundamentals of cytology - cell." 7
Lecture No. 3. "Fundamentals of histology - tissues." 8
Lecture No. 4. “The internal environment of the body. Blood. Homeostasis, composition, properties and functions of blood.” 14
Lecture No. 5. “General questions of anatomy and physiology of the human movement apparatus.” 19
Lecture No. 6. "Skeleton of the upper and lower limbs." 23
Lecture No. 7. "Skeleton of the head." 27
Lecture No. 8. “Muscular system. Structure and functions of muscles. Muscles of the head and neck." 31
Lecture No. 9. "Muscles of the trunk." 35
Lecture No. 10. "Muscles of the upper limb." 39
Lecture No. 11. "Muscles of the lower limb." 41
Lecture No. 12. “Muscle fascia.” 43
Lecture No. 13. "Muscle Physiology". 45
Lecture No. 14. “The process of physiological regulation. Nervous mechanisms of physiological regulation. General principles structure of the nervous system. Nervous activity." 46
Lecture No. 15. "Functional anatomy of the spinal cord." 49
Lecture No. 16 Brain. Brainstem and diencephalon. 54
Lecture No. 17 Big brain (cerebrum). 58
Lecture No. 18. Cranial nerves. 63
Lecture No. 19. Autonomic nervous system. 68
Lecture No. 20. Morpho is a functional characteristic of sensory systems. The doctrine of analyzers. Visual analyzer. 72
Lecture No. 21. Auditory and vestibular analyzers. 76
Lecture No. 22. Skin analyzer. 78
Lecture No. 24. The cardiovascular system. 86
Lecture No. 25. Anatomy and physiology of blood vessels. 89
Blood pressure, regulation of blood circulation. 89
Lecture No. 27. Venous system. 94
Lecture No. 28. Features of fetal blood circulation. 98
Lecture No. 29. Morpho is a functional characteristic. 98
respiratory system. 98
Lecture No. 30. Lungs, pleura, respiratory cycle, pulmonary volumes, respiratory physiology. 101
Lecture No. 31. Digestive system and digestion. Oral cavity. Digestion in the oral cavity. 105
Lecture No. 32. Pharynx, esophagus, stomach. 108
Lecture No. 33. Liver and pancreas. 111
Lecture No. 34. Small intestine. 114
Lecture No. 35. Colon. Peritoneum. 116
Lecture No. 36. Metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. 119
Lecture No. 37. Water and mineral metabolism. Vitamins. 121
Lecture No. 38. Energy exchange. Thermoregulation. 126
Lecture No. 39. General morphology and functional characteristics of the isolation process. Anatomy of the organs of the urinary system. 128
Lecture No. 40. Physiology of excretion. 131
Lecture No. 41. Male reproductive system. 133
Lecture No. 42. Female reproductive system. 136
Lecture No. 43. Lymphatic system. 140
Lecture No. 44. Immunity, organs of the immune system. 142
Lecture No. 45. Mental activity is the physiological basis of psycho-social needs. Conditioned reflexes, types. Types of GNI. Forms of mental activity. 146
Lecture No. 46. Consciousness, memory, sleep physiology. 150
Lecture No. 1. “Anatomy and physiology as sciences that study the structures and mechanisms of satisfying human needs. Man as a biosocial being. Anatomical and physiological aspects of human needs. Man as a subject of study of anatomy and physiology"
Anatomy and physiology human - the main subjects of theoretical and practical training health workers. Anatomy is the science of the form, structure and development of the body. The main method of anatomy was dissection of the corpse (anatemne - dissection). Human anatomy studies the shape and structure of the human body and its organs. Physiology studies the functions and processes of the body and their relationships. Anatomy and physiology are components of biology and belong to the biomedical sciences. Anatomy and physiology are the theoretical foundation of clinical disciplines. The fundamental basis of medicine is the study of the human body. “Anatomy in union with physiology is the queen of medicine” (Hippocrates). The human body is an integral system, all parts of which are interconnected and with environment. In the early stages of the development of anatomy, only a description of the organs of the human body, which were observed during autopsies of corpses, was carried out, and this is how descriptive anatomy appeared. At the beginning of the 20th century, systematic anatomy arose, because. The body began to be studied by organ systems. During surgical interventions, it was necessary to accurately determine the location of organs, and this is how topographic anatomy appeared. Taking into account the requests of artists, plastic anatomy was identified that describes external forms. Then functional anatomy was formed, because organs and systems began to be considered in relation to their functions. The section studying the locomotor system gave rise to dynamic anatomy. Age anatomy studies changes in organs and tissues due to age. Comparative studies studies the similarities and differences between the human body and animals. Since the invention of the microscope, microscopic anatomy has evolved.
1. descriptive
2. systematic
3. topographic
4. plastic
5. functional
6. dynamic
7. age
8. comparative
9. microscopic
10. pathological
Anatomy methods:
1. dissection, opening, dissection on a corpse using a scalpel on a corpse.
2. observation, examination of the body with the naked eye - macroscopic anatomy
3. study using a microscope - microscopic anatomy
4. using technical means (X-rays, endoscopy)
5. injection method coloring matter to the authorities
6. corrosion method (dissolution of tissues and vessels whose cavities were filled with insoluble masses)
Physiology- experimental science. For experiments, methods of irritation, removal, organ transplantation, and fistulas are used.
The father of physiology is Sechenov (transfer of gases through the blood, theories of fatigue, active rest, central inhibition, reflex activity of the brain).
Sections of physiology:
1. medical
2. age (gerontology)
3. labor physiology
4. physiology of sports
5. physiology of nutrition
6. physiology of extreme conditions
7. pathophysiology
Main methods of physiology are: experiment and observation. The experiment (experience) can be acute, chronic and without surgical intervention.
