Historical information about the Celestial Empire. Chinese Empire in the 3rd-12th centuries

In relation to the history and culture of Chinese civilization, the epithet “great” is often used: the Great Silk Road, the Great Wall of China, the Grand Canal, the Great Dam. The second characteristic feature of China is considered to be its “mystery” and “incomprehensibility” for Europeans. Perhaps this is because European civilization in ancient times and the Middle Ages had no impact on China. The peoples of this country have always developed independently and created their own unique civilization. For example, the Chinese called their country the “Celestial Empire” or the “Middle State”; they counted time not by centuries, but by the reign of imperial dynasties. The medieval dynasties and achievements of the Chinese people will be discussed in this paragraph.

Rice. 1. Tai Tsung - Emperor of the Tang Dynasty

1. The era of the Tang Dynasty is the time of “Joyful China”.

After the Great Migration of Peoples and the invasion of nomads, the Tang Dynasty (618-906) established itself in China. The fragmented Chinese principalities united into a single state and expelled the conquerors. The time has come for the heyday of Chinese medieval civilization. Medieval Chinese historians called this period the time of "Joyful China". Is it so?

The most powerful emperor of the Tang Dynasty was Tai Tsung (627–649). After a bloody war, he destroyed his rivals and established sole power. The first emperors of the Tang dynasty brutally suppressed popular uprisings and riots, but at the same time they also executed treasury plunderers and bribe-takers. To prevent famine in the country, state barns with supplies were opened. The empty lands were distributed to the peasants. People who served labor in the construction of palaces and fortresses returned to their usual peasant labor.

Scientists call the Tang Dynasty the “golden age” of Chinese culture.

China has achieved great success in the fight against external enemies. Written sources indicate that 88 nations recognized the supreme power of China, which extended from Korea to the Caspian Sea. Chinese garrisons were located in the richest cities of Central Asia and other important points along the Great Silk Road. The further advance of Chinese troops to the west was stopped by the Arabs in 751 at the Battle of the Talas River.

Rice. 2, 3. Li Bo (701-762) and Du Fu (712-770) - outstanding poets of world literature

The “Middle State” was headed by an emperor (“Son of Heaven”), whose power was not limited by laws and was inherited. Under the emperor there was a State Council consisting of his relatives and trusted representatives. The capital of the state, Chang'an, turned into a large and luxurious city.

Executive power was exercised by departmental management, consisting of six ministries. Their activities were monitored by prosecutors of the special control and audit chamber. Civil service in China was considered the best career for a man. The total number of officials in the country reached one million people. How was it possible to train such a number of competent and conscientious employees? The fact is that in China there was an examination system that did not allow ignoramuses and slackers to enter the civil service.

State exams in the “Celestial Empire”

Exams were held every two to three years. Those wishing to take up public office had to show their calligraphic skills, deep knowledge of history, literature and philosophy, and have experience in versification. The higher the exam result, the higher the position that could be offered to a candidate who successfully passed the test. State examinations provided an opportunity for gifted people, regardless of their background, to pursue a successful career.

In terms of strength and power, the Tang Empire had no equal among the states of the world at that time.

2. Peasant war in China.

Agriculture has always been the basis of China's economy. Each peasant owned a plot of arable land on a communal field and a garden. The farmer gave part of the harvest to the state in the form of a tax, and also worked 20 days every year for the benefit of the emperor.

With the growth of a huge state apparatus that had to be maintained, taxes also grew, which led to the ruin of the peasantry. The Chinese emperors could not restrain the aggression of the nomadic tribes and paid off their leaders with grain, silk, and gold. These costs also fell on the shoulders of the peasants. Power was weakening. Local governors, officials and rich people took land from peasants and closed Buddhist monasteries. Severe drought in the middle of the 9th century. led to unprecedented famine.

Popular unrest began, and the Peasant War (874-901) broke out in China with destructive force. Why do we call peasant uprisings, which were not uncommon in the countries of the East and West, “war”?

The hostilities covered a vast territory of the country and did not subside for a long time. The rebels sought to seize imperial power. The peasants were supported by the entire disadvantaged population of the country: artisans, urban poor, vagabonds, beggars and robbers. The rebel detachments united into armies that carried out long campaigns.

Military operations unfolded with particular force with the appearance of the experienced fighter Huang Chao. Under his leadership, the peasant army captured Chang'an. Huang Chao rode into the defeated capital on a golden chariot and ordered gold and silks to be distributed to the poor. One of the Chinese historians admits that Huang Chao “brought the army into order during the campaign.” Nevertheless, the Peasant War was accompanied by endless looting and terror. For example, during the capture of the trading city and port of Guangzhou, the rich quarters of Persian and Jewish merchants were destroyed and plundered.

From the book of a Chinese historian of the 11th century.

In an effort to break through to the eastern capital, Huang Chao personally commanded the troops that stormed Zhuzhou. All this time, the “Son of Heaven,” young and weak, was in great fear and shed copious tears...

A few days later, unprecedented robberies began. People were tied up, beaten with whips and their property was seized... The rich were taken off their shoes and driven away barefoot. All detained officials were killed, houses were set on fire if they could not find anything there.

Rice. 4. Revolting peasants on the streets of Chang'an. Modern drawing

It was possible to suppress the peasant movement only with the help of nomads. The whole country lay in ruins. The economy was undermined, famine and epidemics raged in the country. The death of the Tang Dynasty became inevitable. Soon an impostor officer seized power in the capital. The single state broke up into several principalities, which immediately began wars among themselves.

Internal crisis, Peasant War and nomad invasions led to the death of the Tang dynasty.

3. On the streets of a medieval Chinese city.

While European cities were in desolation, the large and beautiful cities of Chang'an, Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Chengdu and many others flourished in China, with a population exceeding half a million people.

Imperial officials, nobility, and military leaders lived in Chinese cities. As in other countries of the world, artisans and merchants, doctors and teachers, porters and servants, tramps and beggars predominated among the permanent residents of cities.

In Chinese cities, they built perfectly smooth streets intersecting at right angles. This is how the neighborhoods came into being. Each quarter had a headman who was responsible for order and tax collection.

The Chinese created a well-designed sewerage and water supply system. There were fountains in the cities, streets were paved, and garbage was regularly collected. The city government opened shelters, hospitals and public baths. Large squares, parks and public gardens were built everywhere. The best workers worked in the park management. The decoration of the cities were the palaces of the emperor and local nobility, as well as Buddhist temples and sanctuaries.

Rice. 5. One of the quarters of the Chinese city. Reconstruction

? What buildings were located in this part of the city?

Rice. 6. Defensive walls of the Chinese city of Pingyao. Modern look

Capital of the Empire

The capital of the country, Chang'an, was 9 km long and 8 km wide. Eight gates on the north side and three more on other sides of the horizon were built in the city walls, which rose on an earthen embankment.

Surviving tax lists indicate that the city had a population of about two million. In addition to the Chinese, representatives of different nationalities met here: Turks, Arabs, Persians, Indians. There were two huge bazaars in the city - eastern (richer) and western. The bazaars were located along each of the 200 streets, consisting of a number of trading shops.

The city guard maintained order. At night, life in the city came to a standstill; none of the residents (with the exception of doctors and clergy) had the right to leave their homes. Violation of city laws was severely punished by hitting the heels with a bamboo stick.

Chinese cities were centers of imperial power, economic and cultural life.

4. Conquest of China by the Mongols.

The Mongol conquest of China lasted for many decades (1209-1279). The courageous resistance of the people was broken, a huge country was conquered, and the Mongolian Yuan dynasty (“Beginning”) established itself in power. So the Mongol Khan became the Chinese Emperor. Why did the largest and strongest power in the world become a victim of nomads?

The fact is that by the beginning of the Mongol conquests, China was divided into three states at war with each other. At first, the armies of the South Chinese Song Dynasty even helped the Mongol Khan Genghis Khan conquer Northern China, hoping to later get rid of their “allies.”

The nomadic Mongols sought to turn China into an endless pasture. They destroyed 90 cities, and many areas in the Yellow River valley were depopulated. In Northern China, the population has dropped by 15 million people. Anyone who resisted the invaders was subject to merciless destruction.

From a Chinese chronicle of the 13th century. about the Mongol invasion of China

Genghis Khan divided the army into three armies. He sent his three sons in the direction of the Taihan ridge to the south. They devastated the territories between the cities of Pingyao and Taiyuan... The Mongol sovereign took the middle road... and turned with his army towards Beijing. And in the provinces of Hubei, Henan, and Shandong, almost all the inhabitants were exterminated over several thousand li (li - 0.5 km) of space. Gold and silk fabrics, sons and daughters, oxen and horses - everything, like a mat, was rolled up and taken away. Houses were set on fire, city walls were reduced to ruins.

For some time, life in China stopped: officials were killed, exams were cancelled, trade and crafts froze, agriculture was in deep decline. The Chinese paid heavy taxes, performed labor duties, maintained Mongol garrisons, Khan's ambassadors and nobles. The Chinese were often turned into slaves.

The sharp deterioration of life in China led to the emergence of a liberation movement led by the White Lotus Buddhist sect. People dreamed of justice and equality.

From “The Book of the Diversity of the World” by Marco Polo (XIV century)

In the palace of the Great Khan

For three winter months, the Great Khan lives in the main city of China, Khanbalik [Beijing], where his large palace is located. The walls in the large and small chambers are covered with gold and silver, and dragons, birds, horses and all kinds of animals are painted on them, and the walls are so covered that nothing can be seen except gold and painting. The hall is so spacious, more than six thousand people can fit there.

You are amazed at how many chambers there are, spacious and beautifully arranged, and no one in the world can arrange better chambers than these.

The Great Khan and the Chinese

You need to know that all the Chinese do not like the rule of the Great Khan, because he placed Tatars (Mongols) and most often Muslims over them, and the Chinese could not stand this, since they treated them like slaves. The Great Khan took possession of China not by right, but by force, and did not trust the Chinese.

