Lung functions. Human lungs: structure, functions
The lungs are a paired respiratory organ. They are located in the pleural cavities and carry out gas exchange between the air surrounding the body and the blood.
The right and left lungs are located in the chest. Each lung is surrounded by a membrane - the pleura - from neighboring anatomical structures. Between the pleura surrounding the lungs and the chest there is another layer of pleura - the parietal layer, which lines the inner surface of the chest.
Between the pulmonary pleura and the parietal pleura there is a slit-like closed space - the pleural cavity. In the pleural cavity there is a small amount of liquid that moistens the adjacent smooth layers of the parietal and pulmonary pleura, eliminating friction between them. When breathing, the volume of the lungs increases or decreases. In this case, the pulmonary pleura (VISCERAL) slides freely along the inner surface of the parietal pleura. In places where the parietal pleura transitions from the costal surface to the diaphragm and mediastinum, depressions are formed - pleural sinuses.
The lungs, located in the pleural sacs, are separated by the MEDIA, which includes the heart, aorta, inferior vena cava, esophagus and other organs. The organs of the mediastinum are also covered by pleura, which is called the mediastinal pleura. In the upper part of the chest, on the right and left sides, the parietal pleura connects with the mediastinal pleura and forms the DOME OF THE PLEURA (right and left). Below, the lungs lie on the diaphragm. The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung because the right dome of the diaphragm is higher than the left dome of the diaphragm. The left lung is narrower and longer than the right lung, because part of the left half of the chest is occupied by the heart. In front, from the sides, from behind and above, the lungs are in contact with the chest.
The shape of the lung resembles a truncated cone. The average height of the right lung is 27.1 cm in men and 21.6 cm in women. The average height of the left lung is 29.8 cm in men and 23 cm in women. The average width of the base of the right lung in men is 13.5 cm in men and 12.2 cm in women. The average width of the base of the left lung in men is 12.9 cm and in women - 10.8 cm. The average length of the right lung in living people, measured on x-rays, is 24.46 +-2.39 cm, the weight of one lung is 374.+-14 g.
In each lung there is an apex, a base and three surfaces - costal, medial (facing the mediastinum) and diaphragmatic. The surfaces of the lung are separated by edges. The anterior margin separates the costal surface from the medial surface. The lower edge separates the costal and medial surfaces from the diaphragmatic surface.
Each lung is divided into lobes by slits protruding deeply into the lung tissue. The lobes are also lined with visceral pleura. The right lung has three lobes - upper, middle and lower, while the left lung has only two lobes - upper and lower. On the medial surface of each lung, approximately in the center, there is a funnel-shaped depression - the PORTAL OF THE LUNG. The root of the lung enters the gate of each lung.
The root of the lung consists of the main bronchus, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins (two), lymphatic vessels, nerve plexuses, bronchial arteries and veins. The hilum of the lung also contains lymph nodes. The location of vascular formations in the root (hilum) of the lung is usually such that the upper part of the hilum is occupied by the main bronchus, nerve plexuses, pulmonary artery, lymph nodes, and the lower part of the hilum is occupied by the pulmonary veins. At the gate of the right lung at the top lies the main bronchus, below it is the pulmonary artery and below it are two pulmonary veins. At the hilum of the left lung at the top there is the pulmonary artery, below it is the main bronchus and even lower are two pulmonary veins. At the hilum of the lungs, the main bronchi divide into lobar bronchi.
The lobes of the lungs are divided into bronchopulmonary SEGMENTS - pulmonary areas, more or less separated from the same neighboring areas by layers of connective tissue. The right lung has three segments in the upper lobe, two segments in the middle lobe, and five segments in the lower lobe. The left lung has five segments in the upper lobe and five segments in the lower lobe. The segmental structure of the lungs is associated with the order of branching of the bronchi in the lungs: at the hilum of the lungs, the main bronchi are divided into lobar bronchi; The lobar bronchi, in turn, enter the gates of the lung lobes and are divided into segmental bronchi - according to the number of pulmonary segments.
