The activities of the princes of Kievan Rus briefly. Grand Dukes of Ancient Rus' and the Russian Empire

Rurik (862 - 879) - the first great Russian prince, one of the legendary figures in European history, the founder of the ancient Russian state. According to the chronicles, Rurik, summoned from the Varangians by the Slavs, Krivichi, Chud and the whole in 862, first occupied Ladoga, and then moved to Novgorod. He ruled in Novgorod under an agreement concluded with the local nobility, who asserted the right to collect revenue. Founder of the Rurik dynasty.

1148 years ago, according to the chronicler Nestor in the Tale of Bygone Years, the head of the Varangian military detachment Rurik, who arrived along with the brothers Sineus and Truvor, was called to “rule and reign over the Eastern Slavs” on September 8, 862.

The chronicle tradition connects the beginning of Rus' with the calling of the Varangians. Thus, “The Tale of Bygone Years” tells that in 862 three Varangian brothers with their families came to rule the Slavs, founding the city of Ladoga. But where did these Varangians come from and who were the origins of these Varangians who gave rise to Russian statehood? After all, in historiography they managed to be the Swedes, the Danes, and the Scandinavians in general; Some authors considered the Varangians to be Normans, others, on the contrary, as Slavs. Again and again, inattention to the problem posed in the very historical source, was the reason for contradictory friends friend statements for ancient chronicler the origin of the Varangians was obvious. He placed their lands on the southern Baltic coast up to “the land of Aglan,” i.e. to the Angeln region in Holstein.

Today it is the northern German state of Mecklenburg, whose population in ancient times was not German. What it was like is evidenced by the names of the settlements Varin, Russov, Rerik and many others that have survived to this day. However, despite all the clarity of the chronicle evidence, the question of the origin of the Varangians (and therefore the roots of Russian statehood) became controversial for descendants. Confusion was caused by a version that appeared in political circles at the court of the Swedish king about the origin of Rurik from Sweden, which was subsequently picked up by some German historians. Objectively speaking, this version did not have the slightest historical basis, but it was completely politically determined. Even during the years of the Livonian War, a heated debate broke out between Ivan the Terrible and the Swedish King Johan III over the issue of titles. The Russian Tsar considered the Swedish ruler to come from a “manly family,” to which he replied that the ancestors of the Russian dynasty itself allegedly came from Sweden. This idea finally took shape as a political concept on the eve of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century, when the Swedes laid claim to the Novgorod lands, trying to justify their territorial claims with some semblance of a chronicle “calling”. It was assumed that the Novgorodians were supposed to send an embassy to the Swedish king and invite him to rule, as they once supposedly called the “Swedish” prince Rurik. The conclusion about the “Swedish” origin of the Varangians at that time was based only on the fact that they came to Rus' “from across the sea,” and therefore, most likely, from Sweden.

Subsequently, in the first half of the 18th century, German scientists from the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences turned to the Varangian theme, who, using the same logic, sought to justify German domination in Russia during the Biron regency. They also formulated the so-called the “Norman theory”, according to which the Varangians, the founders of the ancient Russian state, were recognized as immigrants from Sweden (i.e. “Germans,” as all foreigners were then called). Since then, this theory, dressed in a certain semblance of science, has become entrenched in Russian historiography. At the same time, many outstanding historians, starting with M.V. Lomonosov, pointed out that " Norman theory" does not match real facts. For example, the Swedes could not create a state in Rus' in the 9th century, if only because they themselves did not have statehood at that time. It was not possible to detect Scandinavian borrowings in the Russian language and Russian culture. Finally, a careful reading of the chronicle itself does not allow us to confirm the fabrications of the Normanists. The chronicler distinguished the Varangians from the Swedes and other Scandinavian peoples, writing that “those Varangians were called Rus, just as others are called Swedes, others are Normans, Angles, and others are Goths.” Therefore, when concluding peace treaties with Byzantium, the pagan warriors of princes Oleg and Igor (the same Varangians whom the Normanists consider to be Swedish Vikings) took an oath in the names of Perun and Veles, and not Odin or Thor. A.G. Kuzmin noted that this fact alone could refute the entire “Norman theory.” It is clear that in this form the “Norman theory” could not be viable in academic science. But they turned to it again and again when it was necessary to strike a blow at the idea of Russian statehood. Today this destructive theory has become new uniform, and modern Normanists, fed by grants from numerous foreign foundations, speak not so much about the “Scandinavian origin of the Varangians” as about a peculiar division of “spheres of influence” in the ancient Russian state.

According to the new version of Normanism, the power of the Vikings allegedly extended to the northern regions of Rus', and the Khazars to the southern regions (there was supposedly some kind of agreement between them). Russians are not expected to play any significant role in their own early history. However, the very development of the Russian state completely refutes all the speculations of Russia’s political enemies. Could ancient Rus' have become a mighty Russian Empire without the outstanding historical mission of the Russian people? Great story took place together with the great people descended from the Varangian origin. It is unfortunate that today more and more often remarks are heard that the ancestors of Russians were non-Russians. This is wrong. Our ancestors were the Varangians, who were also Russian. The only thing that should be clarified is that Rus' is our original family name, and the Old Russian sailors were called Varangians. Ambassador Sigismund Herberstein, who visited Moscow at the beginning of the 16th century, wrote that the homeland of the Varangians - Vagria - was located on the southern Baltic coast and from them the Baltic was called the Varangian Sea. He expressed the broad opinion that existed in the enlightened circles of Europe at that time. With the development of scientific genealogy, works began to appear on the connections of the Russian royal dynasty with the ancient royal families of Mecklenburg. In North German Pomerania, the Varangians and their historical ties with Russia were remembered until the 19th century. To this day, many traces of the presence of the pre-German population remain in the Mecklenburg region. Obviously, it became “German” only after the Varangians and their descendants were forced out to the east or Germanized by Catholic orders. The French traveler K. Marmier once wrote down in Mecklenburg a folk legend about Rurik and his brothers. In the 8th century, the Varangians were ruled by King Godlav, who had three sons - Rurik, Sivar and Truvor. One day they went from the southern Baltic to the east and founded the ancient Russian principality with centers in Novgorod and Pskov.

