Physics is the science of nature. Physical bodies and physical phenomena – Knowledge Hypermarket

Forward >>>

We are surrounded by an infinitely diverse world of substances and phenomena.

Changes are constantly taking place in it.

Any changes that occur to bodies are called phenomena. The birth of stars, the change of day and night, the melting of ice, the swelling of buds on trees, the flash of lightning during a thunderstorm, and so on - all these are natural phenomena.

Physical phenomena

Let us remember that bodies are made of substances. Note that during some phenomena the substances of bodies do not change, but during others they do. For example, if you tear a piece of paper in half, then, despite the changes that have occurred, the paper will remain paper. If you burn the paper, it will turn into ash and smoke.

Phenomena in which the size, shape of bodies, the state of substances may change, but substances remain the same, do not transform into others, are called physical phenomena (evaporation of water, glow of a light bulb, sound of strings musical instrument etc.).

Physical phenomena are extremely diverse. Among them there are mechanical, thermal, electrical, light and etc.

Let's remember how clouds float across the sky, an airplane flies, a car drives, an apple falls, a cart rolls, etc. In all of the above phenomena, objects (bodies) move. Phenomena associated with a change in the position of a body in relation to other bodies are called mechanical(translated from Greek “mechane” means machine, weapon).

Many phenomena are caused by alternating heat and cold. In this case, changes occur in the properties of the bodies themselves. They change shape, size, the state of these bodies changes. For example, when heated, ice turns into water, water into steam; When the temperature drops, steam turns into water, and water into ice. Phenomena associated with heating and cooling of bodies are called thermal(Fig. 35).

Rice. 35. Physical phenomenon: transition of a substance from one state to another. If you freeze drops of water, ice will form again

Let's consider electric phenomena. The word "electricity" comes from the Greek word "electron" - amber. Remember that when you quickly take off your wool sweater, you hear a slight cracking noise. If you do the same in complete darkness, you will also see sparks. This is the simplest electrical phenomenon.

To get acquainted with another electrical phenomenon, do the following experiment.

Tear small pieces of paper and place them on the table surface. Comb clean and dry hair with a plastic comb and hold it to the pieces of paper. What happened?

Rice. 36. Small pieces of paper are attracted to the comb

Bodies that are capable of attracting light objects after rubbing are called electrified(Fig. 36). Lightning during a thunderstorm, auroras, electrification of paper and synthetic fabrics are all electrical phenomena. Operation of telephone, radio, TV, various household appliances- These are examples of human use of electrical phenomena.

Phenomena that are associated with light are called light phenomena. Light is emitted by the Sun, stars, lamps and some living creatures, such as fireflies. Such bodies are called glowing.

We see under the condition of exposure to light on the retina of the eye. In absolute darkness we cannot see. Objects that do not themselves emit light (for example, trees, grass, the pages of this book, etc.) are visible only when they receive light from some luminous body and reflect it from their surface.

The moon, which we often talk about as a night luminary, is in fact only a kind of reflector of sunlight.

By studying the physical phenomena of nature, man learned to use them in Everyday life, everyday life

1. What are called natural phenomena?

2. Read the text. List what natural phenomena are named in it: “Spring has come. The sun is getting hotter and hotter. The snow is melting, streams are flowing. The buds on the trees have swelled and the rooks have arrived.”

3. What phenomena are called physical?

4. From the physical phenomena listed below, write down the mechanical phenomena in the first column; in the second - thermal; in the third - electric; in the fourth – light phenomena.

Physical phenomena: flash of lightning; snow melting; coast; melting metals; operation of an electric bell; rainbow in the sky; sunny bunny; moving stones, sand with water; boiling water.

<<< Назад

Forward >>>

In 1979, the Gorky People's University of Scientific and Technical Creativity released methodological materials for its new development, "Comprehensive method for searching for new technical solutions"We plan to introduce site readers to this interesting development, which in many ways was significantly ahead of its time. But today we offer you to familiarize yourself with a fragment of the third part teaching materials, published under the title "Arrays of Information". The list of physical effects proposed in it includes only 127 items. Now specialized computer programs offer more detailed versions of physical effects indexes, but for a user who is still “not covered” by software support, the table of applications of physical effects created in Gorky is of interest. Its practical benefit is that at the input the solver had to indicate which function from those listed in the table it wants to provide and which type of energy it plans to use (as they would say now, indicate resources). The numbers in the cells of the table are the numbers of physical effects in the list. Each physical effect is provided with references to literary sources (unfortunately, almost all of them are currently bibliographic rarities).
The work was carried out by a team that included teachers from Gorky People's University: M.I. Vainerman, B.I. Goldovsky, V.P. Gorbunov, L.A. Zapolyansky, V.T. Korelov, V.G. Kryazhev, A.V. Mikhailov, A.P. Sokhin, Yu.N. Shelomok. The material presented to the reader’s attention is compact, and therefore can be used as handouts in classes at public schools of technical creativity.
Editor