Segmental bronchi enter the bronchopulmonary segment and are divided into branches, numbering 9 - 10 orders of branching. The bronchopulmonary segment itself consists of pulmonary lobules. The segmental bronchus and segmental artery pass through the center of the segment. Along the border of adjacent segments, in the connective tissue septum, a segmental vein runs, draining blood from the segments. The segment with its base faces the surface of the lung, and its apex faces the root.
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The lungs are the respiratory organs in which gas exchange occurs between the air and the circulatory system of living organisms. Mammals (including humans), reptiles, birds, most species of amphibians and some species of fish have lungs.
The unusual name of these organs came about as follows. When people cut up animal carcasses and put the entrails taken out of them into a basin of water, all the organs turned out to be heavier than the water and sank to the bottom. Only the respiratory organs located in the chest were lighter than water and floated on the surface. This is how the name “lungs” stuck to them.
And after we have briefly understood what the lungs are, let's look at what the human lungs are and how they work.
The structure of the human lungs
The lungs are a paired organ. Every person has two lungs - right and left. The lungs are located in the chest and occupy 4/5 of its volume. Each lung is covered with pleura, the outer edge of which is tightly fused with the chest. Initially (in newborns), the lungs are pale pink. Over the course of life, the lungs gradually darken due to the accumulation of coal and dust particles in them.
Each lung consists of lobes, the right lung has three lobes, the left lung has two. The lobes of the lung are divided into segments (the right lung has 10, the left lung has 8), the segments consist of lobules (there are about 80 of them in each segment), and the lobules are divided into acini.
Air enters the lungs through the windpipe (trachea). The trachea divides into two bronchi, each of which enters the lung. Next, each bronchus is divided according to a tree-like principle into bronchi of smaller diameter in order to supply air to each lobe, each segment, each lobe of the lung. The bronchus included in the lobule is divided into 18 - 20 bronchioles, each of which ends in an acini.
Inside the acini, the bronchioles are divided into alveolar ducts, dotted with alveoli. The alveoli are intertwined with a network of the finest blood vessels - capillaries, separated from the alveoli by a thin wall. It is inside the alveoli that gas exchange occurs between blood and air.
How the lungs work
During inhalation, air from the trachea enters the alveoli through a network of bronchi and bronchioles. On the other hand, blood supersaturated with carbon dioxide enters the alveoli through capillaries. Here, human blood is cleared of carbon dioxide and enriched with oxygen necessary for the body’s cells. When you exhale, carbon dioxide is released from the lungs into the atmosphere. This cycle is repeated countless times as long as the organism continues to live.
The lungs are the organs that provide human breathing. These paired organs are located in the chest cavity, adjacent to the heart on the left and right. The lungs have the shape of semi-cones, the base adjacent to the diaphragm, the apex protruding 2-3 cm above the collarbone. The right lung has three lobes, the left - two. The skeleton of the lungs consists of tree-like branching bronchi. Each lung is covered on the outside by a serous membrane - the pulmonary pleura. The lungs lie in the pleural sac, formed by the pulmonary pleura (visceral) and the parietal pleura (parietal) lining the inside of the chest cavity. Each pleura contains glandular cells on the outside that produce fluid into the cavity between the layers of the pleura (pleural cavity). On the inner (cardial) surface of each lung there is a depression - the hilum of the lungs. The pulmonary artery and bronchi enter the gates of the lungs, and two pulmonary veins exit. The pulmonary arteries branch parallel to the bronchi.
Lung tissue consists of pyramidal lobules, with their bases facing the surface. The apex of each lobule includes a bronchus, which sequentially divides to form terminal bronchioles (18-20). Each bronchiole ends with an acinus, a structural and functional element of the lungs. The acini consist of alveolar bronchioles, which are divided into alveolar ducts. Each alveolar duct ends in two alveolar sacs.
Alveoli are hemispherical protrusions consisting of connective tissue fibers. They are lined with a layer of epithelial cells and abundantly intertwined with blood capillaries. It is in the alveoli that the main function of the lungs is carried out - the processes of gas exchange between atmospheric air and blood. In this case, as a result of diffusion, oxygen and carbon dioxide, overcoming the diffusion barrier (alveolar epithelium, basement membrane, blood capillary wall), penetrate from the erythrocyte to the alveoli and vice versa.