After some time, Rurik became the head of the dynasty, which reigned until 1598. This legend from Northern Germany is completely consonant with the Legend of the Calling of the Varangians from the chronicle. However, a careful analysis of the facts allows us to somewhat correct the chronicle chronology, according to which Rurik and his brothers began to rule in Rus' in 862. A. Kunik generally considered this date to be erroneous, leaving the inaccuracy on the conscience of later copyists of the chronicle. It is obvious that the events briefly reported in Russian chronicles receive historical content from German sources. The Germans themselves refuted the Norman fabrications. Mecklenburg lawyer Johann Friedrich von Chemnitz referred to a legend according to which Rurik and his brothers were the sons of Prince Godlav, who died in 808 in a battle with the Danes. Considering that the eldest of the sons was Rurik, we can assume that he was born no later than 806 (after him, before the death of his father in 808, two younger brothers who were not the same age should have been born). Of course, Rurik could have been born earlier, but we do not yet have reliable information about this. According to German sources, Rurik and his brothers were “summoned” around 840, which seems very plausible. Thus, the Varangian princes could appear in Rus' at a mature and capable age, which looks completely logical. And indeed, according to the latest archaeological finds, it was possible to establish that the Rurik settlement near modern Novgorod, which is the ancient Rurik Novgorod, existed before 862. On the other hand, allowing for an error in chronology, the chronicle more accurately indicates the place of the “calling”. Most likely it was not Novgorod (as according to German data), but Ladoga, which was founded by the Varangians back in the middle of the 8th century. And Prince Rurik “cut down” Novgorod (Rurik’s settlement) later, uniting the lands of the brothers after their death, as evidenced by the name of the city.

Rurik's pedigree from the ancient Varangian kings was recognized by experts and genealogy researchers. Mecklenburg historians wrote that his grandfather was King Witslav, who was an equal ally of the Frankish king Charlemagne and participated in his campaigns against the Saxons. During one of these campaigns, Vitslav was killed in an ambush while crossing a river. Some authors directly called him “the king of the Russians.” North German genealogies also indicate Rurik’s relationship with Gostomysl, who appears in the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangians. But if the meager lines of the chronicle say almost nothing about him, then in the Frankish chronicles he is mentioned as an opponent of Emperor Louis the German. Why did Rurik and his brothers go from the southern Baltic coast to the East? The fact is that the Varangian kings had a “regular” system of inheritance, according to which the eldest representative of the ruling family always received power. Later, a similar system of inheritance of princely power became traditional in Rus'. At the same time, the sons of a ruler who did not have time to occupy the royal throne did not receive any rights to the throne and remained outside the main “queue”. Godlove was killed before his elder brother and never became king during his lifetime. For this reason, Rurik and his brothers were forced to go to the peripheral Ladoga, where from that time on the glorious history of the Russian state began. Prince Rurik was the rightful ruler of Rus' and a native of the “Russian family,” and not at all a foreign ruler, as those who think of Russian history only under foreign domination would like to imagine.

When Rurik died, his son Igor was still small, and Igor’s uncle Oleg became the prince ( Prophetic Oleg, i.e., one who knows the future, died in 912), who moved the capital to the city of Kyiv. It was Oleg the Prophet who was responsible for the formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus, with its center in Kyiv. Oleg's nickname - "prophetic" - referred exclusively to his penchant for sorcery. In other words, Prince Oleg, as the supreme ruler and leader of the squad, simultaneously also performed the functions of a priest, sorcerer, magician, and sorcerer. According to legend, Prophetic Oleg died from a snake bite; this fact formed the basis of a number of songs, legends and traditions. Oleg became famous for his victory over Byzantium, as a sign of which he nailed his shield on the main gate (gate) of Constantinople. This is how the Russians called the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople. Byzantium was then the most powerful state in the world.

In 2009, the celebration of the 1150th anniversary of Veliky Novgorod took place. I would like to believe that this most important date in our history will become the starting point for a new study of the ancient Russian past. New facts and discoveries constantly enrich historical science and our knowledge. More and more evidence is emerging that Russian history began not with a myth invented by medieval politicians and scribes, but with the real Grand Duke Rurik, born into a royal dynasty in the Russian Baltic states one thousand two hundred years ago. God grant that the names of our ancestors and forefathers are not consigned to oblivion.

Many historians attribute the formation of Kievan Rus as a state to the years of the reign of Prince Oleg - from 882 to 912, but this is not so. Before him, the great princes ruled, who began the Rurik family, which received its name from Rurik, Prince of Novgorod, whom the people of Kiev called to rule them. He died in 879, and only 3 years later the throne passed to the Prophetic Oleg, who raised Rurik’s son Igor as his own. It is Igor Rurikovich who is considered the founder of the dynastic family.

This princely family ruled for more than 700 years, distributing Russian cities and small lands among their sons. Some of them built cities, such as Yuri Dolgoruky, who founded Moscow, which still stands as a reminder of the era of Kievan Rus, or Kiy, who gave his name to the future capital of the Rus.

Origins of Kievan Rus

Uniting the lands of the Slavic tribes under the unified rule of Kyiv was not an easy task, since there was no point in conquering them, because the great city needed allies, not captives. That is why Rurik and his descendants exempted their neighbors from paying tribute to the Pechenegs, but collected it themselves.

It's interesting that it's very long time the great princes of Kyiv were elected to the throne by the people and with their rule had to justify their trust. This did not stop representatives of the prolific Rurik family tree from constantly fighting for the throne.

After the death of Prince Oleg, his stepson Igor continued to unite the Slavic tribes under the protection of Kyiv, but the exorbitant tribute they had to pay eventually led to an uprising of the Drevlyans, who killed the prince. Although his widow Olga avenged her husband, being a fair woman and the first to accept Orthodox baptism, she established the amount of tribute that could not be violated.