List of physical effects and phenomena

Gorky People's University of Scientific and Technical Creativity
Gorky, 1979

N	Name of physical effect or phenomenon	Short description essence of a physical effect or phenomenon	Typical functions (actions) performed (see Table 1)	Literature
1	2	3	4	5
1	Inertia	The movement of bodies after the cessation of forces. A rotating or translational body moving by inertia can accumulate mechanical energy and produce a force effect	5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 21	42, 82, 144
2	Gravity	force interaction of masses at a distance, as a result of which bodies can move, approaching each other	5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15	127, 128, 144
3	Gyroscopic effect	Bodies rotating at high speed are able to maintain the position of their axis of rotation unchanged. External force to change the direction of the rotation axis leads to precession of the gyroscope, proportional to the force	10, 14	96, 106
4	Friction	The force arising from the relative movement of two contacting bodies in the plane of their contact. Overcoming this force leads to the release of heat, light, wear and tear	2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 19, 20	31, 114, 47, 6, 75, 144
5	Replacing static friction with motion friction	When the rubbing surfaces vibrate, the friction force decreases	12	144
6	Wear-free effect (Kragelsky and Garkunov)	The steel-bronze pair with glycerin lubricant practically does not wear out	12	75
7	Johnson-Rabek effect	Heating the metal-semiconductor rubbing surfaces increases the friction force	2, 20	144
8	Deformation	Reversible or irreversible (elastic or plastic deformation) change in the relative position of body points under the influence of mechanical forces, electric, magnetic, gravitational and thermal fields, accompanied by the release of heat, sound, light	4, 13, 18, 22	11, 129
9	Poynting effect	Elastic elongation and increase in volume of steel and copper wires when twisted. The properties of the material do not change	11, 18	132
10	Relationship between strain and electrical conductivity	When a metal transitions to a superconducting state, its plasticity increases	22	65, 66
11	Electroplastic effect	Increasing ductility and reducing brittleness of metal under the influence of high-density direct electric current or pulsed current	22	119
12	Bauschinger effect	Reduction of resistance to initial plastic deformations when the sign of the load changes	22	102
13	Alexandrov effect	With increasing ratio of the masses of elastically colliding bodies, the energy transfer coefficient increases only to a critical value, determined by the properties and configuration of the bodies	15	2
14	Memory alloys	Parts made of some alloys (titanium-nickel, etc.) deformed by mechanical forces after heating restore exactly their original shape and are capable of creating significant force impacts.	1, 4, 11, 14, 18, 22	74
15	Explosion phenomenon	Ignition of substances due to their instant chemical decomposition and the formation of highly heated gases, accompanied by a strong sound, the release of significant energy (mechanical, thermal), and a flash of light	2, 4, 11, 13, 15, 18, 22	129
16	Thermal expansion	Changes in the size of bodies under the influence of a thermal field (during heating and cooling). May be accompanied by significant effort	5, 10, 11, 18	128,144
17	First-order phase transitions	A change in the density of the aggregate state of substances at a certain temperature, accompanied by release or absorption	1, 2, 3, 9, 11, 14, 22	129, 144, 33
18	Phase transitions of the second order	Abrupt change in heat capacity, thermal conductivity, magnetic properties, fluidity (superfluidity), plasticity (superplasticity), electrical conductivity (superconductivity) upon reaching a certain temperature and without energy exchange	1, 3, 22	33, 129, 144
19	Capillarity	Spontaneous flow of liquid under the action of capillary forces in capillaries and half-open channels (microcracks and scratches)	6, 9	122, 94, 144, 129, 82
20	Laminarity and turbulence	Laminarity is the ordered movement of a viscous liquid (or gas) without interlayer mixing with a flow rate decreasing from the center of the pipe to the walls. Turbulence is the chaotic movement of a liquid (or gas) with random movement of particles along complex trajectories and an almost constant flow velocity across the cross section	5, 6, 11, 12, 15	128, 129, 144
21	Surface tension of liquids	Surface tension forces, caused by the presence of surface energy, tend to reduce the interface	6, 19, 20	82, 94, 129, 144
22	Wetting	Physico-chemical interaction of liquid with solid body. The character depends on the properties of the interacting substances	19	144, 129, 128
23	Autophobic effect	When a low tension liquid comes into contact with a high energy solid complete wetting occurs first, then the liquid collects into a drop, and a strong molecular layer of liquid remains on the surface of the solid	19, 20	144, 129, 128
24	Ultrasonic capillary effect	Increasing the speed and height of liquid rise in capillaries under the influence of ultrasound	6	14, 7, 134
25	Thermocapillary effect	Dependence of the speed of liquid spreading on the uneven heating of its layer. The effect depends on the purity of the liquid and its composition	1, 6, 19	94, 129, 144
26	Electrocapillary effect	Dependence of surface tension at the interface between electrodes and electrolyte solutions or ionic melts on the electric potential	6, 16, 19	76, 94
27	Sorption	The process of spontaneous condensation of a dissolved or vaporous substance (gas) on the surface of a solid or liquid. With low penetration of the sorbent substance into the sorbent, adsorption occurs, with deep penetration, absorption occurs. The process is accompanied by heat exchange	1, 2, 20	1, 27, 28, 100, 30, 43, 129, 103
28	Diffusion	The process of equalizing the concentration of each component throughout the entire volume of a mixture of gas or liquid. The rate of diffusion in gases increases with decreasing pressure and increasing temperature	8, 9, 20, 22	32, 44, 57, 82, 109, 129, 144
29	Dufort effect	The emergence of a temperature difference during diffusion mixing of gases	2	129, 144
30	Osmosis	Diffusion through a semi-permeable septum. Accompanied by the creation of osmotic pressure	6, 9, 11	15
31	Heat and mass exchange	Heat transfer. May be accompanied by mixing of the mass or caused by movement of the mass	2, 7, 15	23
