Which cities in the state are considered antediluvian? See what “States of the Ancient World” are in other dictionaries

The first states appeared about 6,000 years ago, but not all of them were able to survive to this day. Some have disappeared forever, others only have their names left, but there are also those that have retained their connection with the Ancient World.

Armenia

The history of Armenian statehood goes back about 2,500 years, although its origins should be sought even deeper - in the kingdom of Arme-Shubria (XII century BC), which, according to historian Boris Piotrovsky, at the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries BC. e. turned into a Scythian-Armenian association.
Ancient Armenia is a motley conglomerate of kingdoms and states that existed simultaneously or succeeded one another. Tabal, Melid, the Mush kingdom, the Hurrian, Luwian and Urartian states - the descendants of their inhabitants eventually merged with the Armenian people.

The term “Armenia” is first found in the Behistun Inscription (521 BC) of the king of Persia, Darius I, who so designated the Persian satrapy on the territory of the disappeared Urartu. Later, in the valley of the Araks River, the Ararat kingdom arose, which served as the basis for the formation of three others - Sophen, Lesser Armenia and Greater Armenia. From about the 3rd century BC. e. the center of political and cultural life of the Armenian people moves to the Ararat Valley.

Iran

The first most significant Iranian state was the Median kingdom, founded in the 7th century BC. e. During its heyday, the Median kingdom was significantly larger than the ethnographic region of modern Iran, Media. In the Avesta this region was called the “Country of the Aryans.”

The Iranian-speaking tribes of the Medes, according to one version, moved here from Central Asia, according to another - from North Caucasus and gradually assimilated the local non-Aryan tribes. The Medes very quickly settled throughout western Iran and established control over it. Over time, having grown stronger, they were able to defeat the Assyrian Empire.
The beginnings of the Medes were continued by the Persian Empire, spreading its influence over vast territories from Greece to India.

China

According to Chinese scientists, Chinese civilization is about 5,000 years old. But written sources speak of a slightly younger age - 3600 years. This is the beginning of the Shang Dynasty. Then a system of administrative management was laid down, which was developed and improved by successive dynasties.
Chinese civilization developed in the basin of two large rivers - the Yellow River and the Yangtze, which determined its agricultural character. It was developed agriculture that distinguished China from its neighbors, who lived in less favorable steppe and mountainous regions.

The state of the Shang dynasty pursued a fairly active military policy, which allowed it to expand its territories to the limits that included the modern Chinese provinces of Henan and Shanxi.
By the 11th century BC, the Chinese were already using lunar calendar and invented the first examples of hieroglyphic writing. At the same time, a professional army was formed in China, using bronze weapons and war chariots.

Greece

Greece has every reason to be considered the cradle European civilization. About 5,000 years ago, the Minoan culture arose on the island of Crete, which later spread to the mainland through the Greeks. It was on the island that the beginnings of statehood were indicated, in particular, the first writing appeared, and diplomatic and trade relations with the East emerged.

Appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The Aegean civilization is already fully demonstrating state entities. Thus, the first states in the Aegean Sea basin - in Crete and the Peloponnese - were built according to the type of eastern despotism with a developed bureaucratic apparatus. Ancient Greece is rapidly growing and spreading its influence to the Northern Black Sea region, Asia Minor and Southern Italy.
Ancient Greece is often called Hellas, but local residents extend the self-name to the modern state. It is important for them to emphasize the historical connection with that era and culture, which essentially shaped the entire European civilization.

Egypt

At the turn of the 4th-3rd millennium BC, several dozen cities of the upper and lower Nile were united under the rule of two rulers. From this moment the 5000-year history of Egypt begins.
Soon a war broke out between Upper and Lower Egypt, which resulted in the victory of the king of Upper Egypt. Under the rule of the pharaoh, a strong state is formed here, gradually spreading its influence to neighboring lands.
27-century dynastic period Ancient Egypt and there is the golden time of ancient Egyptian civilization. A clear administrative and management structure is being formed in the state, advanced technologies for that time are being developed, and art and architecture are rising to unattainable heights.
Over the past centuries, a lot has changed in Egypt - religion, language, culture. Arab conquest the country of the pharaohs radically turned the vector of development of the state. However, it is the ancient Egyptian heritage that is business card modern Egypt.