As a rule, the formation of any state is a matter based on wars and treacherous murders. Similar acts have not escaped Slavic peoples. The Grand Dukes of Rurik were constantly either on campaigns against the Pechenegs or Byzantium, or staged civil strife and killed each other.

The most famous princes Kievan Rus became either those who committed fratricide for the sake of the throne, or those under whom the state grew stronger and prospered.

Prince Vladimir the Saint

Ancient Rus' was often shaken by strife, so the first long period of peace, when Kiev was ruled by one prince, and his sons were revered and each lived in his own inheritance, entered the chronicles. These were the times of Prince Vladimir, called the Holy People.

Vladimir Svyatoslavovich was the grandson of Igor Rurikovich. From his father he received Novgorod to rule, which was considered the most unprestigious inheritance. Yaropolk got Kyiv, and Oleg got all the Drevlyansky lands. After the death of Svyatopolk and Oleg, who was forced to flee from the betrayal of his elder brother, Yaropolk annexed the Drevlyansky lands to Kyiv and began to rule alone.

Prince Vladimir, having learned about this, went to war against him, but his elder brother died not at his hand, but at the hand of the servant who betrayed him. Prince Vladimir sat on the throne and even adopted Yaropolk's son Svyatopolk.

Not all the great princes of the Rurik family cared for the people as much as Vladimir the Holy. Under him, not only were schools built for the children of commoners and a special council was created, which included wise boyars, but also fair laws were established and Orthodoxy was adopted. The baptism of Rus' by Vladimir is a significant event when not one person at a time, but a whole people came to God. The first baptism took place in the waters of the Dnieper and was included in the chronicles along with other good deeds of the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

Prince Svyatopolk

Vladimir Krasnoye Solnyshko had 12 sons and a nephew, Svyatopolk. His eldest son Boris was supposed to be his favorite son and heir to the throne, but when the old prince died, he was returning from a campaign against the Pechenegs, and Svyatopolk seized power.

In the people's memory and in the annals of Kyiv he remained as Svyatopolk I Yaropolchich the Accursed. The prince received this nickname for the murder of his cousins Boris, Gleb and Svyatoslav. He also attempted to kill Yaroslav.

Wanting to personally rule Ancient Russia, Svyatopolk the Accursed committed many betrayals and betrayals, so that when Yaroslav gathered an army and went to Kyiv (for the second time), he had to flee. His mind became clouded from fear, and he ended his days in the Bohemian wastes, forever remaining in the memory of his descendants as the accursed prince who killed his brothers.

Prince Yaroslav

One of the most famous sons of Vladimir “Red Sun”, who received high popular praise and universal love, was Yaroslav the Wise. He was born approximately between 978 and 987. and at first he was the prince of Rostov, then of Novgorod, until in 1019 he took the throne of Kiev. Disputes about the date of birth of Yaroslav are still ongoing. Since he was the third son of Vladimir the Saint from his marriage to Ragneda, which took place in 976, he could not have been born in 978, as is usually indicated in history textbooks. A study of the prince's remains indicated that he was between 60 and 70 years old at the time of his death, not 76 years old.

No matter how long Yaroslav the Wise actually lived, he remained in people's memory as a fair, intelligent and brave ruler, although his path to the throne was not simple and bloody. The long reign of Prince Yaroslav in Kyiv until his death erased the memories of civil strife between the numerous sons of Vladimir the Saint, as well as constant military campaigns. His reign was marked by the introduction of a set of laws into public administration, the construction of two great cities - Yaroslavl and Yuryev, and the strengthening of the influence of Kievan Rus in the European political arena. It was he who began to use dynastic marriages to cement military and friendly alliances between powers.

Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich was buried in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

Prince Izyaslav

The eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise took the Kiev throne in 1054, after the death of his father. This is the only Rurik prince who ruled Russia incompetently, spending his efforts not on strengthening the borders and increasing the well-being of the people, as his father did, but on feuds with his younger brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod.

Izyaslav I Yaroslavich was overthrown by the people's assembly and uprising twice, which in itself speaks of the quality of his rule. Each time he returned the throne of Kiev with the support of Polish troops. Neither his brothers nor his sons made Rus' stronger, preferring defense to attack. Until 1113, the country was in turmoil and the throne was being pulled from one prince to another.

Vladimir Monomakh

The most famous and significant figure on the Kiev throne was Prince Vladimir, who was popularly nicknamed Monomakh. At one time, he ceded the Kiev throne to his cousin Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, but after the death of the latter, at the request of the people, he took it.

Vladimir Monomakh can be compared to the legendary King Arthur. He was so loved and revered by the people for his courage, justice and generosity that songs and epics were composed in his honor long after his death.

During the reign of Vladimir, Kievan Rus became a truly powerful and strong power, which was taken into account by all its neighbors. He conquered the Principality of Minsk, and the Polovtsy moved away from the borders of Rus' for a long time. Vladimir Vsevolodovich not only issued laws that made life easier for the common people and reduced taxes from them, but also continued the publication of The Tale of Bygone Years. It is in his interpretation that it has survived to this day. In addition, he himself wrote several works, including an autobiography, a set of laws and teachings from Vladimir Monomakh.

Rurik, son of Prince Rostislav

If during the times of Kievan Rus there had been a book where various kinds of records would have been entered, then Rurik Rostislavich would definitely have been there. The following factors distinguished him from other princes of Kyiv:

Neither the date of his birth nor the name of his mother is known, which is considered nonsense for the ruling dynasties. It is known for certain that his father was Prince of Smolensk Rostislav Mstislavich.
He occupied the princely throne in Kyiv 8 times, which in itself speaks either of his stubbornness, or of the fact that the people, disliking the prince, overthrew him from the throne every 2-3 years.
He managed to be not only the ruler of Rus', but also a monk, which had never happened to the princes of Kyiv before him.
His reign brought ruin to the capital city as severe as subsequent attacks by the Mongol army.
The name of Rurik is associated with both the birth of a dynasty on the Kiev throne and the fall of a great power.