32	Archimedes' Law	The action of lift on a body immersed in a liquid or gas	5, 10, 11	82, 131, 144
33	Pascal's law	Pressure in liquids or gases is transmitted evenly in all directions	11	82, 131, 136, 144
34	Bernoulli's law	Constancy of total pressure in steady laminar flow	5, 6	59
35	Viscoelectric effect	An increase in the viscosity of a polar non-conducting liquid when flowing between the capacitor plates	6, 10, 16, 22	129, 144
36	Thoms effect	Reduced friction between turbulent flow and pipeline when introduced into the flow polymer additive	6, 12, 20	86
37	Coanda effect	Deflection of the jet of liquid flowing from the nozzle towards the wall. Sometimes there is “sticking” of liquid	6	129
38	Magnus effect	The emergence of a force acting on a cylinder rotating in the oncoming flow, perpendicular to the flow and the generatrix of the cylinder	5,11	129, 144
39	Joule-Thomson effect (choke effect)	Change in gas temperature as it flows through a porous partition, diaphragm or valve (without exchange with the environment)	2, 6	8, 82, 87
40	Water hammer	Rapid shutdown of a pipeline with a moving liquid causes a sharp increase in pressure, propagating in the form of a shock wave, and the appearance of cavitation	11, 13, 15	5, 56, 89
41	Electrohydraulic shock (Yutkin effect)	Water hammer caused by pulsed electrical discharge	11, 13, 15	143
42	Hydrodynamic cavitation	The formation of ruptures in a fast flow of continuous fluid as a result of a local decrease in pressure, causing destruction of the object. Accompanied by sound	13, 18, 26	98, 104
43	Acoustic cavitation	Cavitation resulting from the passage of acoustic waves	8, 13, 18, 26	98, 104, 105
44	Sonoluminescence	Faint glow of a bubble at the moment of its cavitation collapse	4	104, 105, 98
45	Free (mechanical) vibrations	Natural damped oscillations when the system is removed from an equilibrium position. In the presence of internal energy, the oscillations become undamped (self-oscillations)	1, 8, 12, 17, 21	20, 144, 129, 20, 38
46	Forced vibrations	Fluctuations year by periodic force, usually external	8, 12, 17	120
47	Acoustic paramagnetic resonance	Resonant absorption of sound by a substance, depending on the composition and properties of the substance	21	37
48	Resonance	A sharp increase in the amplitude of oscillations when the forced and natural frequencies coincide	5, 9, 13, 21	20, 120
49	Acoustic vibrations	Propagation of sound waves in a medium. The nature of the impact depends on the frequency and intensity of vibrations. Main purpose - force impact	5, 6, 7, 11, 17, 21	38, 120
50	Reverberation	Aftersound caused by the transition of delayed reflected or scattered sound waves to a certain point	4, 17, 21	120, 38
51	Ultrasound	Longitudinal vibrations in gases, liquids and solids in the frequency range 20x103-109 Hz. Beam propagation with effects of reflection, focusing, formation of shadows with the ability to transmit high energy density used for power and thermal effects	2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26	7, 10, 14, 16, 90, 107, 133
52	Wave motion	transfer of energy without transfer of matter in the form of a disturbance propagating at a finite speed	6, 15	61, 120, 129
53	Doppler-Fizeau effect	Change in oscillation frequency during mutual movement of the source and receiver of oscillations	4	129, 144
54	Standing waves	At a certain phase shift, the direct and reflected waves add up to a standing wave with a characteristic arrangement of disturbance maxima and minima (nodes and antinodes). There is no transfer of energy through nodes, and between neighboring nodes there is an interconversion of kinetic and potential energy. The force action of a standing wave can create a corresponding structure	9, 23	120, 129
55	Polarization	Violation of axial symmetry of a transverse wave relative to the direction of propagation of this wave. Polarization is caused by: lack of axial symmetry in the emitter, or reflection and refraction at the boundaries of different media, or propagation in an anisotropic medium	4, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24	53, 22, 138
56	Diffraction	Wave bending around an obstacle. Depends on obstacle size and wavelength	17	83, 128, 144
57	Interference	Strengthening and weakening of waves at certain points in space, which occurs when two or more waves overlap	4, 19, 23	83, 128, 144
58	Moire effect	The appearance of a pattern when two systems of equidistant parallel lines intersect at a slight angle. A small change in the angle of rotation leads to a significant change in the distance between the elements of the pattern	19, 23	91, 140
59	Coulomb's law	Attraction of unlike and repulsion of like electrically charged bodies	5, 7, 16	66, 88, 124
60	Induced charges	The appearance of charges on a conductor under the influence of an electric field	16	35, 66, 110
61	Interaction of bodies with fields	Changing the shape of bodies leads to a change in the configuration of the resulting electric and magnetic fields. This can be controlled by the forces acting on charged particles placed in such fields	25	66, 88, 95, 121, 124
62	Retracting the dielectric between the capacitor plates	When the dielectric is partially introduced between the plates of the capacitor, its retraction is observed	5, 6, 7, 10, 16	66, 110
63	Conductivity	Movement of free carriers under the influence of an electric field. Depends on temperature, density and purity of the substance, its state of aggregation, external influence forces causing deformation from hydrostatic pressure. In the absence of free carriers, the substance is an insulator and is called a dielectric. Becomes a semiconductor when thermally excited	1, 16, 17, 19, 21, 25	123
64	Superconductivity	A significant increase in the conductivity of some metals and alloys at certain values temperature, magnetic field and current density	1, 15, 25	3, 24, 34, 77
65	Joule-Lenz law	The release of thermal energy during the passage of electric current. The value is inversely proportional to the conductivity of the material	2	129, 88
66	Ionization	The appearance of free charge carriers in substances under the influence of external factors (electromagnetic, electric or thermal fields, discharges in irradiation gases x-rays or a flow of electrons, alpha particles, during the destruction of bodies)	6, 7, 22	129, 144