Japan

The first mention of Ancient Japan is contained in Chinese historical chronicles of the 1st century AD. e. In particular, it says that there were 100 small countries in the archipelago, 30 of which established relations with China.
Presumably the reign of the first Japanese Emperor Jimmu began in 660 BC. e. It was he who wanted to establish power over the entire archipelago. However, some historians consider Jimma a semi-legendary person.
Japan is a unique country, which, unlike Europe and the Middle East, has developed for many centuries without any serious social and political upheavals. This is largely due to its geographical isolation, which, in particular, protected Japan from the Mongol invasion.
If we take into account the dynastic continuity that has been uninterrupted for more than 2.5 thousand years and the absence of fundamental changes in the country’s borders, Japan can be called a state with the most ancient origins.

The first states appeared about 6,000 years ago, but not all of them were able to survive to this day. Some have disappeared forever, while others only have their names left. I would like to point out right away that this article provides far from full list countries with rich history. Below we list six states that, to one degree or another, have retained connections with the Ancient World.

1. Armenia

The history of Armenian statehood goes back about 2,500 years, although its origins should be sought even deeper - in the kingdom of Arme-Shubria (XII century BC), which, according to historian Boris Piotrovsky, at the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries BC. e. turned into a Scythian-Armenian association. Ancient Armenia is a motley conglomerate of kingdoms and states that existed simultaneously or succeeded one another. Tabal, Melid, the Mush kingdom, the Hurrian, Luwian and Urartian states - the descendants of their inhabitants eventually merged with the Armenian people.

The term “Armenia” is first found in the Behistun inscription (521 BC) of the king of Persia, Darius I, who thus designated the Persian satrapy on the territory of the disappeared Urartu. Later, in the valley of the Araks River, the Ararat kingdom arose, which served as the basis for the formation of three others - Sophen, Lesser Armenia and Greater Armenia. From about the 3rd century BC. e. the center of political and cultural life of the Armenian people moves to the Ararat Valley.

2. Iran

The history of Iran is one of the most ancient and eventful. Based on written sources, scientists suggest that Iran is at least 5,000 years old. However, in Iranian history they include such a proto-state formation as Elam, located in the southwest of modern Iran and mentioned in the Bible. The first most significant Iranian state was the Median kingdom, founded in the 7th century BC. e. During its heyday, the Median kingdom was significantly larger than the ethnographic region of modern Iran, Media. In the Avesta this region was called the “Country of the Aryans.”

The Iranian-speaking tribes of the Medes, according to one version, moved here from Central Asia, according to another - from the North Caucasus and gradually assimilated the local non-Aryan tribes. The Medes very quickly settled throughout western Iran and established control over it. Over time, having grown stronger, they were able to defeat the Assyrian Empire. The beginnings of the Medes were continued by the Persian Empire, spreading its influence over vast territories from Greece to India.

3. China

According to Chinese scientists, Chinese civilization is about 5,000 years old. But written sources speak of a slightly younger age - 3600 years. This is the beginning of the Shang Dynasty. Then a system of administrative management was laid down, which was developed and improved by successive dynasties. Chinese civilization developed in the basin of two large rivers - the Yellow River and the Yangtze, which determined its agricultural character. It was developed agriculture that distinguished China from its neighbors, who lived in less favorable steppe and mountainous regions.

The state of the Shang dynasty pursued a fairly active military policy, which allowed it to expand its territories to the limits that included the modern Chinese provinces of Henan and Shanxi. By the 11th century BC, the Chinese were already using a lunar calendar and had invented the first examples of hieroglyphic writing. At the same time, a professional army was formed in China, using bronze weapons and war chariots.

4. Greece

Greece has every reason to be considered the cradle of European civilization. About 5,000 years ago, the Minoan culture arose on the island of Crete, which later spread to the mainland through the Greeks. It was on the island that the beginnings of statehood were indicated, in particular, the first writing appeared, and diplomatic and trade relations with the East emerged. Appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Aegean civilization already fully demonstrates state formations.