Lung functions
The most important function of the lungs is gas exchange - supplying hemoglobin with oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. The intake of oxygen-enriched air and the removal of carbon dioxide-saturated air is carried out thanks to the active movements of the chest and diaphragm, as well as the contractility of the lungs themselves. But there are other functions of the lungs. The lungs take an active part in maintaining the required concentration of ions in the body (acid-base balance), and are capable of removing many substances (aromatic substances, esters, and others). The lungs also regulate the body’s water balance: approximately 0.5 liters of water per day evaporates through the lungs. In extreme situations (for example, hyperthermia), this figure can reach up to 10 liters per day.
Ventilation of the lungs is carried out due to the pressure difference. During inhalation, pulmonary pressure is much lower than atmospheric pressure, allowing air to enter the lungs. When you exhale, the pressure in the lungs is higher than atmospheric pressure.
There are two types of breathing: costal (chest) and diaphragmatic (abdominal).
- Costal breathing
At the points where the ribs are attached to the spinal column, there are pairs of muscles that are attached at one end to the vertebra and at the other to the rib. There are external and internal intercostal muscles. The external intercostal muscles provide the process of inhalation. Exhalation is normally passive, but in case of pathology, the act of exhalation is assisted by the internal intercostal muscles.
- Diaphragmatic breathing
Diaphragmatic breathing is carried out with the participation of the diaphragm. When relaxed, the diaphragm has a dome shape. When its muscles contract, the dome flattens, the volume of the chest cavity increases, the pressure in the lungs decreases compared to atmospheric pressure, and inhalation occurs. When the diaphragmatic muscles relax as a result of the pressure difference, the diaphragm returns to its original position.
Regulation of the breathing process
Breathing is regulated by the centers of inhalation and exhalation. The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata. Receptors that regulate breathing are located in the walls of blood vessels (chemoreceptors sensitive to the concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen) and on the walls of the bronchi (receptors sensitive to changes in pressure in the bronchi - baroreceptors). There are also receptive fields in the carotid sinus (the divergence of the internal and external carotid arteries).
Lungs of a smoker
In the process of smoking, the lungs are subjected to severe shock. Tobacco smoke that penetrates the lungs of a smoker contains tobacco tar (tar), hydrogen cyanide, and nicotine. All these substances settle in the lung tissue, as a result the epithelium of the lungs simply begins to die. The lungs of a smoker are a dirty gray or even just a black mass of dying cells. Naturally, the functionality of such lungs is significantly reduced. In the lungs of a smoker, ciliary dyskinesia develops, spasm of the bronchi occurs, as a result of which bronchial secretions accumulate, chronic pneumonia develops, and bronchiectasis is formed. All this leads to the development of COPD - chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Pneumonia
One of the most common severe pulmonary diseases is pneumonia. The term “pneumonia” includes a group of diseases with different etiologies, pathogenesis, and clinical features. Classic bacterial pneumonia is characterized by hyperthermia, cough with purulent sputum, and in some cases (when the visceral pleura is involved in the process) – pleural pain. With the development of pneumonia, the lumen of the alveoli expands, exudative fluid accumulates in them, red blood cells penetrate into them, and the alveoli are filled with fibrin and leukocytes. To diagnose bacterial pneumonia, X-ray methods, microbiological examination of sputum, laboratory tests, and study of blood gas composition are used. The basis of treatment is antibacterial therapy.
1.3. Lungs.
The lungs are located in the chest cavity. They consist of lobes - there are three lobes in the right lung, two in the left. The basis of the lungs is formed by bronchi and bronchioles, which pass into the alveolar ducts with alveoli. The diameter of the air tubes gradually decreases. The ends of the smallest bronchial tubes end in clusters of thin-walled pulmonary vesicles filled with air. (Figure 4)
Fig 4. Pulmonary vesicles. (Scheme).