67	Eddy currents (Foucault currents)	Circular induction currents flow in a massive non-ferromagnetic plate placed in a changing magnetic field perpendicular to its lines. In this case, the plate heats up and is pushed out of the field	2, 5, 6, 10, 11, 21, 24	50, 101
68	Frictionless brake	A heavy metal plate oscillating between the poles of an electromagnet “gets stuck” when turned on. direct current and stops	10	29, 35
69	Conductor carrying current in a magnetic field	The Lorentz force acts on electrons, which transmit force to the crystal lattice through ions. As a result, the conductor is pushed out of the magnetic field	5, 6, 11	66, 128
70	Conductor moving in a magnetic field	When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, it begins to flow electricity	4, 17, 25	29, 128
71	Mutual induction	Alternating current in one of two adjacent circuits causes the appearance of an induced emf in the other	14, 15, 25	128
72	Interaction of conductors with a current of moving electric charges	Conductors carrying current are drawn towards each other or repel each other. Moving electric charges interact in a similar way. The nature of the interaction depends on the shape of the conductors	5, 6, 7	128
73	induced emf	When a magnetic field changes or its movement in a closed conductor, an induced emf occurs. The direction of the induction current produces a field that prevents the change in magnetic flux causing induction	24	128
74	Surface effect (skin effect)	High frequency currents flow only along the surface layer of the conductor	2	144
75	Electromagnetic field	The mutual induction of electric and magnetic fields is the propagation of (radio waves, electromagnetic waves, light, x-rays and gamma rays). An electric field can also serve as its source. A special case of the electromagnetic field is light radiation (visible, ultraviolet and infrared). The thermal field can also serve as its source. The electromagnetic field is detected by thermal effect, electrical action, light pressure, activation chemical reactions	1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26	48, 60, 83, 35
76	Charge in a magnetic field	A charge moving in a magnetic field is subject to the Lorentz force. Under the influence of this force, the charge moves in a circle or spiral	5, 6, 7, 11	66, 29
77	Electrorheological effect	Rapid reversible increase in viscosity of non-aqueous disperse systems in strong electric fields	5, 6, 16, 22	142
78	Dielectric in a magnetic field	In a dielectric placed in an electromagnetic field, part of the energy turns into heat	2	29
79	Breakdown of dielectrics	A fall electrical resistance and thermal destruction of the material due to heating of the dielectric section under the influence of a strong electric field	13, 16, 22	129, 144
80	Electrostriction	Elastic reversible increase in body size in an electric field of any sign	5, 11, 16, 18	66
81	Piezoelectric effect	Formation of charges on the surface of a solid under the influence of mechanical stress	4, 14, 15, 25	80, 144
82	Inverse piezoelectric effect	Elastic deformation of a solid under the influence of an electric field, depending on the sign of the field	5, 11, 16, 18	80
83	Electro-caloric effect	Change in temperature of a pyroelectric when introduced into an electric field	2, 15, 16	129
84	Electrification	The appearance of electrical charges on the surface of substances. It can also be caused in the absence of an external electric field (for pyroelectrics and ferroelectrics when the temperature changes). When a substance is exposed to a strong electric field with cooling or illumination, electrets are obtained that create an electric field around themselves	1, 16	116, 66, 35, 55, 124, 70, 88, 36, 41, 110, 121
85	Magnetization	Orientation of intrinsic magnetic moments of substances in an external magnetic field. Based on the degree of magnetization, substances are divided into paramagnetic and ferromagnetic. In permanent magnets, the magnetic field remains after removal of the external electrical and magnetic properties	1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 22, 23	78, 73, 29, 35
86	Effect of temperature on electrical and magnetic properties	The electrical and magnetic properties of substances change dramatically near a certain temperature (Curie point). Above the Curie point, the ferromagnet becomes paramagnetic. Ferroelectrics have two Curie points at which either magnetic or electrical anomalies are observed. Antiferromagnets lose their properties at a temperature called the Néel point	1, 3, 16, 21, 22, 24, 25	78, 116, 66, 51, 29
87	Magneto-electric effect	In ferroferromagnets, when a magnetic (electric) field is applied, a change in the electric (magnetic) permeability is observed	22, 24, 25	29, 51
88	Hopkins effect	Increase in magnetic susceptibility as one approaches the Curie temperature	1, 21, 22, 24	29
89	Barkhausen effect	Stepwise behavior of the magnetization curve of a sample near the Curie point with changes in temperature, elastic stress or external magnetic field	1, 21, 22, 24	29
90	Liquids that harden in a magnetic field	viscous liquids (oils) mixed with ferromagnetic particles harden when placed in a magnetic field	10, 15, 22	139
91	Piezo magnetism	The appearance of a magnetic moment when elastic stresses are applied	25	29, 129, 144
92	Magneto-caloric effect	Change in temperature of a magnet when it is magnetized. For paramagnetic materials, increasing the field increases the temperature	2, 22, 24	29, 129, 144
93	Magnetostriction	Changes in the size of bodies when their magnetization changes (volumetric or linear), the object depends on temperature	5, 11, 18, 24	13, 29
94	Thermostriction	Magnetostrictive deformation when heating bodies in the absence of a magnetic field	1, 24	13, 29
95	Einstein and de Haas effect	Magnetization of a magnet causes it to rotate, and rotation causes magnetization	5, 6, 22, 24	29
96	Ferro-magnetic resonance	Selective (by frequency) absorption of electromagnetic field energy. The frequency changes depending on the field intensity and temperature changes	1, 21	29, 51
97	Contact potential difference (Volta's law)	The appearance of a potential difference when two different metals come into contact. The value depends on chemical composition materials and their temperatures	19, 25	60
98	Triboelectricity	Electrification of bodies during friction. The magnitude and sign of the charge are determined by the state of the surfaces, their composition, density and dielectric constant	7, 9, 19, 21, 25	6, 47, 144