Thus, the first states in the Aegean Sea basin - in Crete and the Peloponnese - were built according to the type of eastern despotism with a developed bureaucratic apparatus. Ancient Greece grew rapidly and spread its influence to the Northern Black Sea region, Asia Minor and Southern Italy. Ancient Greece is often called Hellas, but local residents extend the self-name to the modern state. It is important for them to emphasize the historical connection with that era and culture, which essentially shaped the entire European civilization.

5. Egypt

A clear administrative and management structure is being formed in the state, advanced technologies for that time are being developed, and art and architecture are rising to unattainable heights. Over the past centuries, a lot has changed in Egypt - religion, language, culture. The Arab conquest of the country of the pharaohs radically turned the vector of development of the state. However, it is the ancient Egyptian heritage that is the hallmark of modern Egypt.

6. Japan

However, some historians consider Jimma a semi-legendary person. Japan is a unique country, which, unlike Europe and the Middle East, has developed for many centuries without any serious social and political upheavals. This is largely due to its geographical isolation, which, in particular, protected Japan from the Mongol invasion. If we take into account the dynastic continuity that has been uninterrupted for more than 2.5 thousand years and the absence of fundamental changes in the country’s borders, Japan can be called a state with the most ancient origins.

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Today we will talk about the most ancient countries in the world. At the beginning of time they were the centers of civilization, and today they can boast of the richest culture and heritage of their great ancestors.

The most ancient states: From past to present

The most first states were founded more than six thousand years ago. Only a few of them were lucky enough to survive into the twenty-first century. Some died in bloody wars or were destroyed by epidemics, while others retained only names, losing more than 90% of their territories. In this article we have collected six ancient countries who managed to survive millennia.

The most ancient states: Armenia

The Armenian state is by no means the oldest of those represented today, but 2500 years is a very respectable age. First mentions Arme-Shubria Kingdom scholars date it to the twelfth century BC. Already in the seventh century this state turned into Scythian-Armenian kingdom.

Ancient Armenia was very similar to Russian Federation. It was not a single country, but a conglomerate of several small kingdoms. The most famous of them: Melid, Mush kingdom, Hurrit, Luviy, Tabal, Urarta. In the end, all the ancient states on the territory of the Armenian kingdom merged into one integral people, whose descendants live in modern Armenia.

Armenia was mentioned as a full-fledged ancient state in the 500s AD chronicler King of the Persian Empire Darius the First. The Persians called the entire territory of Armenia Urarta. Later appeared Kingdom of Arart, who managed to get out of Persian rule. In the Middle Ages, there were three independent ancient states on the territory of Armenia: Lesser and Greater Armenia, as well as Sophene.

The most ancient states: Iran

Iran is not only one of the most ancient countries, but also with the most eventful history. Historians estimate the age of the state in 5-5.5 thousand years. The beginning was made small State of Elam, which is mentioned even in the Old Testament.

The first large ancient state on the territory of modern Iran appeared in the seventh century BC - the Median kingdom in its heyday was almost comparable in territory to the modern state. It's interesting what the neighbors called this area "The Land of the Aryans".

The Medes quickly realized that the key to the prosperity of their ancient state was military expansion. Their only serious competitors were the Assyrians, who built their huge empire in Asia Minor. The Median kingdom eventually managed to defeat them, and then grew into the huge Persian Empire, stretching from India to Greece, and holding hegemony in the ancient world for hundreds of years.

The most ancient states: China

Chinese scientists say that China is more than five thousand years old. Written sources do not agree - the first written mention of Chinese Empire 3600 years. At this time, came to power over the ancient state Shang dynasty. At the same time, a full-fledged system of laws and government of the country appeared.

The ancient state of China developed between the two largest rivers in the region - the Yangtze and Yellow River.. That is why the empire was more of an agricultural country than a military entity. Neighbours ancient China on the contrary, they only knew how to fight, and therefore developed much more slowly than the settled, educated Chinese.

After death Shang Dynasty, other, no less great, influential families came to power. By the eleventh century AD, the ancient state of China already had its own calendar, fully developed calligraphy and vast territories conquered with the help of a large army, including revolutionary weapons of the time - war chariots.

The most ancient states: Greece

Ancient Greece is considered the cradle of European civilization. Almost 5000 years ago, the first full-fledged ancient state - Minoan kingdom. A little later, the Minoans moved to the mainland and eventually, merging with the local population, became Greeks.