Rice. 7. Venetian merchant Marco Polo. In 1275, as a 17-year-old boy, he, along with his father and uncle, set off from Venice to China. After 20 years, Marco Polo returned to Italy. From his words the “Book on the Diversity of the World” was written

Rice. 8. Red Turban Squad. Modern drawing

The first armed uprisings against Mongol oppression broke out in 1351. Among the rebels, the “red bandages” detachments stood out. They longed for justice and brutal reprisals against representatives of the ruling regime. The uprising was led by the intelligent and brave Buddhist monk Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1395), who promised to revive the former greatness of China. Most of the population supported him. The rebels defeated the main forces of the Mongols and their minions. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang seized power in the country and announced the creation of a new Ming ("Light") dynasty.

5. Revival of the “Celestial Empire”: the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).

The strengthening of the new dynasty was accompanied by reforms in all aspects of life. The first Ming emperors did everything possible to get rid of the consequences of Mongol rule. Land was distributed to the peasants and fair taxes were established. Crafts and trade began to actively develop, and fairs were held.

In 1421, the capital of the vast empire was returned to Beijing, which was named Beijing (“Northern Capital”). The imperial palace was located here and the government of the country met.

Rice. 10. Water wheel

Rice. 11. Section of the Great Wall of China during the Ming era. Construction and repair of the wall lasted more than two thousand years

"Forbidden City"

The imperial palace, the construction of which was begun by representatives of the Ming dynasty, turned into a real city, which was called “forbidden”. Surrounded by a canal and high walls, it was the center of the imperial possessions in Beijing. The Gugun palace complex was particularly splendid. It consisted of more than 9 thousand buildings (palaces, temples, halls, gazebos, etc.). The main entrance to the “forbidden city” was decorated with the Tiananmen Gate (“Gate of Heavenly Peace”). The gate tower rose majestically above them. In the huge hall of the throne chamber, solemn state ceremonies and holidays were held, and imperial decrees were signed. The hall reached a height of 35 m, and its area was 2300 m2 (45 classrooms could be accommodated here). The construction of the “forbidden city” demonstrated the high level of development of Chinese architecture, painting, sculpture and other forms of art.

The rulers of the Ming Dynasty considered it necessary to eliminate the threat from the Mongol Steppe. Grandiose repairs and strengthening of the Great Wall of China were carried out. Chinese troops carried out punitive campaigns in Mongolia, accompanied by brutal genocide (the male population was massacred).

Rice. 12. Zheng He on the deck of the ship. Modern drawing

At the end of the 15th century. The Ming Empire was the largest state in the world with a population of about 70 million people.

To establish the greatness of China, on the initiative of the “Son of Heaven,” naval expeditions were organized to the countries of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The preparation and conduct of the voyages was headed by the imperial nobleman Zheng He (1371-1435).

How a slave became a naval commander

Zheng He was born into a Muslim family in China's southwestern Yunnan province. During the conquest of Yunnan by the troops of the Ming dynasty, the boy was captured and handed over to the service of the future emperor Zhu Di. Zheng He successfully studied at the palace servant school. the talented servant managed to advance in the imperial service and become a military leader. Zheng He received the task of carrying out sea expeditions to the “countries of the southern seas.” In a short time, a grandiose fleet was created, in which 62 huge frigates stood out. On his first voyage, Zheng He launched 652 ships (each large ship was accompanied by small and medium-sized ships). In 1405-1433. under the leadership of Zheng He, seven expeditions were carried out to the shores of Indochina, the Philippines, Indonesia, Hindustan, Ceylon, Arabia, and East Africa.

The history of the Middle Ages does not know examples of such grandiose sea voyages. China strengthened its greatness, but did not receive economic benefits from the voyages. For the further development of the country, fundamental changes were required in the government structure, economy and culture.

The reign of the Ming Dynasty marked the end of the history of the Middle Ages in China.

Questions and tasks

1. Do you agree with the statement that the Tang Dynasty was a “joyful” period for China? 2. Give facts proving that the Tang era became the “golden age” of Chinese culture. 3. Why did the movement in China at the end of the 9th century. called the Peasant War? 4. Against whom was the anger of the rebels directed during the Peasant War? 5. What features of the structure of Chinese cities have survived to this day? 6. Why did Genghis Khan and his successors manage to subjugate the vast and powerful China? 7. Why was the Mongol rule in China short-lived? 8. What situation did the Chinese find themselves in after the Mongol conquests? 9. How did the Ming Dynasty emperors strengthen their power? 10*. Compare the improvement of Chinese and European cities in the Middle Ages. eleven*. Can the Chinese naval expeditions to the “South Sea countries” be considered meaningless?

China- a large country, a superpower, a republic with the largest population, an empire with a huge history and a rich cultural heritage. So many advantages, and all for China alone... Isn’t that a lot? Probably just right)))))) Let's try to figure it out.

China - Celestial Empire. Why?

China is a huge country in East Asia, located on the western Pacific coast. It is the most ancient civilization, having absorbed many cultures and states over the course of 4 centuries. In the middle of the 20th century. internal civil war led to its division into two states: the PRC - the People's Republic of China, which occupies territory on the mainland, and Macau; and the Republic of China, which controls the islands of Taiwan, Matsu, Penghu, and Kinmen.

Why is China called the Celestial Empire?

The basis of the Chinese worldview for a very long time was the idea of ​​the Great Heaven. They considered China to be the middle of the Celestial Empire (ecumene). From there, the official name of China, which has survived to this day, is the “Middle State”. Even under Mao Zedong, China was officially called the “Middle Flowering People's Republic” (literal translation).

For the Chinese, the sky is not only what is above their heads. Heaven is what determines the life of a person, a community, and the entire Celestial Empire. “A person who does not fear Heaven and does not recognize Fate is not worthy to be considered a noble person,” Confucius would say much later (at the end of the 6th century BC). Thus, Heaven is in a sense God. The ideas of various Chinese schools and various religious systems about Heaven are based on a deeply hidden monotheism. Of course, this is an impersonal God, not personal. The ancient Greeks, as a rule, even personified Rock (these could be Moirai, Erinyes), but Heaven in the ideas of the Chinese cannot be described, and, nevertheless, the Earth is governed by the dictates of Heaven. Even the Taoists, who doubted this, still retained the category of “heaven”. They simply considered it completely unnecessary to honor and worship Heaven. So, Heaven for the Chinese is the starting point of everything, the rational beginning, the cult and cultural beginning in the world. (based on responses from Mail.ru)

China on the map

Most of the country in the west is occupied by plateaus, highlands and ridges; in the east and southeast there are lowlands and plains. Therefore, the flow of the Yellow, Amur, and Yangtze rivers is directed from west to east, and the Mekong, Perlin, and Brahmaputra are directed to the south.

The East has a rich flora and fauna: there are more than 25 thousand species of plants, some of which are relict. In China, the vegetation is more uniform: drought-resistant grasses and shrubs “reign” here, which occasionally give way to juniper. And in the subtropics of the south you can find camellia, magnolia, and cunnigamy.

The fauna of this China is represented by a variety of animals: wolves, foxes, bears, tigers, raccoon dogs, sables, antelopes, goitered gazelles, gibbons, loris, tupaya and many others. And only here pandas live.

China is a country surrounded by the Great Wall

The name of China in Latin “China” has taken root in almost all European languages. There is a possibility that it owes its origin to the Chinese Qin dynasty, which ruled the empire in 221-206. BC.

There are many versions interpreting the etymology of the word “China”. I would like to introduce you to one of them. In the Old Russian language there was a concept meaning a place enclosed by a fence or wall, which, for example, is the Moscow “China Town”. It was formed from the Tatar “kytai”: “ky” - “stick, pole”, and “tai” - “to hide, cover”. And in combination it translates as “a country surrounded by a great wall.”

Since 1949, power in China has belonged to the communists, who in the late eighties oriented towards a market economy, which led to the country's modern economic prosperity. Today, hardworking China is not the last player in the global political arena and economic market of the planet.

China, along with the Sumerians, Egyptians and Indians, is considered one of the most ancient civilizations. It was he who gave the world such great inventions as the logographic writing system, paper, printing, compass and gunpowder.

I bring to your attention a film from the Discovery Channel from the Atlas series about the roots of Chinese culture and civilization

Now the Cultural Revolution has made more than half of the Chinese atheists. Nevertheless, religion in the PRC (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and now Catholicism) plays a very significant role.
If you are lucky enough to visit this country, be sure to check out:

• architectural monument - a grandiose structure known throughout the world;
• architectural and historical monuments of the XV-XIX centuries. in Pekin;
• historical complex “Forbidden City”;
• the park is a mountain-forested reserve with unique roads and landscape;
• ancient temples of the Sun and Moon, Heaven and Earth, built in the 15th-16th centuries;
• Qiang Tang Park, which contains the tombs of the imperial Ming dynasty;
• The cult center of Lamaism is the city of Lhasa, where in the 16th-17th centuries. the residence of the Dalai Lama (monastery-palace) Potala was built;
• Yufesi and Chenghuangmiao Temples in Shanghai: a bejeweled jade statue of Buddha is kept here;
• Tiger Leaping Gorge in the province is best visited in;
• Summer Palace - an architectural monument of the 18th century;
• trading;
• Hong Kong Light Show;
• there is a parade in Hong Kong;
• as well as many other monasteries, temples and fortifications.

Hotels in Communist China

Chinese hotels are mainly located near large shopping centers and famous attractions. If anyone thinks that in a communist country there are hotels of the “scoop” type, and with corresponding service, he is sorely mistaken.

The level of service here is always at the proper level, which attracts more and more spoiled foreign tourists to the country. Comfortable hotel rooms are decorated luxuriously and stylishly; Moreover, they are well equipped. Local hotels will appeal to everyone, regardless of preferences. A huge selection of five, four or three star hotels meets any, even the most demanding, needs.