99	Seebeck effect	The occurrence of thermoEMF in a circuit of dissimilar metals under the condition different temperatures at points of contact. When homogeneous metals come into contact, the effect occurs when one of the metals is compressed by uniform pressure or saturated with a magnetic field. The other conductor is in normal conditions	19, 25	64
100	Peltier effect	The release or absorption of heat (except Joule) when current passes through a junction of dissimilar metals, depending on the direction of the current	2	64
101	Thomson phenomenon	The release or absorption of heat (excessive over Joule heat) when current passes through an unevenly heated homogeneous conductor or semiconductor	2	36
102	Hall effect	The appearance of an electric field in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the current. In ferromagnets, the Hall coefficient reaches a maximum at the Curie point and then decreases	16, 21, 24	62, 71
103	Ettingshausen effect	The occurrence of a temperature difference in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field and current	2, 16, 22, 24	129
104	Thomson effect	Change in the conductivity of a ferromanite conductor in a strong magnetic field	22, 24	129
105	Nernst effect	The appearance of an electric field during transverse magnetization of a conductor perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field and the temperature gradient	24, 25	129
106	Electric discharges in gases	The emergence of an electric current in a gas as a result of its ionization and under the influence of an electric field. The external manifestations and characteristics of discharges depend on control factors (gas composition and pressure, space configuration, electric field frequency, current strength)	2, 16, 19, 20, 26	123, 84, 67, 108, 97, 39, 115, 40, 4
107	Electroosmosis	Movement of liquids or gases through capillaries, solid porous diaphragms and membranes, and through the forces of very small particles under the influence of an external electric field	9, 16	76
108	Current potential	The appearance of a potential difference between the ends of capillaries and also between the opposite surfaces of a diaphragm, membrane or other porous medium when liquid is forced through them	4, 25	94
109	Electrophoresis	Movement of solid particles, gas bubbles, liquid droplets, as well as colloidal particles suspended in a liquid or gaseous medium under the influence of an external electric field	6, 7, 8, 9	76
110	Sedimentation potential	The emergence of a potential difference in a liquid as a result of the movement of particles caused by non-electrical forces (settling of particles, etc.)	21, 25	76
111	Liquid crystals	A liquid with elongated molecules tends to become cloudy in spots when exposed to an electric field and change color at different temperatures and viewing angles	1, 16	137
112	Light dispersion	Dependence of the absolute refractive index on the radiation wavelength	21	83, 12, 46, 111, 125
113	Holography	Obtaining three-dimensional images by illuminating an object with coherent light and photographing the interference pattern of the interaction of light scattered by the object with coherent radiation from the source	4, 19, 23	9, 45, 118, 95, 72, 130
114	Reflection and refraction	When a parallel beam of light falls on a smooth interface between two isotropic media, part of the light is reflected back, and the other, refracted, passes into the second medium	4,	21
115	Light absorption and scattering	When light passes through matter, its energy is absorbed. Some of it is re-radiated, the rest of the energy is converted into other forms (heat). Part of the re-emitted energy spreads into different sides and produces diffused light	15, 17, 19, 21	17, 52, 58
116	Emission of light. Spectral analysis	A quantum system (atom, molecule), which is in an excited state, emits excess energy in the form of a portion of electromagnetic radiation. The atoms of each substance have a disrupted structure of radiative transitions that can be detected by optical methods	1, 4, 17, 21	17, 52, 58
117	Optical quantum generators (lasers)	Amplification of electromagnetic waves by passing them through a medium with population inversion. Laser radiation is coherent, monochromatic, with a high energy concentration in the beam and low divergence	2, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 25, 26	85, 126, 135
118	The phenomenon of total internal reflection	All the energy of a light wave incident on the interface between transparent media from a medium that is optically denser is completely reflected into the same medium	1, 15, 21	83
119	Luminescence, luminescence polarization	Radiation that is excessive under thermal radiation and has a duration exceeding the period of light oscillations. Luminescence continues for some time after the cessation of excitation (electromagnetic radiation, energy of an accelerated flow of particles, energy of chemical reactions, mechanical energy)	4, 14, 16, 19, 21, 24	19, 25, 92, 117, 68, 113
120	Quenching and stimulation of luminescence	Exposure to a type of energy other than the one that excites luminescence can either stimulate or extinguish luminescence. Control factors: thermal field, electrical and electromagnetic field(IR light), pressure; humidity, presence of certain gases	1, 16, 24	19
121	Optical anisotropy	differences in the optical properties of substances in different directions, depending on their structure and temperature	1, 21, 22	83
122	Birefringence	On the. At the interface between anisotropic transparent bodies, light is split into two mutually perpendicular polarized beams having different speeds distribution in the environment	21	54, 83, 138, 69, 48
123	Maxwell effect	Emergence birefringence in a fluid flow. Determined by the action of hydrodynamic forces, flow velocity gradient, friction against the walls	4, 17	21
124	Kerr effect	The appearance of optical anisotropy in isotropic substances under the influence of electric or magnetic fields	16, 21, 22, 24	99, 26, 53
125	Pockels effect	The appearance of optical anisotropy under the influence of an electric field in the direction of light propagation. Slightly dependent on temperature	16, 21, 22	129
126	Faraday effect	Rotation of the plane of polarization of light when passing through a substance placed in a magnetic field	21, 22, 24	52, 63, 69
127	Natural optical activity	The ability of a substance to rotate the plane of polarization of light passing through it	17, 21	54, 83, 138