Rurik Rostislavich remained in the memory of people and chroniclers as a man who ravaged Kyiv Orthodox churches worse than barbarians.

Romanov Dynasty

If we turn to the history of Kievan Rus, and then the Russian state, we can notice one oddity: members ruling families did not have surnames. The Grand Dukes of the House of Romanov began to be called that way only in 1917, and before that time all tsars, and later emperors, were called exclusively by their first name and patronymic.

The Romanov dynasty began in 1613, when the first representative of the boyar family, who bore this surname for more than 100 years, ascended the Russian throne. Peter Alekseevich Romanov, known in history as Peter I, was the last Russian Tsar, becoming the first Emperor of Russia.

The direct branch of this family ended with his daughter Elizaveta Petrovna, who did not marry and remained childless, being the sole empress of the country. The throne passed to the son of her elder sister Anna, forming a completely new dynastic surname of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanovsky.

Thus, Pyotr Alekseevich Romanov was the last direct representative of the male line of this family. Despite this, Russian emperors were perceived throughout the world as the Romanovs, and after the revolution, children from marriages of descendants of the great royal dynasty retained it along with the titles that their ancestors had. They were called grand dukes more by right of birth.

Reign of Oleg (reign: 882 -912). The formation of a single East Slavic state of Rus' is associated with the name of the Novgorod prince Oleg, a relative of the semi-legendary Rurik. In 882, he made a campaign into the lands of the Krivichi and captured Smolensk, then took Lyubech and Kyiv, which he made the capital of his state. Later he annexed the lands of the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Croats and Tivertsi. He imposed tribute on the conquered tribes. Successfully fought with the Khazars. In 907, he besieged the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, and imposed an indemnity on the empire. In 911, Oleg concluded a profitable trade agreement with Byzantium. Thus, under Oleg, the territory of the early Russian state begins to form through the forcible annexation of tribal Slavic unions to Kyiv.

Reign of Igor (912-945). After the death of Oleg (according to legend, he died from a snake bite), Igor became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, ruling until 945. Prince Igor is considered the actual founder of the Rurik dynasty. Igor continued the activities of his predecessor. Oleg, subjugated the East Slavic tribal associations between the Dniester and the Danube. In 941 he made an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople. The campaign of 944 was marked by success, Byzantium offered Igor a ransom, and an agreement was concluded between the Greeks and Russians. Igor was the first of the Russians to conclude an agreement between the Greeks and Russians. Igor was the first of the Russian princes to clash with the Pechenegs. He was killed by the Drevlyans while trying to collect tribute from them a second time.

Reign of Olga (945 – 964). After Igor's murder, his widow, Princess Olga, brutally suppressed the Drevlyan uprising. Then she undertook a tour of some lands, establishing a fixed amount of duties for the Drevlyans and Novgorodians, organizing special administrative centers for collecting tribute - camps and graveyards . Thus, a new form of receiving tribute was established - the so-called "cart" . By a certain date, tribute was delivered to camps or graveyards, and the peasant agricultural holding was defined as the unit of taxation (tribute from Rala) or a house with a hearth (tribute from smoke).

Olga significantly expanded the land holdings of the Kyiv Grand Duke's House. She visited Constantinople, where she converted to Christianity. Olga ruled during the childhood of her son Svyatoslav Igorevich and later, during his campaigns.

Princess Olga's campaign against the Drevlyans and Novgorodians meant the beginning of the elimination of the autonomy of the unions of Slavic tribes that were part of the Russian early feudal state. This led to the merger of the military nobility of the tribal unions with the military nobility of the Kyiv prince. This is how the formation of the unification of the ancient Russian service army, headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, took place. Gradually he becomes the supreme owner of all lands of the Russian state.

Reign of Svyatoslav (964 - 972). In 964, Svyatoslav Igorevich, who had reached adulthood, took over the rule of Russia. Under him, until 969, the Kyiv state was largely ruled by his mother, Princess Olga, since Svyatoslav Igorevich spent almost his entire life on campaigns. Svyatoslav, first of all, was a warrior prince who sought to bring Rus' closer to the largest powers of the then world. Under him, the hundred-year period of distant campaigns of the princely squad, which enriched it, ended.

Svyatoslav dramatically changes state policy and begins systematically strengthening the borders of Rus'. In 964-966. Svyatoslav liberated the Vyatichi from the power of the Khazars and subjugated them to Kyiv. In the 60s of the 10th century. defeated the Khazar Kaganate and took the capital of the Kaganate, the city of Itil, fought with the Volga-Kama Bulgarians. In 967, using the proposal of Byzantium, which sought to weaken its neighbors, Rus' and Bulgaria, by pitting them against each other, Svyatoslav invaded Bulgaria and settled at the mouth of the Danube, in Peryaslavets. Around 971, in alliance with the Bulgarians and Hungarians, he began to fight with Byzantium, but unsuccessfully. The prince was forced to make peace with the Byzantine emperor. On the way back to Kyiv, Svyatoslav Igorevich died at the Dnieper rapids in a battle with the Pechenegs, who had been warned by the Byzantines about his return. The reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich was a time of widespread entry of the ancient Russian state into the international arena, a period of significant expansion of its territory.

ReignVladimirI. (980 – 1015). The formation of the Old Russian state as a political and cultural center was completed under Vladimir I. The son of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, Vladimir, with the help of his uncle Dobrynya, became a prince in Novgorod in 969. After the death of his father in 977, he took part in the strife and defeated his older brother Yaropolk. By campaigning against the Vyatichi, Lithuanians, Radimichi, and Bulgarians, Vladimir strengthened the possessions of Kievan Rus. To organize defense against the Pechenegs, Vladimir built several defensive lines with a system of fortresses. This was the first serif line in the history of Rus'. To protect the south of Rus', Vladimir managed to attract tribes from its northern part. The successful fight against the Pechenegs led to the idealization of the personality and reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. In folk legends he received the name Vladimir the Red Sun.