The ancient state of Greece was educated, with its own written language, laws, developed military affairs and extensive trade relations with all the major countries of that era.

The Aegean civilization appeared on the mainland in the third millennium BC. This was already a real ancient state. Later appears policy system– individual Greek cities states with their own rulers, laws and armies, which could be allies or enemies. Ancient Greece became the founder of democracy and many laws taken into service modern states Europe.

The most ancient states: Egypt

In the fourth millennium BC, dozens major cities on the banks of the Nile were united by two rulers to the most ancient state in the world - .

As always happens, two cannot sit on the same throne.. The war between the Upper and Lower Kingdoms lasted several decades, after which one of the rulers named himself the pharaoh of the entire Egyptian kingdom. Egypt's dynastic history goes back almost 2,700 years. It is this time that is considered by historians to be the “golden age” of the state. Technologically, financially and scientifically, Ancient Egypt was ahead of all its neighbors.

Today, the heirs of one of the greatest and most ancient states in the world are fundamentally different from their ancestors. Everything has changed, from religion to language. However, today we can see incredible cultural and architectural monuments left by the ancient Egyptians, who exalted their pharaoh to the level of the Gods!

The most ancient states: Japan

The first written sources that mention Ancient Japan, date back to the first century AD. It would seem that, Compared to other ancient countries of the world, Japan is very young. However, in Asia, where at this time there was not much large countries, the Japanese were quickly able to build a real island empire, had trade and diplomatic ties with all its neighbors, including China y.

Japanese historians refer to their chronicles, which indicate that Japan is more ancient country. So, The first ruler of the ancient state is considered to be Jimmu, who ruled in the seventh century BC.

Considering the depth of Japanese culture, which has managed to remain in our time, 2500 years of imperial dynasties and practically unchanged borders since its founding, it is this state despite its age, it can be considered the oldest existing.

Who knows how many more millennia these ancient states will live...
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TOPIC 2 CIVILIZATIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

Ancient Egypt. The inhabitants of Egypt created one of the first civilizations. The Egyptian state was located in the Nile Valley - a narrow strip of land on both banks of the river, 1 to 20 km wide, expanding in the delta.

Once a year, the Nile overflowed its banks, and a stream of water, destroying everything in its path, filled the valley. The floods were a disaster for the inhabitants of the valley, but they brought particles of fertile silt. The land here produced unprecedented harvests, but for this it was extremely important to create complex irrigation structures.

The first states in Egypt are called nomami. In the 4th millennium, about 40 nomes were formed in Egypt. The needs of agricultural development led to the unification of the entire Nile Valley. Gradually, only two large states remained - Upper and Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt (southern kingdom) was located in the upper reaches of the Nile, Lower Egypt (northern kingdom) was located in the lower reaches of the Nile. Around 3000 ᴦ. BC. ruler of Upper Egypt Mine managed to unite the country. The rulers of Egypt are called pharaohs.

The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into Early(3000 - 2800 BC), Ancient(2800 - 2250 BC), Average(2050-1750 BC), New(1580-1085 BC) and Later(1085-525 BC) kingdoms, ruled by pharaohs of approximately 30 dynasties.

The main occupation of the Egyptians was agriculture. The soft Nile silt was loosened with a hoe or a light plow. The Egyptians used a wooden sickle with microliths for a long time. Later, tools made of copper and bronze appeared.

Egyptian documents speak of artisans of many dozens of professions. Their work was considered more difficult than the work of farmers.

Even in ancient times, communities in Egypt disappeared, and the entire population was united under the rule of the pharaoh. Every year, officials held a review of children who had reached working age. They selected strong young men for the army, and appointed the smartest as junior priests. The rest were distributed among various specialties. Someone became a farmer, someone a builder, someone a craftsman.

Initially, farmers worked on the farms of the pharaoh, the nobility and temples as part of work groups. Later they were given

pi, area of arable land. The work of artisans was also organized. And the farms of the pharaoh, the nobility and the temples also had slaves, as was the rule

10, strangers. For a long time there were few of them. Only during the New Kingdom the number of slaves increased, they became laborers.

work in craft workshops and in the fields.