Physical Effect Selection Table

List of references to the array of physical effects and phenomena

1. Adam N.K. Physics and chemistry of surfaces. M., 1947

2. Aleksandrov E.A. ZhTF. 36, No. 4, 1954

3. Alievsky B.D. Application of cryogenic technology and superconductivity in electrical machines and devices. M., Informstandartelektro, 1967

4. Aronov M.A., Kolechitsky E.S., Larionov V.P., Minein V.R., Sergeev Yu.G. Electrical discharges in the air at high frequency voltage, M., Energy, 1969

5. Aronovich G.V. etc. Water hammer and surge tanks. M., Nauka, 1968

6. Akhmatov A.S. Molecular physics of boundary friction. M., 1963

7. Babikov O.I. Ultrasound and its application in industry. FM, 1958"

8. Bazarov I.P. Thermodynamics. M., 1961

9. Bathers J. Holography and its application. M., Energy, 1977

10. Baulin I. Beyond the hearing barrier. M., Knowledge, 1971

11. Bezhukhov N.I. Theory of elasticity and plasticity. M., 1953

12. Bellamy L. Infrared spectra of molecules. M., 1957

13. Belov K.P. Magnetic transformations. M., 1959

14. Bergman L. Ultrasound and its application in technology. M., 1957

15. Bladergren V. Physical chemistry in medicine and biology. M., 1951

16. Borisov Yu.Ya., Makarov L.O. Ultrasound in technology of the present and future. USSR Academy of Sciences, M., 1960

17. Born M. Atomic physics. M., 1965

18. Bruening G. Physics and application of secondary electron emission

19. Vavilov S.I. About “hot” and “cold” light. M., Knowledge, 1959

20. Weinberg D.V., Pisarenko G.S. Mechanical vibrations and their role in technology. M., 1958

21. Weisberger A. Physical methods in organic chemistry. T.

22. Vasiliev B.I. Optics of polarizing devices. M., 1969

23. Vasiliev L.L., Konev S.V. Heat transfer tubes. Minsk, Science and Technology, 1972

24. Venikov V.A., Zuev E.N., Okolotin V.S. Superconductivity in energy. M., Energy, 1972

25. Vereshchagin I.K. Electroluminescence of crystals. M., Nauka, 1974

26. Volkenshtein M.V. Molecular Optics, 1951

27. Volkenshtein F.F. Semiconductors as catalysts for chemical reactions. M., Knowledge, 1974

28. Volkenshtein F.F., Radical-recombination luminescence of semiconductors. M., Nauka, 1976

29. Vonsovsky S.V. Magnetism. M., Nauka, 1971

30. Voronchev T.A., Sobolev V.D. Physical foundations of electrovacuum technology. M., 1967

31. Garkunov D.N. Selective transfer in friction units. M., Transport, 1969

32. Geguzin Ya.E. Essays on diffusion in crystals. M., Nauka, 1974

33. Geilikman B.T. Statistical physics of phase transitions. M., 1954

34. Ginzburg V.L. The problem of high temperature superconductivity. Collection "The Future of Science" M., Znanie, 1969

35. Govorkov V.A. Electric and magnetic fields. M., Energy, 1968

36. Goldelii G. Application of thermoelectricity. M., FM, 1963

37. Goldansky V.I. Moesbauer effect and its

application in chemistry. USSR Academy of Sciences, M., 1964

38. Gorelik G.S. Oscillations and waves. M., 1950

39. Granovsky V.L. Electric current in gases. T.I, M., Gostekhizdat, 1952, vol.II, M., Science, 1971

40. Grinman I.G., Bakhtaev Sh.A. Gas discharge micrometers. Alma-Ata, 1967

41. Gubkin A.N. Physics of dielectrics. M., 1971

42. Gulia N.V. Revived energy. Science and Life, No. 7, 1975

43. De Boer F. Dynamic nature of adsorption. M., IL, 1962

44. De Groot S.R. Thermodynamics of irreversible processes. M., 1956

45. Denisyuk Yu.N. Images of the outside world. Nature, No. 2, 1971

46. ​​Deribere M. Practical use infrared rays. M.-L., 1959

47. Deryagin B.V. What is friction? M., 1952

48. Ditchburn R. Physical optics. M., 1965

49. Dobretsov L.N., Gomoyunova M.V. Emission electronics. M., 1966

50. Dorofeev A.L. Eddy currents. M., Energy, 1977

51. Dorfman Ya.G. Magnetic properties and structure of matter. M., Gostekhizdat, 1955

52. Elyashevich M.A. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy. M., 1962

53. Zhevandrov N.D. Polarization of light. M., Nauka, 1969

54. Zhevandrov N.D. Anisotropy and optics. M., Nauka, 1974

55. Zheludev I.S. Physics of dielectric crystals. M., 1966

56. Zhukovsky N.E. About water hammer in water taps. M.-L., 1949

57. Zayt V. Diffusion in metals. M., 1958

58. Zaydel A.N. Fundamentals of spectral analysis. M., 1965

59. Zeldovich Ya.B., Raiser Yu.P. Physics of shock waves and high-temperature hydrodynamic phenomena. M., 1963

60. Zilberman G.E. Electricity and magnetism, M., Nauka, 1970

61. Knowledge is power. No. 11, 1969

62. "Ilyukovich A.M. Hall effect and its application in measuring technology. J. Measuring technology, No. 7, 1960

63. Ios G. Course of theoretical physics. M., Uchpedgiz, 1963

64. Ioffe A.F. Semiconductor thermoelements. M., 1963

65. Kaganov M.I., Natsik V.D. Electrons slow down dislocation. Nature, No. 5.6, 1976

66. Kalashnikov, S.P. Electricity. M., 1967

67. Kantsov N.A. Corona discharge and its application in electric precipitators. M.-L., 1947

68. Karyakin A.V. Luminescent flaw detection. M., 1959

69. Quantum electronics. M., Soviet encyclopedia, 1969

70. Kenzig. Ferroelectrics and antiferroelectrics. M., IL, 1960

71. Kobus A., Tushinsky Y. Hall sensors. M., Energy, 1971

72. Kok U. Lasers and holography. M., 1971

73. Konovalov G.F., Konovalov O.V. Automatic control system with electromagnetic powder couplings. M., Mechanical Engineering, 1976

74. Kornilov I.I. etc. Titanium nickelide and other alloys with a “memory” effect. M., Nauka, 1977

75. Kragelsky I.V. Friction and wear. M., Mechanical Engineering, 1968

76. Brief chemical encyclopedia, vol. 5., M., 1967

77. Koesin V.Z. Superconductivity and superfluidity. M., 1968

78. Kripchik G.S. Physics of magnetic phenomena. M., Moscow State University, 1976

79. Kulik I.O., Yanson I.K. Josephson effect in superconducting tunnel structures. M., Nauka, 1970

80. Lavrinenko V.V. Piezoelectric transformers. M. Energy, 1975

81. Langenberg D.N., Scalapino D.J., Taylor B.N. Josephson effects. Collection "What physicists are thinking about", FTT, M., 1972

82. Landau L.D., Akhizer A.P., Lifshits E.M. General physics course. M., Nauka, 1965

83. Landsberg G.S. General physics course. Optics. M., Gostekhteoretizdat, 1957

84. Levitov V.I. Crown alternating current. M., Energy, 1969

85. Lengyel B. Lasers. M., 1964

86. Lodge L. Elastic fluids. M., Nauka, 1969

87. Malkov M.P. Handbook on the physical and technical foundations of deep cooling. M.-L., 1963

88. Mirdel G. Electrophysics. M., Mir, 1972

89. Mostkov M.A. and others. Calculations of water hammer, M.-L., 1952

90. Myanikov L.L. Inaudible sound. L., Shipbuilding, 1967

91. Science and Life, No. 10, 1963; No. 3, 1971

92. Inorganic phosphors. L., Chemistry, 1975

93. Olofinsky N.F. Electrical methods enrichment. M., Nedra, 1970

94. Ono S, Kondo. Molecular theory of surface tension in liquids. M., 1963

95. Ostrovsky Yu.I. Holography. M., Nauka, 1971

96. Pavlov V.A. Gyroscopic effect. Its manifestations and uses. L., Shipbuilding, 1972

97. Pening F.M. Electric discharges in gases. M., IL, 1960

98. Peirsol I. Cavitation. M., Mir, 1975

99. Instruments and experimental techniques. No. 5, 1973

100. Pchelin V.A. In a world of two dimensions. Chemistry and Life, No. 6, 1976

101. Pabkin L.I. High-frequency ferromagnets. M., 1960

102. Ratner S.I., Danilov Yu.S. Changes in proportionality and yield limits upon repeated loading. J. Factory Laboratory, No. 4, 1950