Origin problem

RURIK (862 - 879)

OLEG (879 - 912)

IGOR (912 - 945)

OLGA (945 - 969)

SVYATOSLAV (964 - 972)

Conducted military campaigns:
- to the Baltic states;
- to the Polish-Lithuanian lands;
- to Byzantium.

Economy and socio-political system of Kievan Rus

Socio-economic system

By the end of the 10th century in the territory Eastern Slavs An early or proto-state was formed led by the Rurik dynasty. Gradually, the feudolization of this state begins, which comes from two sides. Firstly, the community allocates part of their landed estates to the prince as payment for patronage. Secondly, the prince grants his boyars the right to collect tribute from some conquered territories. They could distribute it to their warriors, and they, in turn, could settle on this land. If the boyars built a house, then the property became a patrimony and personally belonged to the boyars, and could also be passed on by inheritance. Part of the land went to land owners as payment for patronage. Thus the feudal hierarchy was formed. The supreme owner of the land was the prince, then came the patrimonial owners, then the boyars, who received the right to full inheritance of their lands. Small landholders were at the end of the feudal ladder, their hold on the land reinforced by a contract of service.

Social

The first all-Russian law “Russian Truth” stipulated the following categories of the population: free community members and dependents, that is, not full rights in court and without the right to participate in military service. Free community members, who in turn were divided into smerds and people, necessarily served in the army. The dependent population was divided into several categories: servants (members of smerd families), serfs (servants, slaves), rank and file, temporarily dependent people, they were also called purchases (a person received a loan that he had to work off or repay).

NOVGOROD LAND

The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was profit from the sale of trade products - beekeeping, hunting fur and sea animals.

The annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals was important for Novgorod. Novgorod maritime and forestry industries brought enormous wealth.

Trade ties of Novgorod with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, strengthened from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Items imported to Rus' were cloth, weapons, metals, etc.

But despite the size of the territory of the Novgorod land, it was distinguished by a low level of population density and a relatively small number of cities compared to other Russian lands. All cities, except for the “younger brother” of Pskov (separated from 1268), were noticeably inferior in number of inhabitants and in importance to the main city of the Russian medieval North - Mister Veliky Novgorod.

Economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political isolation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. The princes in Novgorod remained exclusively service functions. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of lands in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the properties determined for their service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the 12th century. The Grand Duke of Vladimir was formally considered the Prince of Novgorod, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod.

The highest governing body of Novgorod was evening, real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars.

Elections to positions were carried out from the environment and under the control of the boyars mayor ( head of the city government) and thousand ( head of the militia). Under boyar influence, the post of head of the church was replaced - archbishop. The archbishop was in charge of the treasury of the republic, the external relations of Novgorod, the law of court, etc. The city was divided into 3 (later 5) parts - “ends”, whose trade and craft representatives, along with the boyars, took a noticeable part in the management of the Novgorod land.

The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.

Novgorod was reluctant to participate in all-Russian affairs, in particular, the payment of tribute to the Mongols. The richest and largest land of the Russian Middle Ages, Novgorod, could not become a potential center for the unification of Russian lands. The ruling boyar nobility in the republic sought to protect the “antiquity” and to prevent any changes in the existing balance of political forces within Novgorod society. In conditions that had intensified since the mid-15th century. Moscow's attack on Novgorod independence Substantial part Novgorod society, including the agricultural and trading elite that did not belong to the boyars, either went over to the side of Moscow or took a position of passive non-interference.

5. Invasion of Batu

1237-1238 - campaign against North-Western Rus' (Rt - capture of Ryazan, Vladimir-Suzdal princedom. They did not reach Novgorod the Great. March 4, 1238 - battle on the Sit River (Tatars won)

1239-1241 (campaign against South-Eastern Rus' (region, capture and subjugation of the Chernigov princedom, fall of Kyiv, capture of Galicia-Volyn. Western countries Batu did not dare to go.

1243 - Formation of the Golden Horde (Rus did not join the Horde, but became dependent on it)

As a result of Batu’s invasion of Russia, the so-called Mongol-Tatar yoke is established - a set of economic and political methods that ensured the dominance of the Golden Horde over that part of the territory of Rus' that came under its control

The main one among these methods was the collection of various tributes and duties - “plow”, trade duty “tamga”, food for Tatar ambassadors - “honor”, etc. The most difficult of them was the Horde “exit” - tribute in silver, which began to be collected as early as 40 -e years XIII century, and from 1257, by order of Khan Berke, the Mongols carried out a population census North-Eastern Rus'(“recording in a number”), establishing fixed amounts of charges.

Only the clergy were exempt from paying the “exit” (before the Horde adopted Islam at the beginning of the 14th century, the Mongols were distinguished by religious tolerance). To control the collection of tribute, representatives of the khan, the Baskaks, were sent to Rus'. The tribute was collected by tax farmers "besermen" (Central Asian merchants). By the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. The institution of Baskaism was abolished due to the active opposition of the Russian population and massive urban uprisings. From that time on, the princes of the Russian lands themselves began to collect Horde tribute.

In case of disobedience, punitive campaigns followed. The Russian principalities that became dependent on the Horde lost their sovereignty. Their receipt of the princely table depended on the will of the khan, who issued them labels (letters) for reigning. The measure that consolidated the dominance of the Golden Horde over Russia was the issuance of labels for the great reign of Vladimir.

The one who received such a label added the Principality of Vladimir to his possessions and became the strongest among the Russian princes in order to maintain order, stop strife and ensure the uninterrupted flow of tribute. The Horde rulers did not allow any significant strengthening of any of the Russian princes and a long stay on the grand-ducal throne.