Government in Egypt had a character despotism. The pharaoh ordered the construction of irrigation structures, work on the construction of cities, fortresses, temples,

knew the laws, was the high priest. He commanded an army and at its head fought with enemies. Pharaoh was revered as a living god.

Period Ancient kingdom was the time of greatest power of the pharaohs. At the same time, over time, the central power weakened, and the state disintegrated into nomes. After 200 years, Egypt was united under the rule of the ruler of one of the southern nomes with the capital in Thebes. The period of the Middle Kingdom began. Central power strengthened significantly under the pharaohs of the 12th dynasty. Conquest campaigns began to the south into gold-rich Nubia. Around 1680 ᴦ. BC. Hordes of nomadic geeks fell upon Egypt from Asia. The Middle Kingdom split into separate nomes that paid tribute to the Hyksos. Only Thebes did not submit.

In the fight against the Hyksos, the Theban pharaohs relied on simple warriors, who were provided small areas land. Pharaoh Ahmose managed to expel the nomads from Egypt. Ahmose became the founder of the 18th dynasty. The period of the New Kingdom begins with this dynasty. The pharaohs of the New Kingdom waged constant wars. As a result of the campaigns, almost all of Nubia was annexed. In Asia, the search for pharaohs went to the Euphrates. A huge tribute and slaves came to Egypt. The state reached its greatest power under the pharaoh of the 18th dynasty AmenhotepIII. At the same time, over time, powerful powers emerged in Western Asia and began to fight Egypt. With varying success, this struggle continued for about two centuries. Eventually Egypt's forces were exhausted. In the country itself there was a struggle between the pharaohs, nobles and priests. As a result, to VIII V. BC. Egypt again disintegrated into nomes. In the VI century. BC. it was conquered by Persia.

City-states of Sumer. At the same time or even a little earlier than in Egypt, a civilization arose in Southern Mesopotamia (Interfluve) - in the lower reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. This land had extraordinary fertility. The origin of civilization here was associated with the extreme importance of the construction and use of irrigation structures.

Lived in Mesopotamia different peoples. Semitic tribes lived in the north. In the south, the first tribes appeared, the linguistic affiliation of which scientists cannot establish, since they did not leave writing. These tribes began the agricultural development of southern Mesopotamia. In the V-IV millenniums BC. came here Sumerians - people also of unknown origin. Οʜᴎ built cities, created the oldest writing in the world - cuneiform. The Sumerians are considered inventors of the wheel.

In the 4th millennium BC. Sumerian cities became the centers of small states similar to the Egyptian nomes. Sometimes they are called city-states. Among them, the largest were Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Umma, Ur.
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The history of Sumer is divided into three periods: Early Dynastic, Akkadian And Late Sumerian.

In the Early Dynastic period, the center of power in each city was the temple of the main god. The high priest (ensi) was the ruler of the city. The people's assembly continued to play a significant role. During wars, a leader (lugal) was elected. The role of the Lugals intensified, which was facilitated by frequent wars between city-states.

Sometimes the Lugals managed to subjugate neighboring states, but unlike Egypt, the unity of Sumer was fragile. The first serious attempt to create single state undertaken in the 24th century. BC. Sargon. He came from the lower classes, a Semite, who settled more and more in Sumer. Sargon became the founder and ruler of the city of Akkad. He relied on the inhabitants of the Sumerian city-states, dissatisfied with the omnipotence of the priests and nobility. The Akkadian king united all these cities under his rule, and then conquered vast lands to the coast Mediterranean Sea. Sargon introduced uniform measures of length, area and weight for all cities. Canals and dams were built throughout the country. The kingdom of Sargon and his descendants lasted about 150 years. Next, Sumer was conquered by tribes of mountaineers living east of Mesopotamia.

In the 21st century BC e. the inhabitants of Mesopotamia managed to throw off the heavy yoke of the mountaineers. The kingdom of Sumer and Akkad arose (the so-called III dynasty of Ur). This kingdom is known for its centralized organization of power and economic life. All workers in the state were united into groups by profession. Οʜᴎ worked on state land under the control of officials. Kingdom of Sumer and Akkad around 2000 ᴦ. BC. was captured by the nomadic Semitic tribes of the Amorites.

Soon the Sumerians merged with the Semites and other peoples of Mesopotamia. The Sumerian language remained the language of writing, science, and culture for many centuries.