103. Rebinder P.A. Surfactants. M., 1961

104. Rodzinsky L. Cavitation versus cavitation. Knowledge is power, No. 6, 1977

105. Roy N.A. The occurrence and course of ultrasonic cavitation. Acoustic magazine, volume 3, issue. I, 1957

106. Roitenberg Y.N., Gyroscopes. M., Nauka, 1975

107. Rosenberg L.L. Ultrasonic cutting. M., USSR Academy of Sciences, 1962

108. Samerville J.M. Electric arc. M.-L., Gosenergoizdat, 1962

109. Collection "Physical metallurgy". Vol. 2, M., Mir, 1968

110. Collection "Strong electric fields in technological processes". M., Energy, 1969

111. Collection " Ultraviolet radiation". M., 1958

112. Collection "Exoelectronic emission". M., IL, 1962

113. Collection of articles "Luminescent analysis", M., 1961

114. Silin A.A. Friction and its role in the development of technology. M., Nauka, 1976

115. Slivkov I.N. Electrical insulation and discharge in a vacuum. M., Atomizdat, 1972

116. Smolensky G.A., Krainik N.N. Ferroelectrics and antiferroelectrics. M., Nauka, 1968

117. Sokolov V.A., Gorban A.N. Luminescence and adsorption. M., Nauka, 1969

118. Soroko L. From the lens to the programmed optical relief. Nature, No. 5, 1971

119. Spitsyn V.I., Troitsky O.A. Electroplastic deformation of metal. Nature, No. 7, 1977

120. Strelkov S.P. Introduction to the theory of oscillations, M., 1968

121. Stroba J., Shimora J. Static electricity in industry. GZI, M.-L., 1960

122. Summ B.D., Goryunov Yu.V. Physico-chemical principles of wetting and spreading. M., Chemistry, 1976

123. Tables of physical quantities. M., Atomizdat, 1976

124. Tamm I.E. Fundamentals of the theory of electricity. M., 1957

125. Tikhodeev P.M. Light measurements in lighting engineering. M., 1962

126. Fedorov B.F. Optical quantum generators. M.-L., 1966

127. Feyman. The nature of physical laws. M., Mir, 1968

128. Feyman lectures on physics. T.1-10, M., 1967

129. Physical encyclopedic Dictionary. T. 1-5, M., Soviet Encyclopedia, 1962-1966

130. Fransom M. Holography, M., Mir, 1972

131. Frenkel N.Z. Hydraulics. M.-L., 1956

132. Hodge F. Theory of ideally plastic bodies. M., IL, 1956

133. Khorbenko I.G. In a world of inaudible sounds. M., Mechanical Engineering, 1971

134. Khorbenko I.G. Sound, ultrasound, infrasound. M., Knowledge, 1978

135. Chernyshov et al. Lasers in communication systems. M., 1966

136. Chertousov M.D. Hydraulics. Special course. M., 1957

137. Chistyakov I.G. Liquid crystals. M., Nauka, 1966

138. Shercliffe W. Polarized light. M., Mir, 1965

139. Shliomis M.I. Magnetic fluids. Advances in physical sciences. T.112, issue. 3, 1974

140. Shneiderovich R.I., Levin O.A. Measuring plastic strain fields using the moiré method. M., Mechanical Engineering, 1972

141. Shubnikov A.V. Studies of piezoelectric textures. M.-L., 1955

142. Shulman Z.P. and others. Electrorheological effect. Minsk, Science and Technology, 1972

143. Yutkin L.A. Electrohydraulic effect. M., Mashgiz, 1955

144. Yavorsky B.M., Detlaf A. Handbook of physics for engineers and university students. M., 1965

The world is diverse - no matter how banal this statement may be, it really is. Everything that happens in the world is under the close attention of scientists. They have known some things for a long time, others still need to be discovered. Man, a curious creature, has always tried to know the world and the changes taking place in it. Such changes in the surrounding world are called “physical phenomena”. These include rain, wind, lightning, rainbows, and other similar natural effects.

Changes in the world around us are numerous and varied. Curious people could not stay away without trying to find the answer to the question of what caused such interesting physical phenomena.

It all started with the process of observing the world around us, which led to the accumulation of data. But even simple observation of nature evoked certain thoughts. Many physical phenomena, while remaining unchanged, manifested themselves in different ways. For example: the sun rises at different times, it rains or snows from the sky, a thrown stick flies either far or close. Why is this happening?

The appearance of such questions becomes evidence of the gradual development of human perception of the world, the transition from contemplative observation to active study of the environment. It is clear that each changing, manifesting differently physical phenomenon only accelerated this active study. As a result, attempts to experimentally understand nature appeared.

The first experiments looked quite simple, for example: if you throw a stick like this, will it fly far? What if you throw the stick differently? This is already an experimental study of the behavior of a physical body in flight, a step towards establishing a quantitative connection between it and the conditions that cause this flight.

Of course, everything that has been said is a very simplified and primitive presentation of attempts to study the world around us. But, in any case, even if in a primitive form, it makes it possible to consider the occurring physical phenomena as the basis for the emergence and development of science.

In this case, it does not matter what kind of science it is. The basis of any cognition process is observation of what is happening, the accumulation of initial data. Let it be physics with its study of the surrounding world, let it be biology studying nature, astronomy trying to understand the Universe - in any case, the process will proceed the same.

The physical phenomena themselves may be different. To be more precise, their nature will be different: rain is caused by some reasons, a rainbow by others, lightning by others. It took a very long time in the history of human civilization to understand this fact.

The science of physics studies various natural phenomena and its laws. It was she who established a quantitative connection between the various properties of objects, or, as physicists say, bodies, and the essence of these phenomena.

During the study there appeared special tools, research methods, units of measurement that allow us to describe what is happening. Knowledge about the world around us expanded, the results obtained led to new discoveries, and new tasks were put forward. There was a gradual identification of new specialties involved in solving specific applied problems. This is how heat engineering, the science of electricity, optics, and many, many other areas of knowledge within physics itself began to appear - not to mention the fact that other sciences appeared that dealt with completely different problems. But in any case, it must be recognized that observation and study of the phenomena of the surrounding world allowed, over time, the formation of numerous new branches of knowledge that contributed to the development of civilization.

In the end it worked out the whole system studying and mastering the world, surrounding nature and man himself - from simple observation of physical phenomena.