Their walls are formed by a single layer of epithelial cells and are densely intertwined with a network of capillaries. The epithelial cells of the vesicles secrete biologically active substances, which line their inner surface in the form of a thin film. This film maintains a constant volume of bubbles and prevents them from closing. In addition, the substances in the film neutralize microorganisms that enter the lungs with air. The “waste” film is excreted through the airways in the form of sputum or “digested” by pulmonary phagocytes.
With pneumonia, tuberculosis and other pulmonary infectious diseases, the film can be damaged, the pulmonary vesicles stick together and cannot participate in gas exchange. In smokers, the bubbles lose their elasticity and ability to be cleaned, the film hardens from the poisons of cigarettes. Fresh air, intense breathing during physical work and sports help renew the film lining the lung vesicles. The pulmonary vesicles form a spongy mass that forms the lungs. The lungs fill the entire chest cavity, except for the space occupied by the heart, blood vessels, airways and esophagus. Each lung contains 300 - 350 million pulmonary vesicles, their total surface exceeds 100 m2, which is approximately 75 times the surface of the body.
On the outside, each lung is covered with a smooth, shiny membrane of connective tissue - the pulmonary pleura. The inner wall of the chest cavity is lined with parietal pleura. The sealed pleural cavity located between them is moistened and does not contain air at all. Therefore, the lungs are closely pressed to the wall of the chest cavity and their volume always changes with changes in the volume of the chest cavity.
II. Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues.
2.1. Breathing movements.
Inhalation and exhalation rhythmically replace each other, ensuring the passage of air through the lungs and their ventilation. (Figure 5) The change between inhalation and exhalation is regulated by the respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata. In the respiratory center, impulses arise rhythmically, which are transmitted through the nerves to the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, causing them to contract. The ribs rise, the diaphragm due to its contraction
Fig 5. Inhale and exhale.
the muscles become almost flat. The volume of the chest cavity increases. The lungs follow the movements of the chest. Inhalation occurs. Then the intercostal muscles and the muscles of the diaphragm relax, the volume of the chest cavity decreases, the lungs are compressed and air is expelled. Exhalation occurs.
At relative rest, an adult makes approximately 16 respiratory movements per minute. In a poorly ventilated room, the frequency of respiratory movements increases by 2 or more times. This happens because the nerve cells of the respiratory center are sensitive to carbon dioxide contained in the blood. As soon as its amount in the blood increases, excitation in the respiratory center increases and nerve impulses spread along the nerves to the respiratory muscles. As a result, the frequency and depth of breathing movements increase. Thus, respiratory movements are regulated by the nervous and humoral pathways.
A growing body needs more oxygen; in addition, working tissue absorbs oxygen. During sleep, a person absorbs 15-20 liters of oxygen in 1 hour; when he is awake but lying down, oxygen consumption increases by 1/3, and when walking - twice, during light work - three times, during heavy work - six times or more.
2.2. Vital capacity of the lungs.
Gas exchange activity affects lung capacity. For an athlete, it is usually 1 - 1.5 liters more than normal. And for swimmers it reaches 6.2 liters. The largest volume of air that a person can exhale after the deepest inhalation is about 3500 cm 3. This volume is called the vital capacity of the lungs.
Different people have different vital capacity. It is determined during medical examinations using a special device - a spirometer.
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Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.
Abbreviation- Loss by a species during evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogenesis of characteristics or phases of development that were present in its ancestors.
Abiogenesis- The emergence of living things from non-living things in the process of evolution.
Aborigine- An indigenous inhabitant of a certain area, who has lived in it since ancient times.
Avitaminosis- A disease caused by a long-term lack of vital vitamins in food.
Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.
Autoduplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.
Autolysis- Self-dissolution, the breakdown of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in the same tissues.
Automixis- Fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widely distributed among protozoa, fungi, and diatoms.
Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.
Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or energy released during chemical reactions.
Agglutination- 1) Gluing and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, red blood cells and other cells. 2) Protein coagulation in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.
Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which proteins coagulate, microbes and blood cells stick together.
Agony- The final moment of life preceding clinical death.
Agranulocyte- Leukocyte that does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates these are lymphocytes and monocytes.