Despite all its contradictions, overpopulation, communist ideology, mountains of consumer goods and a peculiar way of life China remains one of the most beautiful, mysterious, cultural and attractive.

It’s just a stone’s throw from Almaty to China, and you can go there for the weekend as if you were going to a neighboring town for a picnic. Therefore, from my own experience I can advise everyone - go, see interesting sights, beautiful places, communicate with the local population, fortunately every third person speaks Russian there. I assure you, you won't regret it.

Interesting country, great surroundings and good people. Have a nice trip!

You can return to .

Section 2 CIVILIZATIONS OF THE ANCIENT EAST

ANCIENT INDIA AND CHINA

§ 21. THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE AND THE FIRST POSSESSIONS OF ANCIENT CHINA

Think about it, just to protect the borders, the first emperor rounded up millions of people for grandiose construction. Why did the wall become a symbol of hatred for hundreds of thousands of Chinese for the emperor and his officials? What does another name of the wall indicate - “the longest cemetery in the world”?

The great Wall of China. Those construction began by order of Emperor Qin Shi Huang after the unification of China (221 AD) to protect the northwestern borders of the empire from attacks by nomads. Subsequently, the wall was completed and repaired.

1. What were the natural and geographical conditions of Ancient China?

Ancient China occupied only part of the territory on which modern China is located. Local residents called their country the Celestial Empire.

The ancient Chinese considered Heaven to be the supreme deity. That is why their country was called the Celestial Empire.

In the center of the country, the Great Chinese Plain expanded, carried by the Yellow River (it received this name because of the color of the water), or Yellow River. To the south rose forested mountains, and beyond them was the valley of another great river - the Blue, or Yangtze.

The valleys of these rivers are overgrown with tropical forests. Elephants, rhinoceroses, buffaloes, tigers, antelopes, leopards and other animals lived in the forests. Just like the Nile, the Yellow River carried with its waters a huge amount of fertile silt and, overflowing, flooded large coastal lowlands. Floods of the Yellow River were accompanied by a change in its channel. Through such capricious luck, the Yellow River has been called "the river of a thousand disasters", "China's disaster", and also "wanders".

The humid climate created opportunities for farming without irrigation. True, in order to have land suitable for farming, the Chinese had to first uproot the forest. Already in the 3rd millennium BC. That is, the first settlements of farmers existed on the territory of China. Chumiza (a type of millet) was grown in the Yellow River Valley, and rice was grown on the banks of the Yangtze. The first urban settlements on the banks of rivers arose in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e.

The labor of ancient Chinese peasants in a rice field.

Look at the map on page 109. 1. Find the Great Chinese Plain in the northeast of India, two large rivers that flow there. 2. Where do these rivers originate? Where do they flow? 3. Determine the location of Ancient China, compare it with the location of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

2. How did the first Chinese empire arise?

In 8 tbsp. to n. That is, in China there arose one and a half to two hundred independent kingdoms that competed with each other. In the end, the seven most influential kingdoms divided almost the entire territory of the country among themselves. That is why 5-3 tbsp. to n. e. called the era of “seven kingdoms that fought.” The largest among them was the kingdom of Qin. The kingdom reached its greatest strength under the reign of Ying Zheng. This ruler set himself the goal of conquering six other kingdoms and uniting all of China under his rule. Realizing the goal, Ying Zheng single-handedly defeated his opponents. He took the title of emperor and began to be called Qin Shi Huang - “the first Qin emperor” (221-210 pp. AD). The capital of the Qin kingdom, the city of Xianyang, was proclaimed the capital of the empire.

Read a fragment from the “Historical Notes” of Sima Qian (145-86 pp. AD) - the father of Chinese history. Determine why Qin Shi Huang carried out the activities that Sima Qian spoke about.

“The Kingdom of Qin united the Celestial Empire for the first time... Shi Huangdi divided the Celestial Empire into thirty-six regions and appointed officials to govern it in each. He changed the name of the common people to “qianshou” - “black-headed”; took all the weapons in the Celestial Empire, collected them in Xianyang and smelted from them frames-racks for hanging bells, as well as twelve human figures weighing a thousand shi (about 31 tons) each; they were installed in palaces. Uniform laws, measures of weight, capacity and length, cart tracks, and the writing of hieroglyphs were introduced.”

1. Warrior from the ceramic army of Qin Shi Huang from the tomb of the emperor. It is interesting that among several thousand clay and bronze figures of warriors, no two are identical. 2. Emperor Qin Shi Huang in a palanquin. Drawing on silk. Influential Chinese officials often used a kind of transport - a palanquin - a sedentary chariot carried on the shoulders of servants.

3. How did Qin Shi Huang rule his empire?

After the unification of the country, Shi Huangdi began wars of conquest, as a result of which he moved the borders of the state in the south all the way to the South China Sea. In the north, Shi Huang fought against the nomads, among whom the Xiongnu (Huns) were the most annoying. To protect against attackers, the emperor ordered the construction of a grandiose structure - the Great Wall of China.

Two million peasants were involved in the construction work, who walked north in an endless stream. The working detachments were followed by convoys with clothing and food. Builders had to work in terrible conditions. Most of all, they were bothered by the cold, poor food, and the lashes of the overseers. Unable to withstand the inhuman conditions, thousands of peasants fled. A terrible death awaited the fugitives: they were caught and walled up alive in the wall.

To prevent riots and conspiracies, the emperor ordered 120 thousand people - representatives of noble families - to be relocated to the capital, where they were closely monitored. Sources report that the relentless Shi Huangdi executed 460 scientists who did not share his ideas.

Qin Shi Huang banned songs and stories and ordered the burning of all private bamboo books, except for religious texts, books on medicine, pharmacology, agronomy and mathematics. An order was issued banning private tuition as well as criticism of the government. To prevent discontent, the emperor introduced 12 types of execution.

The incredible cruelty of the emperor led to attempts on his life. Shi Huangdi built himself 37 palaces so that no one would know where he was. However, at the age of 48, the emperor died suddenly.

Shi Huang's empire did not survive much longer. A huge uprising soon broke out. The leader of the rebels, the village headman Liu Bang, declared himself the founder of the new Han dynasty. In 202 AD. e. he became the Chinese emperor.

Solve a chronological problem. Calculate how many years ago the first Ancient Chinese Empire appeared. How many years did it last?

Look at the map on page 109. Find and name the 7 Chinese “kingdoms that fought.” What was the territory of Qin Shi Huang's empire?

1. Think about why Qin Shi Huang ordered books to be destroyed and kept under the supervision of scientists? How do these facts relate to the construction of many imperial palaces? 2. Compare the power of the Chinese emperor, the Egyptian pharaoh and the Persian king.

Read an excerpt from Sima Qian’s work and answer the questions.

Why did the historian give Qin Shi Huang such a description?

Write your attitude towards this historical figure.

Compare the verbal and drawn portraits of Qin Shi Huang. Or was the artist able to embody the character traits of the emperor that Sima Qian spoke about?

“The Lord of Qin was a man with big eyes and the chest of a bird of prey. He was not known for his kindness. He had the voice of a jackal and the heart of a tiger and a wolf at the same time. When Shi Huangdi found himself in a difficult situation, he easily obeyed others. But if he got his way, he could just as easily crush a person.”

Imaginary portrait of Qin Shi Huang.

4. What is known about the Han Empire (202 BC - 220)?

Liu Bang was not able to immediately restore order in an exhausted country with a population of almost 60 million. Acting flexibly and carefully, he abolished the brutal Qin laws and reduced taxes. The emperor proclaimed agriculture to be the basis of the empire's economy and the most respected occupation.

The Han Empire reached its heyday during the time of Emperor Wu Di (14087 pp. AD), whose reign is called the “golden age.” China became a powerful power, all parts of which were subordinate to the emperor. His orders were carried out by a 130,000-strong army of officials. The state had the exclusive right to mint coins and sell salt and iron. The emperor significantly expanded the borders of the empire in the north and west, ensuring unhindered passage for trade caravans. This was the beginning of the Great Silk Road through the Middle East.

Asia to the west. Slaves, glassware, precious stones and spices came to China this way. They exported iron, nickel, lacquered dishes, bronze and other handicrafts and, of course, silk, which was not produced anywhere else.

Korea and modern Vietnam were conquered. Demanding more and more funds, the emperors ordered an increase in taxes and duties, as a result of which the peasants became poorer.

In 3 tbsp. officially abolished coin circulation, starting to use silk and grain as money. The population decreased, and the number of cities was halved. In 184, the "Yellow Turban" uprising broke out. A 300,000-strong army of rebel peasants, who tied their heads with yellow ribbons that symbolized the “coming bright era of universal good,” marched on the capital. In 207 the uprising was defeated. However, in 220 the state split into three kingdoms.

Ceramic model of a watchtower from the Han Dynasty.

What is the origin of expressions related to the history of China: “The Great Silk Road”, “the longest cemetery in the world”, “the river that wanders”, “the seven kingdoms at war”, “the yellow armbands”?

1. Where is Ancient China located? Determine the boundaries of ancient Chinese empires.

2. How did natural conditions influence the emergence of ancient Chinese civilization?

3. Why is Qin Shi Huang called the most cruel ruler of the Ancient East?

4. What changes occurred in China during the Han Empire?

Do you agree with the statement: “The construction of the pyramids in Egypt looks like modest fun when compared with the construction work in China during the time of Qin Shi Huang.” Justify your answer. Why did the ancient owners encourage the construction of grandiose structures?

Since ancient times, on the Great Chinese Plain, in the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, there were states that in the 3rd century BC. e. united into an empire. China was a huge country, comparable in territory, population, and cultural achievements to all of Europe. Thus, by the beginning of the 13th century, about 100 million people lived in China - more than in Europe at that time.

There are several periods in the history of China, named after the imperial dynasties that ruled at that time.