In addition, having taken the label from the next Grand Duke, they gave it to a rival prince, which caused princely feuds and a struggle for the right to reign in Vladimir at the Khan’s court. A well-thought-out system of measures provided the Horde with strong control over the Russian lands.Rus

TICKET 10 Ivan 4

The heir of Vasily III, who died in 1533, was his three-year-old son Ivan IV (1533–1584). In fact, the mother, Elena Glinskaya, ruled for the child. The short regency of Elena Glinskaya (1533–1538) was marked not only by the fight against numerous conspirators and rebels, but also by reform activities. The carried out monetary reform unified the monetary circulation system. Unified banknotes - kopecks - were introduced, and a standard for the weight of coins was determined. Measures of weight and length were also unified. Local government reform has begun. In order to limit the power of governors, the institution of provincial elders was introduced in the country. This elective position could only be held by a nobleman. Representatives of the upper strata of the urban and rural population were elected to help him. Such people received the right to occupy the position of zemstvo elder. The government of Elena Glinskaya paid great attention to strengthening the country's defense. To protect the Moscow suburb, the walls of Kitai-Gorod were built.

After the sudden death of Elena in 1538, the next few years were spent in the struggle for power between the boyar groups of the Shuisky and Belsky.

In January 1547, when the heir of Vasily III turned 17 years old, Ivan Vasilyevich accepted the royal title. The political meaning of this event was to strengthen the power of the Moscow sovereign, his authority excluded from that moment any claims to the supreme power of the descendants of aristocratic families. The new title equated the head of the Russian state with the khans of the Golden Horde and the emperors of Byzantium.

At the very end of the 1540s. A circle of associates formed around the young tsar, called the government of the Elected Rada (1548/9–1560), which carried out a number of important transformations in the life of the country aimed at strengthening the centralized state.

In 1549, the Zemsky Sobor was convened for the first time. This became the name for the meetings periodically assembled by the tsar to resolve and discuss the most important issues of the state’s domestic and foreign policy. The Zemsky Sobor included representatives of the boyars, nobility, clergy, and the elite of the townspeople. It became the highest advisory estate-representative body. The Zemsky Sobor of 1549 considered the problems of abolishing “feedings” and suppressing the abuses of governors, so it was called the Council of Reconciliation. The Boyar Duma continued to play an important role in the government of the country. Orders arose - bodies in charge of individual branches of public administration. Among the first, petition, local, zemstvo and other orders were formed, and their employees were called clerks and clerks.

In 1550, a new Code of Law of the Russian State was adopted. The Code of Law introduced legal norms, defining punishments officials for unfair trial and bribery. The judicial powers of the royal governors were limited. The Code of Laws contained instructions on the activities of orders. The right of peasants to move on St. George's Day was confirmed. The Code of Law of 1550 introduced a significant restriction on the enslavement of children of slaves. A child born before his parents were enslaved was recognized as free.

The principles of local government were radically changed. In 1556, the “feeding” system was abolished throughout the state. Administrative and judicial functions were transferred to provincial and zemstvo elders.

A significant restructuring of the armed forces began. A cavalry army was formed from service people (nobles and boyar children). In 1550, a permanent streltsy army was created. Infantrymen armed with firearms began to be called archers. The artillery was also strengthened. From the total mass of service people, a “chosen thousand” was formed: it included the best nobles endowed with lands near Moscow.

Was introduced one system land taxation - the “big Moscow plow”. The size of tax payments began to depend on the nature of land ownership and the quality of the land used. Secular feudal lords, landowners and patrimonial owners received greater benefits compared to the clergy and state peasants.

In February 1551, the Council of the Russian Church was convened, which received the name Stoglavogo, since its decisions were set out in 100 chapters. The Council discussed a wide range of issues: church discipline and the morality of monks, enlightenment and spiritual education, appearance and standards of Christian behavior. The unification of the rituals of the Russian Orthodox Church was especially important.

The reform activities of the Chosen Rada lasted about ten years. Already in 1553, disagreements between the king and his entourage began. Conflict situation intensified after the death of Queen Anastasia in 1560. Ivan IV accused the Chosen Rada of poisoning his beloved royal wife. At the same time, disagreements between the tsar and members of the Chosen Rada on issues of foreign and domestic policy led to the cessation of its existence. Reforms were suspended.

TICKET 11Oprichnina…

In December 1564, the tsar, unexpectedly for his subjects, left Moscow and took refuge with his family in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, which was located about a hundred kilometers from the capital. Messengers sent from there brought two letters to Moscow. One of them accused the boyars and the higher clergy of treason and conspiracies against the tsar. Another, addressed to the townspeople, announced that the tsar did not hold “anger and disgrace” against them. With this deft maneuver, Ivan hoped to gain allies in the population. A few days later, the tsar received a delegation from the Boyar Duma and the highest clergy. As a condition for returning to the throne, Ivan named the establishment oprichnina. The oprichnina, which existed for a very short time (1565–1572), left a deep mark on Russian history.

Oprichnina (from the word “oprich” - except) began to be called the land plot specially allocated to the tsar, and the staff of the tsar’s entourage, and a special army. Oprichnina possessions included a number of cities and counties in the center of the country (Suzdal, Mozhaisk, Vyazma), rich lands of the Russian North, and some counties on the southern borders of the state. The rest of its territory was called “zemshchina”. The entire state apparatus was divided into two parts - the oprichnina and the zemstvo. The feudal lords who joined the oprichnina (initially there were one thousand of them, and by 1572 - six thousand) wore a special uniform: a black caftan and a black pointed hat. Devotion to one’s sovereign, the readiness to “sweep out and gnaw out” traitors were symbolized by brooms and dog heads tied to the necks of horses and quivers for arrows.