Agrocenosis- A biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms created to produce agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.
Adaptation- A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, ensuring success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the influence of abiotic environmental factors.
Adynamia- Muscle weakness, impotence.
Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.
Acclimatization- A set of measures to introduce a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.
Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - adaptation of muscle and nervous tissue to the action of a stimulus that slowly increases in strength.
Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms of chemicals found in the environment in lower concentrations.
Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and facial bones due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.
Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.
Allele- Different forms of the same gene located in the same loci of homologous chromosomes.
Allogenesis
Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation that is normal for this type of organism.
Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.
Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without a reverse negative impact from the suppressed.
Amitosis- Direct cell division.
Anabiosis- A temporary state of the body in which life processes are so slow that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.
Anabolism- Plastic exchange.
Analysis cross- Crossing the test organism with another that is a recessive homozygote for a given trait, which makes it possible to establish the genotype of the test subject.
Similar bodies- Organs that perform the same functions, but have different structures and origins, the result convergence.
Anatomy- A group of scientific branches that study the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the entire organism as a whole.
Anaerobe- An organism capable of living in an oxygen-free environment.
Angiology- Section of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.
Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells, their hemoglobin content or total blood mass.
Aneuploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes in which one or more chromosomes from the normal set are either missing or are represented by additional copies.
Antheridium- Male reproductive organ.
Antigen- A complex organic substance capable of causing an immune response when entering the body of animals and humans - formation antibodies.
Anticodon- A section of a tRNA molecule consisting of 3 nucleotides that specifically binds to an mRNA codon.
Antibody- Immunoglobulin in the blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by lymphoid tissue cells under the influence of various antigens.
Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.
Anthropology- An interdisciplinary discipline that studies the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.
Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female reproductive cell or from cells of the germ or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.
Arachnology- Branch of zoology that studies arachnids.
Area- Area of distribution of the species.
Arogenesis
Aromorphosis- Evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; complication of organization, rise to a higher level, morphophysiological progress.
Arrhenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen bee.
Archegonium- The female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, mosses, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an egg.
Assimilation- One of the aspects of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which energy is accumulated.
Astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.
Astrobiology- A scientific branch that deals with the detection and study of signs of life in the Universe, in space and on planets.
Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, suffocation, oxygen starvation. Occurs when there is a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.
Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of a given species of characteristics that existed in distant ancestors, but were then lost in the process of evolution.
Atony- Intravital reduction in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Accompanied by disruption or even cessation of their functions.
Outbreeding- Crossing of individuals of the same species that are not directly related leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.
Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; humans have 22 pairs of autosomes.
Acidosis- Accumulation of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids in the blood and other tissues of the body.
Aerobe- An organism capable of living only in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.
Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in moist air thanks to periodic spraying of the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, conservatories, on spaceships, etc.
Aerotaxis- Movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to a source of oxygen or, conversely, from it.
Aerotropism- The growth of plant stems or roots in the direction from which oxygen-rich air comes, for example, the growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.
Bacteriology- The branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.
Bacterial carriage
Bacteriophage- A bacterial virus that can infect a bacterial cell, multiply in it and cause its dissolution.
Bacteriocide- Antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of bacteria of other types.
Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that sense changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.
Bacillus- Any bacteria that is rod-shaped.
Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during division of the cell nucleus.
Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.
Biogeography- A scientific branch that studies the general geographical patterns of the organic world of the Earth: the distribution of plant cover and animal populations in various parts of the globe, their combinations, floristic and faunal divisions of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms .
Biogeochemistry- A scientific discipline that studies the role of living organisms in the destruction of rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere.
Biogeocenosis- An evolutionarily established, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system in which living organisms and their surrounding abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use of the energy flow coming from the Sun.
Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study living nature.
Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data using mathematical statistics methods.
Biomechanics- A branch of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.
Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the identified patterns in solving engineering problems and building technical systems similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.
Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclic fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the opportunity to adapt to environmental changes.
Biosphere- The shell of the Earth populated by living organisms.
Biotechnology- A section of game science that studies ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting lands.