At the end of the 6th century, the country was able to be reunited after a period of fragmentation and civil strife. During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), China traded with countries to its west. The Great Silk Road led there, ending at the Mediterranean Sea.

Caravan of merchants. Fragment of a world map. End of the 14th century

Along with merchants, pilgrims and missionaries widely used this route. By that time, Buddhism had spread in China, living peacefully with traditional Chinese Confucianism and other religions. A characteristic feature of China was religious tolerance and mutual influence of different religions.

In an effort to control the Great Silk Road, the emperors annexed areas in the west of the country. Chinese troops even invaded Central Asia, but were defeated by the Arabs in 751.

In the 9th century, a wave of noble revolts swept across China. Increasing taxes and abuses in their collection caused a peasant war in 874-884 led by the salt merchant Huang Chao. During the period of unrest and strife after the fall of the Tang dynasty, the northern regions of the empire were conquered by the Khitan tribes (hence the Russian name of the country - China). Then the Song Dynasty (960-1279) managed to reunite almost the entire country.xxx Street of a Chinese city. Fragment of a scroll. XII century

Chinese Emperor. Fragment of a scroll on silk. VII century

Although the Song period was the heyday of China, the emperors constantly had to repel external threats, suppress peasant uprisings and revolts of the nobility. The empire paid a huge tribute to its northern neighbors in silver and silk. In the 12th century, nomads captured the entire north of the country. At the beginning of the 13th century, the state of the Mongols was formed near the northern borders of China. Taking advantage of the empire's hostility with its neighbors, the Mongols first conquered northern China and, by 1279, the entire country. The Mongol Khan Kublai moved his headquarters to Beijing, took the imperial title and founded the Yuan dynasty (1271 -1368). The conquest was accompanied by the devastation of the country and the death of the population. But soon the Mongols restored the previous system of governing the empire.

European merchants, diplomats and missionaries visited China more than once. The most famous of them was Marco Polo. These travels reflected the West's interest in various contacts with the Far East.

Portrait of an official. Scroll on silk. XVI century

In the middle of the 14th century, an uprising against the Mongols began. One of its leaders occupied Beijing in 1368 and became emperor. The Ming ("Light") dynasty he founded ruled the country until the mid-17th century.

The Emperor was called the Son of Heaven. His person was sacred. He was considered not only the ruler of all people, but also an intermediary between the supreme deity - Heaven and the “Celestial Empire,” that is, the earth.

Every Chinese was considered an executor of the will of Heaven, transmitted through the emperor. Chinese society was characterized by a strict hierarchy. Everyone, from the emperor to a simple servant, occupied his place in life, to which everything had to correspond: activities, manners, clothing. Unlike medieval Europe, in China the clan nobility did not have direct access to governing the country. The emperor relied on hundreds of thousands of specially trained officials.

Officials were appointed from all walks of life, but only from among those who had received a good education and passed exams. Those who passed the most difficult exams occupied the highest positions and received generous salaries. During the exam, they wrote essays in which they had to show knowledge of famous historical, philosophical, and religious works. All free people were allowed to take the test, which made it possible to attract talented commoners to the service.

Abstract on the topic:

Plan:

Introduction

• 1 Prehistoric period
• 2 Shang-Yin State
• 3 State of Zhou (XI-III centuries BC)
• 4 Qin Empire
• 5 Han Empire
• 6 State of Jin and Nan-bei Chao period (IV-VI centuries)
• 7 Sui State (581-618)
• 8 Tang State
• 9 Song State
• 10 Mongols and the Yuan State (1280-1368)
• 11 Ming State (1368-1644)
• 12 Qing State
  • 12.1 External expansion of the Qing
  • 12.2 Qing Empire and Russia
  • 12.3 Opium Wars
  • 12.4 War with France
  • 12.5 Japanese-Qing War 1894-1895
  • 12.6 Triple intervention
  • 12.7 Successes of Russian politics in the Qing Empire
  • 12.8 Capture of Jiaozhou by Germany
  • 12.9 One Hundred Days of Reform
• 13 XX century
  • 13.1 Boxer Rebellion
  • 13.2 Russo-Japanese War
  • 13.3 Death of Cixi
  • 13.4 1911 Revolution and establishment of the Republic of China
  • 13.5 World War I
  • 13.6 The era of the militarists
  • 13.7 Kuomintang victory
  • 13.8 Japanese occupation and World War II
  • 13.9 Republic of China and People's Republic of China
Literature

Introduction

Chinese civilization is one of the oldest in the world. According to Chinese scientists, its age may be five thousand years, while the available written sources cover a period of at least 3,500 years. The presence of administrative management systems, which were improved by successive dynasties, and the early development of the largest agricultural centers in the basins of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, created advantages for the Chinese state, whose economy was based on developed agriculture, compared to its nomadic neighbors and mountaineers. Chinese civilization was further strengthened by the introduction of Confucianism as a state ideology (1st century BC) and a unified writing system.

It should be understood that the study of such a temporal extent is associated with a strong asymmetry in the number of sources of historical information, while the relative unity of Chinese civilization has led to the fact that the later era actively correlates itself with its predecessors and interprets traditions. To facilitate an objective perception of the entire extent of Chinese history, the following division is used, based on traditional Han historiography:

• Pre-imperial China (Xia, Shang, Zhou - until 221 BC)
• Imperial China (Qin - Qing)
• New China (1911 - modern)

The first period, sparsely documented, occupies approximately the same time period as the second; the second period, in turn, is sometimes divided into Early (to the end of the Tang) and Late (to the end of the Qing). It is necessary to take into account that traditional Chinese historiography includes the sovereign states of other peoples (Mongols, Manchus, etc.) in the chronicle-dynastic history of China proper, ignoring the own historical traditions of these peoples and considering their states as parts of China.

1. Prehistoric period

Chinese civilization (the ancestors of the state-forming ethnic group Han) - a group of cultures (Banpo 1, Shijia, Banpo 2, Miaodigou, Zhongshanzhai 2, Hougang 1, etc.) of the Middle Neolithic (ca. 4500-2500 BC) in the Yellow River basin, which are traditionally united under the common name Yangshao. Representatives of these crops grew grains (chumiza, etc.) and were engaged in breeding pigs. Later, the Longshan culture spread to the area: Middle Eastern types of cereals (wheat and barley) and livestock breeds (cows, sheep, goats) appeared.

2. State of Shang-Yin

State of Shang-Yin(商殷）(Shang dynasty, Chinese 商, pinyin shāng), which arose in the end. XIV century BC e. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River in the village of Anyang, was the first state formation of the Bronze Age in China, the existence of which is supported by reports from archaeological, narrative and epigraphic sources. According to modern ideas, he had predecessors in various areas of the river basin. Yangtze Wucheng et al. and in the river basin. Yellow River Erlitou, Erligan. As a result of wars with neighboring peoples, by the 11th century BC. e. the influence of the Shang rulers spread to the territories of the modern provinces of Henan and Shanxi, as well as part of the territories of the provinces of Shaanxi and Hebei. At that time there was a lunar calendar and writing was used - the prototype of modern hieroglyphic Chinese writing. The Yin were significantly superior to the surrounding peoples from a military point of view - they had a professional army that used bronze weapons, bows, spears and war chariots. The Yin practiced human sacrifice - most often prisoners were sacrificed.

In the 11th century BC. e. The Shang state was conquered by a coalition of peoples led by the ruler of the early state formation of Zhou, Wu-wan.

3. State of Zhou (XI-III centuries BC)

Chinese copper coin in the shape of a hoe. Luoyang, V-III century. BC e. (Image is upside down.)

The vast territory of the state of Zhou (Chinese: 周, pinyin) Zhōu), covering almost the entire Yellow River basin, over time broke up into many competing independent state formations - initially, hereditary fiefs in territories inhabited by various tribes and located at a distance from the capitals - Zongzhou (western - near the city of Xi'an) and Chengzhou (eastern - Loyi, Luoyang). These inheritances were given to the relatives and associates of the supreme ruler - usually the Zhou people. In the internecine struggle, the number of original fiefs gradually decreased, and the fiefs themselves strengthened and became more independent.

The population of Zhou was heterogeneous, with the largest and most developed part of it being the Yin. In the state of Zhou, a significant part of the Yin people were settled in new lands in the east, where a new capital was built - Chengzhou (modern Henan province).

The Zhou period as a whole was characterized by the active development of new lands, settlement and ethnic mixing of people from various regions, fiefs (later kingdoms), which contributed to the creation of the foundation of the future Chinese community.

The Zhou period (XI-III centuries BC) is divided into the so-called Western and Eastern Zhou, which is associated with the move of the Zhou ruler in 770 BC. e. under the threat of an invasion of barbarian tribes from Zongzhou - the original capital of the state - to Chengzhou. The lands in the area of ​​the old capital were given to one of the allies of the ruler of the state, who created a new Qin fief here. Subsequently, this particular inheritance will become the center of a unified Chinese empire.

The Eastern Zhou period is in turn divided into two periods:

• Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn Period” VIII-V centuries BC);
• Zhanguo (“Warring States Period”, V-III centuries BC).

During the Eastern Zhou period, the power of the central ruler - Wang, the son of Heaven (tian-tzu), ruling the Celestial Empire under the Mandate of Heaven (tian-ming) - gradually weakened, and strong fiefs began to play the leading political role, turning into large kingdoms. Most of them (with the exception of the outlying ones) called themselves “middle states” ( jung-go), leading their origins from the early Zhou inheritances.

During the Eastern Zhou period, the main philosophical schools of Ancient China were formed - Confucianism (VI-V centuries BC), Moism (V century BC), Taoism (IV century BC), Legalism .

In the V-III centuries. BC e. (Zhangguo period) China enters the Iron Age. Agricultural areas are expanding, irrigation systems are increasing, crafts are developing, and revolutionary changes are taking place in military affairs.