Already the first months of the existence of the oprichnina were marked by monstrous cruelty in their execution of people disliked by the tsar. The victims of bloody massacres were boyars suspected of treason and statesmen, members of their families and servants. One of the most terrible crimes of Ivan the Terrible was a punitive expedition to Novgorod in the winter of 1570. A false denunciation of the betrayal of the Novgorod boyars and clergy served as a reason for the murder of thousands of innocent residents of the city. The rural and commercial population suffered from the raids of the oprichnina army. The royal army was disintegrating due to constant bloody orgies. In 1571 it demonstrated its complete inability to face an external enemy. During his raid, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey reached Moscow, the Tatars set fire to the Moscow settlement and took more than 100 thousand Russian captives into slavery. In summer next year the raid was repeated. The enemy was stopped and defeated by a small army, which included guardsmen, zemstvo boyars and nobles.

In the fall of 1572, the oprichnina was officially abolished. Under threat of punishment, the king forbade his subjects to even utter this word. Many former guardsmen turned from executioners into victims. They were accused of state crimes and executed. After the abolition of the oprichnina, the tsar created the so-called “yard” and again divided the country into zemstvo and courtyard parts. But this no longer played a big role in the political and economic life of the country. With the abandonment of the oprichnina order, mass terror decreased.

Oprichnina had far-reaching political consequences. It led to the elimination of the remnants of appanage times and the strengthening of the regime of the tsar’s personal power. Its socio-economic order turned out to be disastrous. The oprichnina and the protracted Livonian War devastated the country. The deep economic crisis that engulfed Russia in the 1570s–1580s was called “rukh” by contemporaries. One of the disastrous consequences of Ivan the Terrible’s domestic policy was the enslavement of the Russian peasantry. In 1581, “Reserved Summers” were established, until the abolition of which peasants were forbidden to leave their owners. In fact, this meant that the peasants were deprived of the ancient right to move to another owner on St. George’s Day.

TICKET 13 Time of Troubles

The Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century was one of the most difficult and tragic periods in Russian history, which had a fateful impact on the fate of our state. The name itself - “Troubles”, “Time of Troubles” very accurately reflects the atmosphere of that time. The name, by the way, has a folk etymology.

Origin problem

The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from among them. The tribal nobility and the wealthy part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, need to maintain their dominance in state structures.

The embryonic form of statehood was represented by East Slavic tribal unions, which united into super-unions, albeit fragile ones. Eastern historians talk about the existence, on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state, of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. Kuyaba, or Kuyava, was then the name of the region around Kyiv. Slavia occupied territory in the area of Lake Ilmen. Its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania - the third major association of the Slavs - has not been precisely established.

According to the Tale of Bygone Years, Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859, the northern Slavic tribes, who were then paying tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them overseas. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the warring factions. In 862, Prince Rurik and his two brothers were called to Rus' by the Novgorodians, marking the beginning of the Russian princely dynasty.

The first Russian princes and their activities

RURIK (862 - 879)

The founder of the Rurik dynasty, the first ancient Russian prince.
According to the Tale of Bygone Years, he was called to reign in 862 by the Ilmen Slovenes, Chud and all of the Varangian lands.
He reigned first in Ladoga, and then in all Novgorod lands.
Before his death, he transferred power to his relative (or senior warrior) - Oleg.

OLEG (879 - 912)

The first real ruler of Ancient Rus', who united the lands of the Slavic tribes along the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”
In 882 he captured Kyiv and made it the capital of the ancient Russian state, killing Askold and Dir, who had previously reigned there.
He subjugated the tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners, and Radimichi.
Strengthened the foreign policy position. In 907 he made a successful military campaign against Constantinople, which resulted in two peace treaties beneficial for Rus' (907 and 911).

IGOR (912 - 945)

He expanded the borders of the Old Russian state, subjugating the Ulich tribe and contributing to the founding of Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula.
He repelled the raids of the Pecheneg nomads.
Organized military campaigns against Byzantium:
1) 941 - ended in failure;
2) 944 - conclusion of a mutually beneficial agreement.
Killed by the Drevlyans while collecting tribute in 945.

OLGA (945 - 969)

The wife of Prince Igor, she ruled in Rus' during the childhood of her son Svyatoslav and during his military campaigns.
For the first time, she established a clear procedure for collecting tribute (“polyudya”) by introducing:
1) lessons in determining the exact amounts of tribute;
2) graveyards - establishing places for collecting tribute.
She visited Byzantium in 957 and converted to Christianity under the name Helen.
In 968 she led the defense of Kyiv from the Pecheni

SVYATOSLAV (964 - 972)

Son of Prince Igor and Princess Olga.
Initiator and leader of many military campaigns:
- Defeat of the Khazar Kaganate and its capital Itil (965)
- Hiking to Danube Bulgaria. Wars with Byzantium (968 - 971)
- Military clashes with the Pechenegs (969 - 972)
- Treaty between Russia and Byzantium (971)
Killed by the Pechenegs during their return from Bulgaria in 972 on the Dnieper rapids.

VLADIMIR THE FIRST SAINT (978 (980)) - 1015)

In 972 - 980 The first internecine war for power takes place between the sons of Svyatoslav - Vladimir and Yaropolk. Vladimir wins and establishes himself on the Kiev throne.
980 - Vladimir carries out pagan reform. A pantheon of pagan gods is created, led by Perun. An attempt to adapt paganism to the needs of the Old Russian state and society ended in failure.

988 - adoption of Christianity in Rus'.
YAROSLAV THE WISE (1019 - 1054)

He established himself on the Kiev throne after long strife with Svyatopolk the Accursed (he received his nickname after the murder of his brothers Boris and Gleb, who were later canonized as saints) and Mstislav of Tmutarakan.
He contributed to the flourishing of the Old Russian state, patronized education and construction.
Contributed to the rise of the international authority of Rus'. Established broad dynastic ties with European and Byzantine courts.
Conducted military campaigns:
- to the Baltic states;
- to the Polish-Lithuanian lands;
- to Byzantium.
Finally defeated the Pechenegs.
Prince Yaroslav the Wise is the founder of written Russian legislation ("Russian Truth", "Pravda Yaroslav").