Biotechnology- A scientific discipline and field of practice bordering biology and technology that studies ways and methods of changing the natural environment around humans in accordance with their needs.
Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies physical and physicochemical processes in living organisms, as well as the physical structure of biological systems at all levels of their organization - from molecular and subcellular to cells, organs and the organism as a whole.
Biochemistry- A scientific discipline that studies the chemical composition of living beings, chemical reactions in them and the natural order of these reactions, ensuring metabolism.
Biocenosis- An interconnected collection of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area of land or body of water.
Bifurcation- Dividing something into two branches.
Blastula- Single-layer embryo.
Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines exploring the kingdom of Plants.
Bryology- Scientific branch that studies mosses.
Vaccine- A preparation made from living or dead microorganisms used for immunization of humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.
Virology- Scientific discipline that studies viruses.
Virus carriage- Residence and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or invasive diseases in the body of humans and animals in the absence of signs of disease.
Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of sex cells - gametes.
Gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage of the plant life cycle from spore to zygote.
Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, formed as a result of reduction division.
Gastrula- Phase of embryonic development of multicellular animals, two-layer embryo.
Gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.
Heliobiology- A branch of biophysics that studies the influence of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.
Hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms in which the heterogametic sex is male (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of genes responsible for a particular trait.
Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.
Hemophilia- A hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, which is explained by a lack of blood clotting factors.
Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrate animals, which ensures the transport of oxygen in their bodies, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.
Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrate animals, this is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink tint.
Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of controlling these processes.
Genome- A set of genes contained in a haploid (single) set of chromosomes.
Genotype- The totality of all genes received from parents.
Gene pool- A set of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.
Geobotany- A scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and influence on it, features of the phynocoenotic environment.
Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.
Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of gravity.
Geophilia- The ability of shoots or roots of some perennial plants to retract or grow into the soil to overwinter.
Hermaphroditism- The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.
Herpetology- Branch of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.
Heterozygote- An individual that produces different types of gametes.
Heterosis- “hybrid vigor”, accelerated growth, increased size, increased vitality and fertility of first-generation hybrids compared to the parental forms of plants or animals.
Heteroploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes.
Gibberellin- A substance that stimulates plant growth.
Hybrid- An organism resulting from crossing.
Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.
Hygiene- Science that studies the impact of living and working conditions on human health and develops disease prevention measures.
Hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in conditions of high humidity.
Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excess humidity.
Hygrophobes- Terrestrial animals that avoid excess moisture in specific habitats.
Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.
Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil in aqueous solutions of minerals.
Hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of humidity.
Hypertension- A disease caused by high blood pressure.
Physical inactivity- Lack of physical activity.
Hypoxia- Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, certain diseases and poisoning.
Hypotension- A disease caused by low blood pressure.
Histology- A branch of morphology that studies the tissues of multicellular organisms.
Glycolysis- An oxygen-free process of carbohydrate breakdown.
Holandric trait- A trait found only in men (XY).
Homozygote- An individual that produces one type of gametes.
Homeotherm- An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).
Homologous organs- Organs that are similar to each other in structure and origin, but perform different functions, the result divergence.
Hormone- A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and having a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.
Granulocyte- A leukocyte containing grains (granules) in the cytoplasm protects the body from bacteria.
Colorblindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish between certain colors, most often red and green.
Degeneration
Deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which a section of the chromosome in its middle part is lost; a gene mutation that results in the loss of a section of the DNA molecule.
Demecology- A branch of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.
Dendrology- A branch of botany that studies woody and shrubby plants.
Depression- Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic reasons associated with human activity; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decrease in vitality.
Definition- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the end sections of chromosomes (lack).
Divergence- Divergence of signs.
Dihybrid cross- Crossing individuals according to two pairs of traits.
Dissimilation
Dominant trait- Predominant sign.
Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplantation.
Genetic drift- Change in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random reasons; genetic-automatic process in a population.
Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.
Duplication- Chromosomal mutation in which any part of the chromosome is repeated.
Eugenics- The doctrine of human hereditary health and ways of its preservation and improvement. The basic principles of the doctrine were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed studying factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, talent). But some ideas of eugenics were distorted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. In modern science, the problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.