During the Zhanguo period, seven major kingdoms coexisted in China - Wei, Zhao and Han (previously all three were part of the kingdom of Jin), Qin, Qi, Yan and Chu. Gradually, as a result of fierce rivalry, the westernmost - Qin - began to gain the upper hand. Having annexed neighboring kingdoms one after another, in 221 BC. e. the ruler of Qin - the future emperor Qin Shi Huang - united all of China under his rule.

So in the middle of the 3rd century BC. e. The Eastern Zhou period ended.

4. Qin Empire

Main article: Qin

Having united the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Emperor Qin Shi Huang (Chinese: 秦始皇, pinyin Qin Shǐ Huang) confiscated all weapons from the population, resettled tens of thousands of families of hereditary nobility from various kingdoms to the new capital - Xianyang and divided the huge country into 36 new regions, which were headed by appointed governors.

Under Qin Shi Huang, the defensive walls (ramps) of the northern Zhou kingdoms were connected and the Great Wall of China was created. Several strategic roads were built from the capital to the outskirts of the empire. As a result of successful wars in the north, the Huns (Hsiung-nu) were pushed behind the Great Wall. In the south, significant territories of the Yue tribes were annexed to the empire, including the northern part of modern Vietnam.

The construction of the Great Wall of China, stretching for more than 6,700 km, began in the 3rd century BC. e. to protect the northern regions of China from raids by nomads.

Qin Shi Huang, who built all his reforms on the foundations of legalism with barracks discipline and cruel punishments for the guilty, persecuted the Confucians, putting them to death (burying them alive) and burning their writings - because they dared to speak out against the severe oppression established in the country.

The Qin Empire ceased to exist shortly after the death of Qin Shi Huang.

5. Han Empire

The second empire in the history of China, called Han (Chinese trad. 漢, exemplar 汉, pinyin Han; 206 BC e.-220 n. BC) was founded by Liu Bang (Gaozu), a native of the middle bureaucracy, one of the military leaders of the revived kingdom of Chu who fought against Qin after the death of Emperor Qin Shihuang in 210 BC.

China at that time was experiencing an economic and social crisis caused by the loss of controllability and the wars of the military leaders of the Qin armies with the elites of the earlier destroyed kingdoms, who were trying to restore their statehood. Due to resettlement and wars, the rural population in the main agricultural areas has decreased significantly.

An important feature of the change of dynasties in China was that each new dynasty replaced the previous one in an environment of socio-economic crisis, weakening of the central government and wars between military leaders. The founder of the new state was the one who could capture the capital and forcibly remove the reigning emperor from power.

With the reign of Gaozu (206-195 BC), a new period of Chinese history began, which was called the Western Han.

Under Emperor Wu Di (140-87 BC), a different philosophy was adopted - restored and reformed Confucianism, which became the dominant official ideology instead of the discredited legalism with its harsh norms and inhumane practices. It was from this time that the Chinese Confucian Empire began.

Under him, the territory of the Han Empire expanded significantly. The Vietnamese state of Nam Viet (the territory of the modern province of Guangdong, the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and the north of the Indochina Peninsula), the Vietnamese states in the southern parts of the modern provinces of Zhejiang and Fujian, the Korean state of Joseon were destroyed, lands were annexed in the southwest, the Huns were pushed further to the north.

The Chinese traveler Zhang Qian penetrates far to the west and describes many countries of Central Asia (Fergana, Bactria, Parthia, etc.). Along the route he traveled, a trade route was laid through Dzungaria and East Turkestan to the countries of Central Asia and the Middle East - the so-called “Great Silk Road”. The empire for some time subjugates the oases-proto-states along the Silk Road and extends its influence to the Pamirs. In the 1st century n. e. Buddhism begins to penetrate into China from India.

In the period from 8 to 23 years. n. e. Wang Mang seizes power, proclaiming himself emperor and founder of the state of Xin. A series of transformations begins, which are interrupted by an environmental disaster - the Yellow River changed its course. Due to a three-year famine, central power weakened. Under these conditions, the red-browed uprising and the movement of representatives of the Liu clan for the return of the throne began. Wang Mang was killed, the capital was taken, power returned to the Liu dynasty.

The new period was called Eastern Han, it lasted until 220 AD. e.

6. The State of Jin and the Nan-bei Chao period (IV-VI centuries)

The Eastern Han was replaced by the Three Kingdoms period (Wei, Shu and Wu). During the struggle for power between the warlords, a new state of Jin was founded (Chinese trad. 晉, ex. 晋, pinyin jìn; 265-420).

At the beginning of the 4th century, China was invaded by nomads - the Xiongnu (Huns), Xianbeans, Qiang, Jie, etc. All of Northern China was captured by nomads who created their own kingdoms here, the so-called 16 barbarian states of China. A significant part of the Chinese nobility fled to the south and southeast, and the state founded there was called Eastern Jin.

The nomads come in waves, one after another, and after each of these waves new kingdoms and ruling dynasties arise in Northern China, which, however, take classical Chinese names (Zhao, Yan, Liang, Qin, Wei, etc.).

At this time, on the one hand, there is a barbarization of the way of life of the sedentary Chinese - rampant cruelty, tyranny, massacres, instability, executions and endless coups. On the other hand, the nomadic aliens actively seek to use the Chinese management experience and Chinese culture to stabilize and strengthen their power - the power of Chinese Confucian civilization ultimately extinguishes the waves of invasions of barbarian tribes that are subject to Sinicization. By the end of the 6th century, the descendants of the nomads were almost completely assimilated with the Chinese.

In northern China, the Xianbei state of Toba Wei (Northern Wei) gained the upper hand in the century-long struggle between non-Chinese kingdoms, uniting all of Northern China (the Yellow River basin) under its rule and, by the end of the 5th century, in the struggle against the southern Chinese state of Song, extended its influence to the shores of the Yangtze. Moreover, already in the 6th century, as was said, the Xianbei invaders assimilated with the overwhelming majority of the local population.

With the beginning of the barbarian invasions of northern China, accompanied by mass destruction and enslavement of the local population, up to a million local residents - primarily noble, rich and educated, including the imperial court - moved south, to areas relatively recently annexed to the empire. Aliens from the north, having settled the river valleys, actively began growing rice and gradually turned Southern China into the main agricultural region of the empire. Already in the 5th century, two rice harvests a year began to be harvested here. Sinicization and assimilation of the local population, the colonization of new lands, the construction of new cities and the development of old ones sharply accelerated. The center of Chinese culture was concentrated in the south.

At the same time, Buddhism is strengthening its position here - several tens of thousands of monasteries with more than 2 million monks have already been built in the north and south. To a large extent, the spread of Buddhism is facilitated by the weakening of the official religion - Confucianism - due to barbarian invasions and civil strife. The first Chinese Buddhists who contributed to the popularization of the new religion were adherents of Taoism - it was with their help that ancient Buddhist texts were translated from Sanskrit into Chinese. Buddhism gradually became a thriving religion.

7. Sui State (581-618)

The process of sinicization of the barbarized north and colonized south creates the preconditions for a new unification of the country. In 581, the northern Chinese commander Zhou Yang Jian united all of Northern China under his rule and proclaimed the new Sui dynasty (Chinese 隋, pinyin Suí; 581-618), and after the destruction of the southern Chinese state, Chen heads the united China. At the beginning of the 7th century, his son Yang Di wages wars against the Korean state of Goguryo (611-614) and the Vietnamese state of Vansuan, builds the Great Canal between the Yellow River and the Yangtze to transport rice from the south to the capital, creates luxurious palaces in the capital Luoyang, restores and builds new ones sections of the Great Wall of China, which fell into disrepair over a thousand years.

The subjects cannot withstand the hardships and deprivations and rebel. Yang Di is killed, and the Sui dynasty is replaced by the Tang dynasty (618-907), founded by the Shan feudal lord Li Yuan.

8. Tang State

The rulers of the Liu dynasty put an end to the performances of the nobility and carried out a number of successful reforms. The country is divided into 10 provinces, the “allotment system” was restored, administrative legislation was improved, the vertical of power was strengthened, trade and city life were revived. The size of many cities and the urban population have increased significantly.

By the end of the 7th century, the increased military power of the Tang Empire (Chinese 唐, pinyin Tang) leads to the expansion of the territory of China at the expense of the Eastern Turkic and Western Turkic Khaganates. The states located in Dzungaria and East Turkestan became tributaries of China for some time. The Korean state of Goguryeo is conquered and becomes the Andong Viceroyalty of China. The Great Silk Road has been reopened.

In the VIII-X centuries. In China, new agricultural crops are becoming widespread - in particular, tea and cotton.

Maritime trade is developing, mainly through Guangzhou (Canton), with India and Iran, the Arab Caliphate, the Korean state of Silla and Japan.

In the 8th century, the Tang Empire was weakened by conflicts between the central government and military governors on the periphery. The dominance of the Liu dynasty was finally undermined by Huang Chao's war for the throne of 874-901.

For a long time (907-960), it was not possible to restore a unified state power in the country, which is associated with internecine wars, especially in the north of the country.

9. Song State

Returning home a herd of bulls in bad weather, artist Li Di, 12th century

In 960, the military leader Zhao Kuan-yin founded the Song Dynasty (Chinese 宋, pinyin Song; 960-1279). All three centuries of the Song passed under the sign of successful pressure on China from the northern steppe peoples.

At the beginning of the 10th century, the development and consolidation of the proto-Mongol ethnic community of the Khitans, neighboring China in the northeast, intensified. The Khitan state, founded in 916 and existing until 1125, was called Liao. Actively strengthening their position on the northern borders, the Khitans seized part of the Chinese territories (part of the modern provinces of Hebei and Shanxi). The foundations of government in the Liao state were created by the Chinese and Koreans; writing was created on the basis of Chinese characters and from Chinese elements of writing; cities, crafts, and trade developed. Unable to cope with its neighbors and regain lost territories, the Song Empire was forced to sign a peace treaty in 1004 and agree to pay tribute. In 1042 the tribute was increased, and in 1075 China gave another part of its territory to the Khitans.