Babylonian kingdom. Laws of Hammurabi. At the beginning of the 11th millennium BC. The city of Babylon on the Euphrates, where the kings of one of the Amorite dynasties ruled, is strengthened. Under the Tsar Hammurabi(1992 - 1750 BC) the Babylonians conquered most Mesopotamia. Babylon turned into a huge city with magnificent citizens and temples, multi-storey buildings and wide streets. We have detailed information about the life of the Babylonian kingdom thanks to the famous laws of Hammurabi. This is an extensive and well-thought-out set of laws that served as a model for subsequent legislation in many countries of Western Asia. At the root of the law lay talion principle - punishment is equal to crime (ʼʼan eye for an eyeʼʼ).

According to the laws of Hammurabi, all the land in the country belonged to the king. Communities and nobles were considered users of the land. A fairly large role in economic life was played by completely powerless slaves from among the captives. There was another source of slavery: they sold their children, and sometimes themselves, into slavery for debts. At the same time, the law limited debt slavery. Free people were divided into two categories - full-fledged and dependent people. It is assumed that full-fledged people were members of communities, and dependent people worked on plots received from the king. In 1518 ᴦ. BC. Babylonia was conquered by the Kassite nomads.

Eastern Mediterranean in antiquity. The ancient Eastern civilization had a unique form in the areas adjacent to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Here were the most important trade routes- from Egypt to Mesopotamia, from Asia and Africa to Europe.

Narrow band east coast The Mediterranean Sea on the territory of modern Lebanon and part of Syria was called Phenicia. Here was one of the oldest centers of agriculture. Thanks to the presence of many minerals, crafts flourished. But over time, the main occupation of the inhabitants of Phenicia became international trade. The Phoenicians sold their goods - wood, resin, purple fabrics, glass, metals. Intermediary trade was even more important for them.

Several city-states led by kings arose in Phenicia. Initially the city took precedence Bible, had ancient ties with Egypt. Later the city rose Shooting gallery
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Its king spread his influence to other cities, although the Phoenicians never formed a unified state. For a significant part of their history, Phoenician cities were dependent on Egypt and later on the states of Western Asia, but retained internal autonomy.

The Phoenicians became famous as brave sailors. Back in the 2nd millennium BC. they reached Iberian Peninsula, where the city of Hades arose, which became the center of mining and trade in silver and tin. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Phoenician colonies spread along the entire coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Mostly residents of Tire moved to the colonies, but they became

became independent states, although they maintained ties with Tire. The largest of these states was Carthage.

The Phoenicians are the creators of the world's first alphabet. The letters of the Phoenician alphabet denoted only consonant sounds. The Phoenician alphabet was borrowed and improved by the ancient Greeks. Through them the alphabet came to the Romans, becoming the basis of most modern systems letters. The Slavic and later Russian alphabet were created on the basis of the Greek alphabet.

The Phoenicians had comprehensive connections with other people of the Eastern Mediterranean - ancient Jews. In the middle II millennium BC part of the Amorite tribes of Mesopotamia moved west. The settlers formed new people, who called themselves ʼʼIbrimʼʼ (Jews), which meant ʼʼcrossed the riverʼʼ. The farmers of the Eastern Mediterranean fought with these nomadic newcomers and partially mixed with them. Later the Jews encountered here Philistines- newcomers from Europe. From the name “Philistines” comes the word “Palestine”.

Approximately from XIII V. BC. Jewish (Israeli) tribes became the dominant force in Palestine. In addition to cattle breeding, they began to engage in agriculture. At the end XI V. folds up Kingdom of Israel and Judah led by the king Saul. It experienced its heyday in the 10th century. BC. under the kings Davide and his son Solomon. Then it split into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Later, powerful neighbors dealt brutal blows to these states. In VIII V. BC. The kingdom of Israel perished. At 587 ᴦ. BC. capital of Judea Jerusalem was captured by the king of Babylon, and many Jews were taken to Babylonian captivity. Later, the Kingdom of Judah was reborn as a dependent state.

During the period of the existence of the Kingdom of Israel, the legends of the ancient Jews began to be recorded in special books. The collection of these books later became known as the Bible.

The most ancient states - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Ancient States" 2017, 2018.