Reserve- A section of territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.
Reserve- A specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve natural complexes intact, protect living species and monitor natural processes.
Zygote- Fertilized egg.
Zoogeography- A scientific branch that studies the patterns of geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.
Zoology- A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.
Idiomatic adaptation- The path of evolution without increasing the general level of organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.
Insulation- A process that prevents individuals of different species from interbreeding and leads to divergence of characteristics within the same species.
Immunity- Immunity, resistance of the body to infectious agents and foreign substances. There are natural (congenital) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.
Imprinting- Strong and quick fixation in the animal’s memory of the signs of an object.
Inbreeding- Inbreeding.
Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which its part rotates 180°.
Insertion- A gene mutation that results in the insertion of a segment of a DNA molecule into the gene structure.
Interferon- A protective protein produced by the cells of mammals and birds in response to infection by viruses.
Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.
Ichthyology- Branch of zoology that studies fish.
Carcinogen- A substance or physical agent capable of causing or contributing to the development of malignant neoplasms.
Karyotype- A diploid set of chromosomes in the somatic (non-reproductive) cells of the body, a typical set of their characteristics for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.
Carotenoids- Red, yellow and orange pigments found in plant and some animal tissues.
Catabolism- Energy metabolism, breakdown of substances, ATP synthesis.
Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler habitat and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of active life organs.
Tenancy- Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms of different species, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an “apartment”) without causing harm to the other.
Kyphosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing backwards.
Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.
Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives unilateral benefit from the other without causing harm to the owner.
Complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.
Convergence- Convergence of signs.
Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship determined by the desire to achieve a goal better and faster than other members of the community.
Consumer- Organism-consumer of finished organic substances.
Conjugation- Bringing chromosomes together during meiosis; a sexual process consisting of a partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.
Copulation- The process of fusion of sex cells (gametes) into a zygote; the union of individuals of the opposite sex during sexual intercourse.
Crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.
Crossing over- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.
Xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.
Xerophile- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficiency.
Xerophyte- A plant of arid habitats, common in steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts.
Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, instability of the body to environmental conditions.
Latent- Hidden, invisible.
Leukoplasts- Colorless plastids.
Lysis- Destruction of cells through their complete or partial dissolution, both under normal conditions and during the penetration of pathogenic organisms.
Lichenology- Branch of botany that studies lichens.
Locus- The region of the chromosome in which the gene is localized.
Lordosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing forward.
Macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations that occur at the supraspecific level and determine the formation of increasingly larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).
Mediator- A substance whose molecules are capable of reacting with specific receptors of the cell membrane and changing its permeability to certain ions, causing the occurrence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.
Mesoderm- Middle germ layer.
Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.
Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.
Mycology- Scientific branch that studies mushrooms.
Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.
Microbiology- Biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.
Microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.
Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species by poisonous and well-protected animals from attack by predators.
Modeling- A method of studying and demonstrating various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.
Modification- Non-hereditary change in the characteristics of an organism that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.
Monitoring- Tracking any objects or phenomena, including those of a biological nature; a multi-purpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic influence in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. d.
Monogamy- Monogamy, the mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.
Monohybrid cross- Crossing individuals based on one pair of traits.
Monospermia- Penetration of only one sperm into the egg.
Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in the same linkage group, characterized by the crossover frequency in %.
Morula- Early stage of embryo development, which is an accumulation of a large number of blastomere cells without a separate cavity; In most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.
Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections that studies the form and structure of animals and plants.
Mutagenesis- The process of mutation occurrence.
Mutation- Abrupt changes in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.
Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.
Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar characteristics and properties over a series of generations.
Freeloading- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without causing harm to it.
Neyrula- Stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the formation of the neural tube plate (from the ectoderm) and axial organs occurs.
Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.
Noosphere- Part of the biosphere in which human activity manifests itself, both positive and negative, the sphere of “mind”.
Nucleoprotein- Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.
Obligate- Required.
Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms during life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and self-reproduce in environmental conditions, as well as adapt to it.