This material describes physical phenomena as the basis for the formation and education of science, in particular physics. An idea is given of how the development of science took place, its stages such as observation of what is happening, experimental verification of facts and conclusions, and formulation of laws are considered.

Ticket No. 1

1. What does physics study? Some physical terms. Observations and experiments. Physical quantities. Measurement of physical quantities. Accuracy and error of measurements.

Physics is the science of the most general properties bodies and phenomena.

How does a person understand the world? How does he explore natural phenomena, obtaining scientific knowledge about him?

A person receives his very first knowledge from observations behind nature.

To obtain the correct knowledge, sometimes simple observation is not enough and you need to carry out experiment – ​​specially prepared experiment .

Experiments are carried out by scientists a predetermined plan with a specific purpose .

During the experiments measurements are taken using special instruments of physical quantities. Examples physical quantities are: distance, volume, speed, temperature.

So, the source of physical knowledge is observations and experiments.

Physical laws are based and verified on facts established empirically. An equally important way of knowing is theoretical description of the phenomenon . Physical theories make it possible to explain known phenomena and predict new, not yet discovered ones.

Changes that occur with bodies are called physical phenomena.

Physical phenomena are divided into several types.

Types of physical phenomena:

1. Mechanical phenomena (for example, the movement of cars, airplanes, celestial bodies, fluid flow).

2. Electrical phenomena(for example, electric current, heating of current-carrying conductors, electrification of bodies).

3. Magnetic phenomena (for example, the effect of magnets on iron, the influence of the Earth’s magnetic field on a compass needle).

4. Optical phenomena (for example, reflection of light from mirrors, emission of light rays from various light sources).

5. Thermal phenomena (melting ice, boiling water, thermal expansion of bodies).

6. Atomic phenomena (for example, work nuclear reactors, nuclear decay, processes occurring inside stars).

7. Sound phenomena (bell ringing, music, thunder, noise).

Physical terms- these are special words that are used in physics for brevity, certainty and convenience.

Physical body– this is every object around us. (Showing physical bodies: pen, book, desk)

Substance- this is everything that physical bodies are made of. (Showing physical bodies consisting of different substances)

Matter- this is everything that exists in the Universe regardless of our consciousness (celestial bodies, plants, animals, etc.)

Physical phenomena- these are changes that occur with physical bodies.

Physical quantities- these are the measurable properties of bodies or phenomena.

Physical devices- This special devices, which are intended for measuring physical quantities and conducting experiments.

Physical quantities:
height h, mass m, path s, speed v, time t, temperature t, volume V, etc.

Units of measurement of physical quantities:

International System of Units SI:

(international system)

Basic:

Length - 1 m - (meter)

Time - 1 s - (second)

Weight - 1 kg - (kilogram)

Derivatives:

Volume - 1 m³ - (cubic meter)

Speed ​​- 1 m/s - (meter per second)

In this expression:

number 10 - numeric value time,

the letter “s” is an abbreviation for a unit of time (second),

and the combination of 10 s is the time value.

Prefixes to unit names:

To make it easier to measure physical quantities, in addition to the basic units, multiple units are used, which are 10, 100, 1000, etc. more basic

g - hecto (×100) k – kilo (× 1000) M – mega (× 1000 000)

1 km (kilometer) 1 kg (kilogram)

1 km = 1000 m = 10³ m 1 kg = 1000 g = 10³ g

Everything that surrounds us: both living and inanimate nature, is in constant motion and is constantly changing: planets and stars move, it rains, trees grow. And a person, as is known from biology, constantly goes through some stages of development. Grinding grains into flour, falling a stone, boiling water, lightning, glowing a light bulb, dissolving sugar in tea, movement Vehicle, lightning, rainbows are examples of physical phenomena.

And with substances (iron, water, air, salt, etc.) various changes or phenomena occur. The substance can be crystallized, melted, crushed, dissolved and again isolated from solution. However, its composition will remain the same.

Thus, granulated sugar can be crushed into a powder so fine that the slightest blow will cause it to rise into the air like dust. Sugar grains can only be seen under a microscope. Sugar can be divided into even smaller parts by dissolving it in water. If you evaporate water from a sugar solution, the sugar molecules again combine with each other to form crystals. But even when dissolved in water or when crushed, sugar remains sugar.

In nature, water forms rivers and seas, clouds and glaciers. When water evaporates, it turns into steam. Water vapor is water in a gaseous state. When exposed low temperatures(below 0˚C) water turns into a solid state - turns into ice. The smallest particle of water is a water molecule. A water molecule is also the smallest particle of steam or ice. Water, ice and steam are not different substances, but the same substance (water) in different states of aggregation.

Like water, other substances can be transferred from one state of aggregation to another.

When characterizing a substance as a gas, liquid or solid, we mean the state of the substance under normal conditions. Any metal can not only be melted (transformed into a liquid state), but also turned into gas. But this requires very high temperatures. In the outer shell of the Sun, metals are in a gaseous state, because the temperature there is 6000˚C. And, for example, carbon dioxide by cooling it can be turned into “dry ice”.

Phenomena in which there is no transformation of one substance into another are classified as physical phenomena. Physical phenomena can lead to a change, for example, in the state of aggregation or temperature, but the composition of the substances will remain the same.

All physical phenomena can be divided into several groups.

Mechanical phenomena are phenomena that occur with physical bodies when they move relative to each other (the revolution of the Earth around the Sun, the movement of cars, the flight of a parachutist).

Electrical phenomena are phenomena that occur with the appearance, existence, movement and interaction of electric charges (electric current, telegraphy, lightning during a thunderstorm).

Magnetic phenomena are phenomena associated with the appearance of magnetic properties in physical bodies (the attraction of iron objects by a magnet, turning the compass needle to the north).

Optical phenomena are phenomena that occur during the propagation, refraction and reflection of light (rainbows, mirages, reflection of light from a mirror, the appearance of shadows).

Thermal phenomena are phenomena that occur during heating and cooling of physical bodies (melting snow, boiling water, fog, freezing of water).

Atomic phenomena are phenomena that occur when internal structure substances of physical bodies (glow of the Sun and stars, atomic explosion).

blog.site, when copying material in full or in part, a link to the original source is required.