VLADIMIR THE SECOND MONOMACH (1113 - 1125)

Mary, daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine the Ninth Monomakh. Prince of Smolensk (from 1067), Chernigov (from 1078), Pereyaslavl (from 1093), Grand Prince of Kiev (from 1113).
Prince Vladimir Monomakh - organizer of successful campaigns against the Polovtsians (1103, 1109, 1111)
He advocated the unity of Rus'. Congress participant ancient Russian princes in Lyubech (1097), which discussed the harmfulness of civil strife, the principles of ownership and inheritance of princely lands.
He was called to reign in Kyiv during the popular uprising of 1113, which followed the death of Svyatopolk II. Reigned until 1125
He put into effect the “Charter of Vladimir Monomakh”, where interest on loans was legally limited and it was forbidden to enslave dependent people working off their debt.
Stopped the collapse of the Old Russian state. He wrote a “Teaching,” in which he condemned strife and called for the unity of the Russian land.
He continued the policy of strengthening dynastic ties with Europe. He was married to the daughter of the English king Harold the Second - Gita.

MSTISLAV THE GREAT (1125 - 1132)

Son of Vladimir Monomakh. Prince of Novgorod (1088 - 1093 and 1095 - 1117), Rostov and Smolensk (1093 - 1095), Belgorod and co-ruler of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv (1117 - 1125). From 1125 to 1132 - autocratic ruler of Kyiv.
He continued the policy of Vladimir Monomakh and managed to preserve a unified Old Russian state.
Annexed the Principality of Polotsk to Kyiv in 1127.
Organized successful campaigns against the Polovtsians, Lithuania, and the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavovich.
After his death, almost all the principalities came out of obedience to Kyiv. A specific period begins - feudal fragmentation.

Prince Rurik. (reign dates 862-879). The chronicle founder of the statehood of Rus', the Varangian, the Novgorod prince and the ancestor of the princely, which later became the royal, Rurik dynasty.

Rurik is sometimes identified with King Rorik from Jutland's Hedeby (Denmark). According to another version, Rurik is a representative of the princely family of the Obodrites, and his name is a Slavic family nickname associated with the falcon, which in Slavic languages was also called rarog. There are also attempts to prove the legendary status of Rurik.

It was under this prince that tribal formations became part of Ancient Rus'. The Ilmen Slovenes, the Pskov Krivichi, the Chud and all retained relations under the treaty with Rurik. The Smolensk Krivichi and Merya were annexed by Rurik, who established his “husbands” - governors - in their lands. The chronicle reports the annexation of the tribes of the Northerners, who had previously paid tribute to the Khazars, in 884, the Radimichi in 885, and the subjugation of the Drevlyans in 883. The Croats, Dulebs (Buzhans) and Tivertsy probably took part in the campaign against Byzantium in 906 as allies.

At the same time - in 862 (the date is approximate, according to the early chronology of the Chronicle) the Varangians, Rurik’s warriors Askold and Dir, sailing to Constantinople, seeking to establish complete control over the most important trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, established their power over Kiev. In the future, the center of the future Kievan Rus is formed.

In 879 Rurik died in Novgorod. The reign was transferred to Oleg, regent for Rurik’s young son Igor.

Oleg (Prophetic Oleg) (reign: 879-912) - Prince of Novgorod (from 879) and Grand Duke of Kiev (from 882). Often considered as the founder of the Old Russian state. The chronicle gives his nickname Prophetic, that is, one who knows the future, who sees the future.

In 882, according to chronicle chronology, Prince Oleg, a relative of Rurik, set off on a campaign from Novgorod to the south. Actually, the beginning of the formation of a single state for all Eastern Slavs was the unification by Prince Oleg in 882 of two centers of nascent statehood - northern and southern, with a common center of state power in Kyiv, the capture of Smolensk and Lyubech. It was not for nothing that the Old Russian chronicler described Prince Oleg as “prophetic.” He united in his hands the priestly functions of the most revered pagan cults of the Ilmen Slovenes and the Dnieper Rus. The names of Perun and Veles were sworn by Oleg's ambassadors when concluding a treaty with the Greeks in 911. Having seized power in Kiev, Oleg declared himself a prince from the Russian family, thereby confirming his continuity from the power that preceded him and establishing the legitimacy of his reign as a Russian and not a foreign prince .

Another important political step of Oleg was the campaign against Constantinople. According to the chronicle source, in 907, having equipped 2000 rooks with 40 warriors each, Oleg set out on a campaign against Constantinople. The Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Philosopher ordered the gates of the city to be closed and the harbor blocked with chains, thus giving the Varangians the opportunity to rob and plunder the suburbs of Constantinople. However, Oleg launched an unusual assault: “And Oleg ordered his soldiers to make wheels and put ships on wheels. And when a fair wind blew, they raised sails in the field and went to the city.” The frightened Greeks offered Oleg peace and tribute. According to the agreement, Oleg received 12 hryvnia for each rowlock, and Byzantium promised to pay tribute to Russian cities. As a sign of victory, Oleg nailed his shield on the gates of Constantinople. The main result of the campaign was a trade agreement on duty-free trade between Rus' and Byzantium.

In 911, Oleg sent an embassy to Constantinople, which confirmed the “many years” of peace and concluded new agreement. Compared to the “treaty” of 907, the mention of duty-free trade disappears from it. Oleg is referred to in the treaty as the “Grand Duke of Russia.”

As a result of the victorious campaign against Byzantium, the first written agreements were concluded in 907 and 911, which provided for preferential terms of trade for Russian merchants (trade duties were abolished, ship repairs and overnight accommodation were provided), and resolution of legal and military issues. The tribes of the Radimichi, Northerners, Drevlyans, and Krivichi were subject to tribute. According to the chronicle version, Oleg, who bore the title of Grand Duke, reigned for more than 30 years. Rurik's own son Igor took the throne after the death of Oleg (according to legend, Oleg died from a snake bite) around 912 and ruled until 945.