At the same time, on the northwestern outskirts of the Song Empire, west of the Khitan, at the turn of the 10th-11th centuries. A strong Tangut state is emerging - Western Xia. The Tanguts tore away from China part of the modern province of Shaanxi, the entire territory of the modern province of Gansu and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Since 1047, the Song Empire also had to pay tribute to the Tanguts in silver and silk.

Despite forced territorial concessions to neighbors, the Song period is considered the era of economic and cultural prosperity in China. The number of cities is growing, the urban population continues to grow, Chinese artisans are reaching heights in the manufacture of products from porcelain, silk, lacquer, wood, ivory, etc. Gunpowder and the compass are invented, book printing is spreading, new high-yielding varieties of grain are being developed, and cotton crops are increasing. One of the most impressive and effective of these innovations was the very conscious, systematic and well-organized introduction and dissemination of new varieties of early maturing rice from South Vietnam (Champa).

Zhang Zeduan. “Along the River on All Souls’ Day” (12th century).

In the 12th century, China had to give up even more territory to new invaders - the South Manchu Jurchens, who created (on the basis of the Liao Khitan Empire they destroyed in 1125) the state (later the empire) of Jin (1115-1234), the borders of which ran along the river. Huaihe. At the same time, part of the defeated Khitan went to the west, where a small state of the Kara-Kitai - Western Liao (1124-1211) - was formed in the area of ​​the Talas and Chu rivers.

In 1127, the Jurchens captured the capital of the Song Empire, Kaifeng, and captured the imperial family. One of the emperor's sons flees to the south, to Hangzhou, which later becomes the capital of the new Southern Song Empire (1127-1280). The advance of the Jurchen army to the south is held back only by the Yangtze River. The border between Jin and the Southern Sung Empire is established along the area between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. Northern China again finds itself under the domination of foreign conquerors for a long time.

In 1141, a peace treaty was signed, according to which the Song Empire recognizes itself as a vassal of the Jin Empire and undertakes to pay tribute to it.

10. Mongols and the Yuan state (1280-1368)

Main article: Mongol Empire

Yang Guifei, saddling horse, artist Qian Xuan (1235-1305 AD)

At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongols invaded China. Until the 13th century, the Mongols were part of a large steppe community that the Chinese called “Tatars.” Their predecessors - proto-Mongolian and early Mongolian groups and peoples, one of which were the Khitans, were steppe nomads who raised horses and cattle, wandered from pasture to pasture and were organized into small tribal groups bound by common origin, language, culture, etc. .

The proximity of the developed Chinese civilization contributed to the acceleration of the process of creating tribes, and then powerful tribal alliances led by influential leaders. In 1206, at the all-Mongol kurultai, Temujin, who had won the fierce internecine struggle and took the name and title of Genghis Khan, was proclaimed the leader of all Mongols.

Genghis Khan created an organized and combat-ready army, which became a decisive factor in the subsequent successes of the relatively small Mongol ethnic group.

Having conquered the neighboring peoples of Southern Siberia, Genghis Khan went to war against the Jurchens in 1210 and took Beijing in 1215.

In 1219-1221, Central Asia was devastated and the state of the Khorezmshahs was conquered. In 1223 the Russian princes were defeated, in 1226-1227 the Tangut state was destroyed. In 1231 the main forces of the Mongols returned to Northern China and by 1234 completed the defeat of the Jurchen state of Jin.

Conquests in Southern China continued in the 1250s, after the campaign in Europe. Initially, the Mongols captured the countries surrounding the Southern Song Empire - the state of Dali (1252-1253), Tibet (1253). In 1258, Mongol troops under the leadership of Kublai Khan invaded Southern China from different directions, but the unexpected death of the Great Khan Mongke (1259) prevented the implementation of their plans. Kublai Khan, having seized the khan's throne, in 1260 moved the capital from Karakorum to Chinese territory (first to Kaiping, and in 1264 to Zhongdu - modern Beijing). The Mongols managed to take the capital of the Southern Song state of Hangzhou only in 1276. By 1280, all of China was conquered, and the Song Empire was destroyed.

After the conquest of China, Kublai Khan proclaimed the motto of the reign of Yuan (Chinese: 元朝, pinyin Yuancháo, 1271-1368), the Khitans, Jurchens, Turks and even Europeans were brought into the service of the new government - in particular, at this time the Venetian merchant Marco Polo visited China.

The inheritance of Kublai Kublai and his descendants, the great khans of Mongolia, was the Great Yuan State (Mongolian: Ikh Yuan uls), which was part of the Great Mongol Empire (Mongolian: Ikh Mongol uls). China during this period was not a sovereign state and was an integral part of the Mongol empire.

The heavy economic, political and national oppression imposed by the Mongol feudal lords held back the development of the country. Many Chinese were enslaved. Agriculture and trade were disrupted. The necessary work to maintain irrigation structures (dams and canals) was not carried out, which led in 1334 to a terrible flood and the death of several hundred thousand people. The Great Canal of China was built during Mongol rule.

Popular discontent with the new rulers resulted in a powerful patriotic movement and uprisings, which were led by the leaders of the White Lotus secret society (Bailianjiao).

11. Ming State (1368-1644)

Court ladies of the kingdom of Shu, artist Tang Yin (1470-1523).

As a result of a long struggle in the middle of the 14th century, the Mongols were expelled. One of the leaders of the uprising, the son of a peasant Zhu Yuanzhang, came to power and founded the Ming state (Chinese 明, pinyin Ming; 1368-1644). China became an independent state again.

The Mongols, pushed to the north, began to actively develop the steppes of modern Mongolia. The Ming Empire subjugates part of the Jurchen tribes, the state of Nanzhao (modern provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou), and part of the modern provinces of Qinghai and Sichuan.

The Chinese fleet under the command of Zheng He, consisting of several dozen multi-deck frigates, made several naval expeditions to Southeast Asia, India and the east coast of Africa during the period from 1405 to 1433. Without bringing any economic benefit to China, the expeditions were stopped and the ships were dismantled.

In the 16th century, the first attempt of an intensified Japan to invade China and Korea took place. At the same time, Europeans - the Portuguese, Spaniards, and Dutch - penetrated into China. In 1557, Portugal took possession of the Chinese territory of Macao (Macao) as a “lease”. Christian missionaries - Jesuits - also appeared in China. They brought new tools and mechanisms to China - watches, astronomical instruments, and established the production of firearms here. At the same time, they are engaged in a thorough study of China.

12. Qing State

By the end of the 16th century, the northern neighbors of the Ming Empire - descendants of the Jurchen tribes defeated by Genghis Khan - united around the possession of Manchukuo under the leadership of the leader Nurhaci (1559-1626). In 1609, Nurhaci stopped paying tribute to China and then proclaimed his own Jin dynasty. Since 1618, the Manchus have been increasing armed pressure on China. In eight years they reach almost the Great Wall of China (in the far east).

Nurhaci's successor Abahai proclaims himself emperor and changes the name of the dynasty to Qing (Chinese: 清, pinyin Qing). At the beginning of the 17th century, the Manchus conquered Southern (Inner) Mongolia. A centralized administration is established throughout the entire territory of Southern Manchuria and the captured khanates of Southern Mongolia.

The Manchu cavalry, supported by the Inner Mongols, begins to make regular raids into China, plundering and enslaving hundreds of thousands of Chinese. Emperor Ming has to send his best army under the command of Wu Sangui to the northern borders. Meanwhile, another peasant uprising is breaking out in China. In 1644, peasant troops under the leadership of Li Zicheng, having defeated all other armies, occupied Beijing, and Li Zicheng himself proclaimed himself emperor. Wu Sangui allows the Manchu cavalry to enter Beijing. The Manchus defeat Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanghaiguan. On June 6, 1644, the Manchus captured the capital. Li Zicheng soon dies, and the Manchus declare their young emperor Aixingiro Fulin the ruler of all China. Wu Sangui, along with the entire army, goes into the service of the conquerors.

The fight against the Manchu invaders continues for a long time, but weakened China is unable to resist a well-armed and organized army. The last stronghold of resistance - Taiwan was captured by the Manchus in 1683. China thus lost state sovereignty and became an integral part of another state - the Manchu Qing Empire.

The Manchu dynasty of the Qing Empire ruled from 1645 to 1911. The highest authorities and the leadership of the army were in the hands of the Manchu nobility. Mixed marriages were prohibited, and yet the Manchus quickly became sinicized, especially since, unlike the Mongols, they did not oppose themselves to Chinese culture.

Beginning with Kangxi (reigned 1663-1723), the Manchu emperors were Buddhists and Confucians in ethics, governing the country according to ancient laws. China under the rule of the Qing dynasty in the 17th-18th centuries. developed quite intensively. By the beginning of the 19th century, there were already about 300 million people in the Qing Empire - about five times more than in the same territory on average over the previous two thousand years. Demographic pressure has led to the need to intensify agricultural production with the active participation of the state. The Manchus ensured the obedience of the Chinese population, but at the same time cared about the prosperity of the country's economy and the well-being of the people.

12.1. External expansion of the Qing

The rulers of the Qing state pursued a policy of isolating China from the outside world. European colonization barely affected the empire. Catholic missionaries played a prominent role at the imperial court until the end of the 17th century, after which Christian churches were gradually closed and missionaries expelled from the country. In the middle of the 18th century, trade with Europeans was eliminated, with the exception of one port in Canton (Guangzhou). The island of Macau, under Portuguese control, remained a stronghold for foreign trade.

In the first two centuries of the Qing dynasty, China, closed from everyday contact with the outside world, emerged as a strong independent state, expanding in all directions.