Ovulation- Release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.
Ontogenesis- Individual development of the body.
Fertilization- Fusion of germ cells.
Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.
Ornithology- Branch of zoology that studies birds.
Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, their living conditions and burial conditions.
Natural monument- A separate rare or remarkable object of animate or inanimate nature, worthy of protection due to scientific, cultural, educational and historical memorial significance.
Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms during evolution of similar structural features based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.
Parthenogenesis- Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.
Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover.
Pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.
Pleiotropy- Dependence of several traits on one gene.
Poikilotherm- An organism that is unable to maintain internal body temperature, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.
Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of a male with many females during the breeding season.
Polymerism- Dependence of the development of one and the same trait or property of an organism on several genes independent in action.
Polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.
Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and appearance.
Protistology- The branch of biology that studies protozoa.
Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermins and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.
Radiobiology- A branch of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and ways to protect them from radiation.
Regeneration- Restoration by the body of lost or damaged organs and tissues, as well as restoration of the whole organism from its parts.
Decomposer- An organism that converts organic substances into inorganic ones in the course of its life.
Rheotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of liquid or the position of the body parallel to it.
Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants, when they grow in a flow of water, to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.
Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, the process of reverse transcription occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized from viral RNA, which is then integrated into the host DNA.
Reflex- The body's response to external irritation through the nervous system.
Receptor- Sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.
Recipient- An organism that receives a blood transfusion or organ transplant.
Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and characteristics that were present in a developed form among the evolutionary ancestors of a species, but lost their significance in the process phylogeny.
Selection- Breeding new and improving existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cellular engineering.
Symbiosis- Type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.
Synapse- The place where nerve cells come into contact with each other.
Synecology- A branch of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationships with their environment.
Taxonomy- A section of biology devoted to the description, designation and classification into groups of all existing and extinct organisms, establishing related relationships between individual species and groups of species.
Scoliosis- Curves of the spine, facing to the right or left.
Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural characteristics.
Spermatogenesis- Formation of male reproductive cells.
Splicing- The process of editing mRNA, in which some labeled sections of mRNA are cut out, and the remaining ones are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleoli during transcription.
Succulent- A plant with succulent, fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.
succession- Consistent change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in species composition and community structure.
Serum- The liquid part of the blood without formed elements and fibrin, formed during the process of their separation during blood clotting outside the body.
Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.
Teratogen- Biological effects, chemicals and physical factors that cause the development of deformities in organisms during the process of ontogenesis.
Thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.
Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.
Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.
Textile- A collection of cells and intercellular substance that performs a specific role in the body.
Tolerance- The ability of organisms to tolerate deviations of environmental factors from optimal ones.
Transcription- Biosynthesis of mRNA on a DNA matrix is carried out in the cell nucleus.
Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or the transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.
Broadcast- Synthesis of the polypeptide chain of protein is carried out in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.
Transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.
Tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of some stimulus.
Turgor- Elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the cell contents on their elastic walls.
Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (humans), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.
Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov.
Phenology- A body of knowledge about seasonal natural phenomena, the timing of their occurrence and the reasons that determine these timings.
Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external signs and properties of an individual.
Enzyme- A biological catalyst, by its chemical nature, is a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.
Physiology- Biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.
Phylogenesis- Historical development of the species.
Photoperiodism- Reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.
Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.
Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of light.
Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by some microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic ones due to the energy of chemical bonds.
Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.
Predation- Feeding on animals that were alive up to the moment of their transformation into a food object (with their capture and killing).
Chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein strands formed during the doubling of chromosomes during cell division.
Chromatin- A nucleoprotein that forms the basis of a chromosome.
Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.
Centromere- A section of a chromosome that holds its two strands (chromatids) together.
Cyst- A form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense shell, which allows these organisms to survive unfavorable environmental conditions.
Cytology- Cell science.
Schizogony- Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; characteristic of sporozoans.
Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms, isolated from a specific source and possessing specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.
Exocytosis- The release of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.
Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationships of organisms and their communities with the environment.
Ectoderm- Outer germ layer.
Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of an organism.
Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.
Endoderm- Inner germ layer.
Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.