1. Acute - vivexia (live section) - Harvey 1628. About 200 million experimental animals died at the hands of experimenters.
2. Chronic - Basov 1842 - the function of the body has been studied for a long time. First performed on a dog (gastric fistula).
3. Without surgical intervention - 20th century - registration of electrical potentials of working organs. Receiving information simultaneously from many authorities.
These sections study a healthy person - normal anatomy and physiology.
Man is a biosocial being. An organism is a biological system endowed with intelligence. Man has inherent laws of life (self-renewal, self-reproduction, self-regulation). These patterns are realized through the processes of metabolism and energy, irritability, heredity and homeostasis - the relatively dynamic constancy of the internal environment of the body. The human body is multi-level:
molecular
· cellular
· fabric
· organ
· systemic
Interconnection in the body is achieved through nervous and humoral regulation. A person constantly has new needs. Ways to satisfy them: self-satisfaction or with outside help.
Mechanisms of self-satisfaction:
Congenital (changes in metabolism, functioning of internal organs)
acquired (conscious behavior, mental reactions)
Need satisfaction structures:
1. executive (respiratory, digestive, excretory)
2. regulatory (nervous and endocrine)
The human body is divided into parts:
· torso
limbs
Organ system– a group of organs similar in origin, structure and functions. Organs are located in cavities filled with fluid. They communicate with the external environment. A set of anatomical terms that define the position of organs in the body and their direction - anatomical nomenclature.
In the human body they are conventionally carried out lines and planes:
1. frontal (parallel to the forehead line)
2. sagittal (perpendicular to the forehead line)
3. medial (passes through the middle of the body)
Organs are characterized in relation to axes and planes:
1. proximal (upper)
2. distal (lower)
3. ventral (posterior)
4. dorsal (posterior, dorsal)
5. medial (closer to the midline)
Body types:
brachymorphic - short and wide people, a large heart, wide lungs, the diaphragm stands high
dolichomorphic – long bones, the heart stands vertically, the lungs are long, the diaphragm is low
Medicine arose before the first information about the structure of the human and animal body appeared. In ancient times, animal dissection was performed during sacrifices and food preparation, and human dissection was performed during embalming. Medicine in ancient Greece achieved unprecedented success for that time. For the first time, accurate information about the structure of the body appeared from the physician and philosopher Hippocrates. Aristotle was the first to call the heart the main organ that moves the blood. The Alexandrian school was of great importance for the development of medicine and anatomy, because. its doctors were allowed to dissect corpses for scientific purposes. By the beginning of our era, the ground was prepared for the development of medicine.
Claudius Galen created the first theory of blood circulation: the liver is the central hematopoietic organ, and the heart is the main circulator in the body. In the countries of the West and East, religious prohibitions prevailed, which hampered the development of medicine. Abu - Ali - Ibn - Sina (Avicenna) - a Tajik scientist - collected all the known information about medicine of that time in the book “Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology”. Special schools have emerged in France and Italy. The founder of modern anatomy is considered to be the Belgian scientist of that time, Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564). He, risking his life, obtained corpses for study in cemeteries and, based on his own dissection, created the work “seven books on the structure of the human body.” Hippocrates is considered the grandfather of anatomy. Servetus and Harvey refuted Galen's theory of blood circulation. Servetus correctly described the pulmonary circulation, Harvey - the large one. For the establishment of these theories, Malpighi’s discovery of capillaries (1661) was important. Azeglio described the lymphatic vessels in the dog's mesentery. Very important for the development of physiology was the discovery of the reflex in the 1st half of the 18th century by the French physiologist Rene Descartes and Darwin's theory that organisms develop in the process of evolution under the influence of the struggle for existence, natural selection and heredity. In 1839, Schwann discovered the cellular theory of organisms, in which he proved that new cells are formed by dividing maternal cells; animal cells differ from plant cells... In the 17th century, the first medical school was created in Moscow under the apothecary order. The founder of the first anatomical school, Zagorsky, and his student Buyalsky, a professor at the department of anatomy, proposed a method of embalming corpses. The founder of topographic anatomy is N.I. Pirogov. – developed a method of sequential cuts of frozen corpses to study the topography of organs. The development of anatomy was facilitated by the works of Mechnikov, Bekhterev, Timiryazev, Severtsov, Vorobyov, Stefanis, and Zernov.
Vorobyov developed a method for studying the nervous system using a binocular magnifying glass with preliminary treatment of the material with solutions of weak acids.
Zbarsky, together with Zernov, developed the embalming method (Lenin). Tonkov and his students conducted experiments and research on the vascular system. Shevkunenko studied blood vessels and peripheral nerves. Achievements in the study of the lymphatic system are associated with the names of Iosifov, Stefanis, Zhdanov.
Significant results were obtained thanks to the discovery of new methods for electrical recording of organ activity. The study of nervous regulation was one of the largest achievements in physiology of the 19th century (Sechenov - the process of inhibition, 1862). At the beginning of the 20th century, I.P. Pavlov created the doctrine of GNI and two signal systems. Posnikov discovered the causes of death at the organ level. Claude Bernard - about the internal environment of the body (pH)., Ovsyannikov - s/s center, Sechenov - transfer of gases in the blood, fatigue, active rest, inhibition center, reflex activity of the brain, Vvedensky - registration of biopotentials, parabiosis. 1889 – Lunin – discovery of vitamins, Anokhin – functional systems.
Pavlov’s achievements in the study of the physiology of blood circulation and digestion are also enormous. He and his students developed a method of physiological surgery. Currently, great success has been achieved in the study of physiological processes occurring in individual cells and their structural elements. Advances in electrophysiology are closely related to the use of electronics and radio engineering. Electrophysiological studies received great importance in medicine (electrocardiography, electroencephalography).