Korea was a vassal of the Qing Empire. At the end of the 17th century, the suzerainty of the Manchu emperors was recognized by the princes of Outer Mongolia. In 1757, the Dzungar Khanate was destroyed, and its territory, together with East Turkestan, conquered by 1760, was included in the Qing Empire under the name Xinjiang (“New Frontier”). After a series of campaigns by the Manchu-Chinese army against Tibet, this state at the end of the 18th century became dependent on the Qing Empire. The wars of the Qing Empire against Burma (1765-1769) and Vietnam (1788-1789) were unsuccessful and ended in the defeat of the Qing troops.

At the same time, expansion was carried out to the north and northeast, which inevitably led to a conflict with Russia in the Amur region. Within two centuries, the territory of the Qing Empire more than doubled. It is important to note that the Qing Empire was not China: the latter was only one of its parts.

In the Qing Empire, any official representatives of foreign states were considered exclusively as representatives of vassal states - real or potential.

12.2. Qing Empire and Russia

The first steps to establish Russian-Chinese relations were taken by Russia at the end of the Ming Empire (the mission of I. Petlin in 1618-1619), but the main missions (Fyodor Baikov in 1654-1657, Nikolai Spafari in 1675-1678, etc.) had already followed during the Qing period. In parallel with the missions, the Russian Cossacks were advancing to the east - the campaigns of the pioneers Vasily Poyarkov (1643-1646) and Erofey Khabarov (1649-1653) marked the beginning of the development of the Amur region by the Russian people and led to its annexation to Russia, while the Manchus considered these areas theirs fiefdom.

In the middle of the 17th century, Russian fortresses (Albazinsky, Kumarsky, etc.), peasant settlements and arable lands already existed on both banks of the Amur. In 1656, the Daurian (later Albazinsky) voivodeship was formed, which included the valley of the Upper and Middle Amur on both banks.

Although the border of the Qing Empire then ran just north of the Liaodong Peninsula ("Willow Palisade"), in the 1650s and later the Qing Empire attempted to seize Russian possessions in the Amur basin by military force and prevent local tribes from accepting Russian citizenship. The Manchu army for some time ousted the Cossacks from the Albazin fortress. Following the missions of Fyodor Baikov and Nikolai Spafariy, Russia sent in 1686 the plenipotentiary embassy of Fyodor Golovin to the border authorities on the Amur for a peaceful resolution of the conflict.

Negotiations were conducted surrounded by thousands of Manchu army. On the Manchu side, Jesuit missionaries who opposed the agreement between China and Russia took part in the negotiations, which further complicated the situation. The Qing Empire refused to define the Russian-Manchu border along the Amur, demanding for itself the entire Albazin voivodeship, the entire Transbaikalia, and subsequently all the lands east of the Lena.

By threatening to take Nerchinsk by storm, the Qing representatives forced Golovin to agree to the Russian withdrawal from the Upper and Middle Amur. According to the Treaty of Nerchinsk, Russia was forced to cede its possessions along the right bank of the river to the Qing Empire. Argun and on parts of the left and right banks of the Amur. The Cossacks were obliged to destroy and leave Albazin. Due to discrepancies in the texts of the treaty drawn up by each of the parties, however, a large territory turned out to be undelimited and actually turned into a buffer zone between the two states. The demarcation between Russia and Manchuria within this zone ended in the 19th century. The final border between Russia and the Qing Empire in the Far East was determined by the Aigun (1858) and Beijing (1860) treaties; she walked along the Amur and Ussuri rivers through Lake Khanka and mountain ranges to the river. Tumanjiang; Russian-Qing territorial demarcation in Central Asia was completed by the mid-1890s.

12.3. Opium Wars

The territory of China proper in 1875

By the end of the 18th century, the Qing Empire's trade with the outside world began to expand again. Chinese silk, porcelain, tea and other goods were in great demand in Europe, but the Chinese refused to buy anything from the Europeans, so they had to pay silver for Chinese goods. The British then began importing opium into China - mostly smuggled from India - and soon introduced opium smoking to the local population, especially in the coastal areas. The import of opium constantly increased and became a real disaster for the country, which led to a series of Opium Wars in the mid-19th century. The defeat in these wars led to the gradual transformation of China into a de facto semi-colony of the European powers. The result of the first Opium War was the victory of Great Britain, secured by the Treaty of Nanking on August 29, 1842, the payment by the Qing Empire of an indemnity in the amount of 15,000,000 silver liang ($21,000,000), the transfer of Hong Kong Island to Great Britain and the opening of Chinese ports to British trade, including including opium. This was the first of the so-called unequal treaties.

12.4. War with France

After two Franco-Vietnamese wars (1858-1862 and 1883-1884), France controlled South and Central Vietnam. Northern Vietnam was nominally a vassal state of the Qing dynasty. During the Franco-Vietnamese War of 1883-1884. France captured a number of points belonging to the Qing Empire. On May 11 and June 9, 1884, a convention was signed between France and the Qing Empire, obliging it to withdraw from Vietnam the troops sent there in 1882-1883. China also promised to recognize any agreements that will be concluded between France and Vietnam. On June 6, 1884, France forced Vietnam to conclude a peace treaty, under which it established a protectorate over all of Vietnam. But the Qing government refused to recognize the Vietnamese-French peace treaty. In June 1884, Qing troops destroyed French troops that arrived in Vietnam to occupy it according to the treaty. The French government used this as a pretext for war. The Franco-Chinese war began. Despite the successes of the Qing troops, the emperor invited France to sit down at the negotiating table. The Franco-Chinese Treaty of Tianjin 1885 was signed on June 9, 1885. Under this agreement, the Qing Empire recognized France as the ruler of Vietnam, paid indemnity and granted France a number of trade privileges in the provinces of Yannan and Guangxi bordering Vietnam.

12.5. Japanese-Qing War 1894-1895

In 1874, Japan captured Formosa, but was forced to leave it at the request of England. Then Japan turned its efforts to Korea, which was a vassal of the Qing Empire, and Manchuria. In June 1894, at the request of the Korean government, the Qing Empire sent troops to Korea to suppress a peasant uprising. Taking advantage of this pretext, Japan also sent its troops here, after which it demanded that the Korean king carry out “reforms,” which meant actually establishing Japanese control in Korea.

On the night of July 23, with the support of Japanese troops, a government coup was organized in Seoul. On July 27, the new government made a “request” to Japan to expel Chinese troops from Korea. However, on July 25, the Japanese fleet began military operations against China without declaring war; The official declaration of war followed only on August 1, 1894. The Sino-Japanese War began

During the war, the superiority of the Japanese army and navy led to major defeats for China on land and at sea (at Asan, July 1894; at Pyongyang, September 1894; at Jiulian, October 1894).

On October 24, 1894, hostilities moved to the territory of Northeast China. By March 1895, Japanese troops captured the Liaodong Peninsula, Weihaiwei, Yingkou, and Mukden was under threat.

On April 17, 1895, in Shimonoseki, representatives of Japan and the Qing Empire signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which was humiliating for the latter.

12.6. Triple intervention

The terms imposed by Japan on the Qing Empire led to the so-called "triple intervention" of Russia, Germany and France - powers that by this time already maintained extensive contacts with China and therefore perceived the signed treaty as detrimental to their interests. On April 23, 1895, Russia, Germany and France simultaneously, but separately, appealed to the Japanese government demanding that it refuse the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, which could lead to the establishment of Japanese control over Port Arthur, while Nicholas II, supported by the Western allies, had own views of Port Arthur as an ice-free port for Russia. The German note was the harshest, even insulting, for Japan.

Japan had to give in. On May 10, 1895, the Japanese government announced the return of the Liaodong Peninsula to China, however, having achieved an increase in the amount of Chinese indemnity by 30 million taels.

12.7. Successes of Russian politics in the Qing Empire

In 1895, Russia provided Beijing with a loan of 150 million rubles at 4% per annum. The treaty contained an obligation for China not to accept foreign control of its finances unless Russia participated in it. At the end of 1895, on the initiative of Witte, the Russian-Chinese Bank was founded. On June 3, 1896, a Russian-Chinese treaty on a defensive alliance against Japan was signed in Moscow. On September 8, 1896, a concession agreement was signed between the Chinese government and the Russian-Chinese Bank for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway. The CER Society received a strip of land along the road, which came under its jurisdiction. In March 1898, a Russian-Chinese agreement was signed on the Russian lease of Port Arthur and the Liaodong Peninsula.

12.8. Capture of Jiaozhou by Germany

In August 1897, Wilhelm II visited Nicholas II in Peterhof and obtained consent to establish a German naval base in Jiaozhou (in the then transcription - “Kiao-Chao”), on the southern coast of Shandong. In early November, German missionaries were killed by the Chinese in Shandong. On November 14, 1897, the Germans landed troops on the coast of Jiaozhou and captured it. On March 6, 1898, a German-Chinese agreement was signed, under which China leased Jiaozhou to Germany for a period of 99 years. At the same time, the Chinese government granted Germany a concession to build two railways in Shandong and a number of mining concessions in this province.

A famous French cartoon from the late 1890s represents China being divided like a pie by Queen Victoria (Great Britain), Bismarck (Germany), Nicholas II (Russia) and Emperor Meiji (Japan), and Marianne representing France (delicately portrayed by the French cartoonist) without trying to “grab your piece”). In the background, Li Hongzhang tries to stop what is happening, but is powerless.

12.9. One Hundred Days of Reform

A short period of reforms began on June 11, 1898, with the issuance of the decree “On Establishing the Basic Line of State Policy” by the Manchu Emperor Zaitian (the name of the years of his reign was Guangxu). Zaitian attracted a group of young reformers - students and like-minded people of Kang Yuwei - to develop a series of decrees on reforms. In total, over 60 decrees were issued that related to the education system, the construction of railways, plants and factories, the modernization of agriculture, the development of domestic and foreign trade, the reorganization of the armed forces, the cleansing of the state apparatus, etc. The period of radical reforms ended on September 21 the same year when Empress Dowager Cixi carried out a palace coup and canceled the reforms.

13. XX century

Map of China proper at the beginning of the 20th century from the Brockhaus and Efron encyclopedia

13.1. Boxer Rebellion

Cixi, Empress Dowager (1900s).

In May 1900, a large uprising began in China, called the Boxer or Yihetuan Uprising. On June 20, the German envoy Ketteler was killed in Beijing. Following this, the rebels besieged the diplomatic missions located in a special quarter of Beijing. The building of the Catholic Cathedral of Petang (Beitang) was also besieged. Mass killings of Christian Chinese began by the Yihetuans, including the murder of 222 Orthodox Chinese. On June 21, 1900, Empress Cixi (慈禧) declared war on Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Japan, the United States, and Russia. The Great Powers agreed on joint action against the rebels. The German General Waldersee was appointed commander-in-chief of the expeditionary forces. However, when he arrived in China, Beijing had already been liberated by a small advance detachment under the command of the Russian general Linevich. The Russian army took the desired position - Manchuria.

Railway map of China (1908)

13.2. Russo-Japanese War

On February 8, 1904, the Russo-Japanese War began for control of Manchuria and Korea. The war that took place on the territory of China was unsuccessful for Russia: as a result of it, Russia was forced to cede Port Arthur and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan with part of the Chinese Eastern Railway built by that time. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea.

13.3. Death of Cixi

On December 14, 1908, Empress Cixi and Emperor Guangxu, whom Cixi had previously removed from power, died on the same day. Guangxu was poisoned because Cixi did not want him to survive her. Emperor Pu Yi, who was two years old, ascended the throne. His father, Prince Chun, was appointed regent, but soon power passed to his brother.

13.4. 1911 Revolution and establishment of the Republic of China

In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising began in China. It marked the beginning of the Xinhai Revolution (1911-1913), as a result of which the Manchu dynasty was overthrown. The Qing Empire collapsed and the creation of the Chinese Republic was proclaimed.

After the fall of the monarchy, the Bogd Khan of Mongolia refused to obey the republic and declared that his country recognized the suzerainty of the Manchu dynasty, not the Chinese Republic. On November 3, 1912, an agreement between Mongolia and Russia was concluded. England took advantage of the internal struggle in China to increase its influence in Tibet. Tibet rose up to fight and forced the Chinese garrison to leave the country. From then on, until the “peaceful liberation” of China, Tibet remained an independent state. Russia agreed to consider Tibet a British sphere of influence, and England recognized Russian interests in independent (Outer) Mongolia.

On February 12, 1912, Emperor Pu Yi abdicated the throne. General Yuan Shikai, the prime minister and commander-in-chief of the army, came to power. He was soon proclaimed President of China.

In 1913, the “Second Revolution” took place under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen. Yuan Shikai suppressed scattered protests in the central and southern provinces. The military dictatorship of Yuan Shikai, the founder of the Beiyang (northern) militarists, is established in the country. Sun Yat-sen was forced to emigrate abroad.

13.5. World War I

After the outbreak of the First World War, the Chinese government declared its neutrality and asked the warring powers not to transfer hostilities to Chinese territory, including Chinese lands “leased” by the powers. However, on August 22, 1914, Japan declared a state of war with Germany and landed an army of 30,000 men north of Qingdao, the center of the German colony in Shandong Province. After a two-month military campaign, Japan captured the German possessions in Shandong and also extended its control throughout the province.

In 1915, Chinese princes vote to establish a monarchy in China with Yuan Shikai on the imperial throne. Parliament is dissolved. The creation of the Chinese Empire is announced. This causes a series of uprisings in the provinces of China. The provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi declare independence from Beijing. Then Guangdong, Zhejiang, Sichuan and Hunan are separated.

On March 22, 1916, the republic was restored. Yuan Shikai was forced to renounce the title.

13.6. The era of the militarists

After the death of Yuan Shikai, numerous military-feudal fiefdoms of various militaristic groups began to take shape in China. The largest was the Beiyang group, which subsequently split into the Fengtian group led by the former leader of the Honghuz gang Zhang Zuolin, the Zhili group led by General Feng Guozhang, and the Anhui group led by General Duan Qizhui. The province of Shanxi was dominated by the militarist Yan Xishan, who flirted with the Beiyang group, and in the province of Shaanxi it was dominated by General Chen Shufan. The camp of the southwestern militarists consisted of two large groups: the Yunnan one, led by General Tang Jiyao, and the Guangxi one, led by General Lu Rongting.

The provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Fengtian were under the control of the Fengtian group, and the provinces of Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and part of Zhili were under the control of the Zhili group. The Fengtian and Anhui cliques were financed by Japan, the Zhili clique - by England and the USA. Li Yuanhong was a protege of the southwestern militarists. Vice President General Feng Guozhang was oriented towards England and the USA, and Prime Minister General Duan Qirui was pro-Japanese. In 1917, Japan began to provide large loans to Duan Qizhui, receiving more and more concessions for them, including concessions in Manchuria.

13.7. Kuomintang victory

The Kuomintang Party was founded in 1912 in Guangzhou Province. Almost 10 years later, in 1921, the Communist Party of China was created, small in number and not particularly popular at that time. On September 8, 1923, at the request of Sun Yat-sen, who asked to send him a person with whom he could speak English without an interpreter, Comintern agent M. M. Borodin arrived in China, who became a political adviser to the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang and an adviser to Sun Yat-sen. He organized cooperation between the Kuomintang and the CCP. On January 20, 1924, the First National Congress of the Kuomintang takes place in Guangzhou. At the congress, a course was adopted towards an alliance with the Chinese communists and the USSR. On June 16, the Whampoa Military Academy was established under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek. The first set included 400, the second - 500, the third - 800 and the fourth - about 2600 listeners; Two training regiments were created at the school. A large group of Soviet military advisers arrived at Whampoa Academy. In October 1924, Vasily Konstantinovich Blucher arrived in Guangzhou to serve as chief military adviser.
In March 1926, Chiang Kai-shek carried out a military coup in Canton, expelled the communists from the city, and three months later he was elected chairman of the Kuomintang and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Having achieved high power, Chiang Kai-shek invited German advisers led by the former Reichswehr general von Seeckt.
German officers acted as advisers to Chiang Kai-shek:

• Colonel W. Bauer (Hitler's friend and Ludendorff's student)
• Lieutenant Colonel Kriebel (later served as German Ambassador in Shanghai)
• Lieutenant General Wetzel
• General Falkenhausen

The Kuomintang members diligently adopted the experience of the Germans in establishing order in the country. Chinese officers were sent to Germany for training in an organized manner.
In 1926, Chiang Kai-shek's National Revolutionary Army of China undertook the so-called Northern Expedition. During six months of continuous fighting, the central regions of China were liberated from the power of local military rulers.
At the beginning of 1927, Chiang Kai-shek began to openly collapse the united front of the KMT and the CPC: his troops began to disarm the Shanghai workers' detachments and squads, and mass arrests and executions of trade unionists and communists began. In response to this, the Communists organized an uprising of part of the Kuomintang troops in the city of Nanchang on August 1, which went down in Chinese history as the “Nanchang Uprising.”

American troop transport "Dollar" with troops in China. 1927

In December 1927, a communist uprising was raised in Canton, which the Kuomintang brutally suppressed after four days of bloody fighting.
After several military operations, by 1927, Kuomintang troops controlled most of China's territory.

13.8. Japanese occupation and World War II

In the fall of 1931, Japan attacked China. On September 18, after a series of provocations, the Japanese went on the offensive, occupying all of Manchuria in a short time. In March 1932, the state of Manchukuo was proclaimed here, headed by Aishingyoro Puyi, the last emperor of the Manchu Qing Empire, overthrown during the Xinhai Revolution.

In these difficult conditions, Chiang Kai-shek was forced to fight simultaneously with three enemies: external Japanese aggression, sporadic riots of individual militarists on the ground, and the armed forces of the CPC, which were claiming to seize power in the country. He chose a policy of compromise with the Japanese; he dealt with the militarists depending on specific circumstances, but with the communists no compromise was possible. In 1934, the main forces of the CCP were blocked in Jiangxi province. In these difficult conditions, the leadership of the CPC was able to organize a breakthrough, and after a months-long march, they led troops to the North-West of the country in the so-called. "special region" centered in the city of Yan'an; These events went down in the history of the CPC as the “Long March”. Chiang Kai-shek planned to continue the fight against the communists there, but then a number of his generals rebelled, who considered reconciliation with the communists and a joint fight against Japanese aggression a higher priority. As a result of the "Xi'an Incident", an agreement was signed to create a united front between the CCP and the Kuomintang.

Even during the Weimar Republic, Chiang Kai-shek's government received military assistance from Germany. With Hitler's rise to power, aid was increased in order to fight the communists. Factories for the production of licensed German weapons were created in China, German advisers trained personnel, helmets, Gewehr 88 and 98 rifles, and Mauser pistols were exported to China. China also received a small number of Henschel, Junkers, Heinkel and Messerschmitt aircraft, Rheinmetall and Krupp howitzers, anti-tank and mountain guns, for example, Pak 35/36, and PzKpfw I light tanks.

On November 25, 1936, Japan and Germany concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact, directed against the USSR and the communist movement. On December 12, 1936, the Xi'an Incident took place, forcing Chiang Kai-shek to unite with the Communists.

July 7, 1937 The conflict at the Lugouqiao Bridge near Beijing began the “big” war between Japan and China. From this moment, according to Chinese historians, the Second World War begins. On August 21, 1937, the Soviet-Chinese non-aggression treaty was signed, after which the USSR began to provide military and economic assistance to the government of Chiang Kai-shek (I-16 aircraft and other military equipment were supplied to China; at first, Soviet pilots fought on the side of China). German military aid to China was stopped.