Capitals of the Golden Horde. Lost Capital of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde has long been reliably associated with the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the invasion of nomads and a dark streak in the history of the country. But what exactly was this state entity?

Start

It is worth noting that the name familiar to us today arose much later than the very existence of the state. And what we call the Golden Horde, in its heyday, was called Ulu Ulus (Great Ulus, Great State) or (state of Jochi, people of Jochi) after the name of Khan Jochi, the eldest son of Khan Temujin, known in history as Genghis Khan.

Both names quite clearly outline both the scale and origin of the Golden Horde. These were very vast lands that belonged to the descendants of Jochi, including Batu, known in Rus' as Batu Khan. Jochi and Genghis Khan died in 1227 (possibly Jochi a year earlier), the Mongol Empire by that time included significant part Caucasus, Central Asia, Southern Siberia, Rus' and Volga Bulgaria.

The lands captured by the troops of Genghis Khan, his sons and commanders, after the death of the great conqueror, were divided into four uluses (states), and it turned out to be the largest and strongest, stretching from the lands of modern Bashkiria to the Caspian Gate - Derbent. The Western campaign, led by Batu Khan, expanded the lands under his control to the west by 1242, and the Lower Volga region, rich in beautiful pastures, hunting and fishing grounds, attracted Batu as a place for residence. About 80 km from modern Astrakhan, Sarai-Batu (otherwise Sarai-Berke) grew up - the capital of Ulus Jochi.

His brother Berke, who succeeded Batu, was, as they say, an enlightened ruler, as far as the realities of that time allowed. Berke, having adopted Islam in his youth, did not instill it among the subject population, but under him diplomatic and cultural ties with a number of eastern states significantly improved. Trade routes running by water and land were actively used, which could not but have a positive impact on the development of the economy, crafts, and arts. With the approval of the khan, theologians, poets, scientists, skilled craftsmen came here; moreover, Berke began to appoint high government posts not well-born fellow tribesmen, but visiting intellectuals.

The era of the reign of the Khans of Batu and Berke became a very important organizational period in the history of the Golden Horde - it was during these years that the state administrative apparatus was actively formed, which remained relevant for many decades. Under Batu, simultaneously with the establishment of the administrative-territorial division, the possessions of large feudal lords took shape, a bureaucratic system was created and a fairly clear taxation was developed.

Moreover, despite the fact that the khan’s headquarters, according to the custom of their ancestors, roamed the steppes for more than half a year together with the khan, his wives, children and a huge retinue, the power of the rulers was as unshakable as ever. They, so to speak, set the main line of policy and resolved the most important, fundamental issues. And the routine and particulars were entrusted to officials and the bureaucracy.

Berke's successor, Mengu-Timur, entered into an alliance with the other two heirs of Genghis Khan's empire, and all three recognized each other as completely independent but friendly sovereigns. After his death in 1282, a political crisis arose in the Ulus of Jochi, since the heir was very young, and Nogai, one of Mengu-Timur’s main advisers, actively sought to gain, if not official, then at least actual power. For some time he succeeded in this, until the matured Khan Tokhta got rid of his influence, which required resorting to military force.

Rise of the Golden Horde

Ulus Jochi reached its peak in the first half of the 13th century, during the reign of Uzbek Khan and his son Janibek. Uzbek rebuilt new capital– Sarai-al-Jedid, promoted the development of trade and quite actively propagated Islam, not disdaining to reprisal the rebellious emirs - regional governors and military leaders. It is worth noting, however, that the bulk of the population was not obliged to profess Islam; this concerned mainly high-ranking officials.

He also very harshly controlled the Russian principalities then subject to the Golden Horde - according to the Litsevoy chronicle, nine Russian princes were killed in the Horde during his reign. So the custom of princes summoned to the khan’s headquarters for proceedings to leave a will gained even more solid ground.

Uzbek Khan continued to develop diplomatic ties with the most powerful states at that time, acting, among other things, in the traditional way of monarchs - establishing family ties. He married the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, gave his own daughter to the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich, and his niece to the Egyptian sultan.

At that time, not only the descendants of the soldiers of the Mongol Empire lived on the territory of the Golden Horde, but also representatives of the conquered peoples - Bulgars, Cumans, Russians, as well as people from the Caucasus, Greeks, etc.

If the beginning of education Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde in particular followed a mainly aggressive path, then by this period the Ulus of Jochi had turned into an almost completely sedentary state, which had extended its influence over a significant part of the European and Asian parts of the mainland. Peaceful crafts and arts, trade, the development of sciences and theology, a well-functioning bureaucratic apparatus were one side of statehood, and the troops of the khans and the emirs under their control were another, no less important. Moreover, the warlike Genghisids and the top of the nobility continually conflicted with each other, forming alliances and conspiracies. Moreover, holding conquered lands and maintaining the respect of neighbors required a constant display of military force.

Khans of the Golden Horde

The ruling elite of the Golden Horde consisted mainly of Mongols and partly Kipchaks, although in some periods educated people from Arab states and Iran found themselves in administrative positions. Concerning supreme rulers- khans - then almost all holders of this title or applicants for it either belonged to the clan of Genghisids (descendants of Genghis Khan), or were connected with this very extensive clan through marriage. According to custom, only the descendants of Genghis Khan could be khans, but ambitious and power-hungry emirs and temniks (military leaders close in position to the general) continually sought to advance to the throne in order to place their protégé on it and rule on his behalf. However, after the murder in 1359 of the last of the direct descendants of Batu Khan - Berdibek - taking advantage of the disputes and infighting of the rival forces, an impostor named Kulpa managed to seize power for six months, posing as the brother of the late khan. He was exposed (however, the whistleblowers were also interested in power, for example, the son-in-law and first adviser of the late Berdibek, Temnik Mamai) and killed along with his sons - apparently, to intimidate possible challengers.

Separated from the Ulus of Jochi during the reign of Janibek, the Ulus of Shibana (west of Kazakhstan and Siberia) tried to consolidate its positions in Saray-al-Jedid. More distant relatives of the Golden Horde khans from among the eastern Jochids (descendants of Jochi) were also actively engaged in this. The result of this was a period of turmoil, called the Great Rebellion in Russian chronicles. Khans and pretenders replaced each other one after another until 1380, when Khan Tokhtamysh came to power.

He descended in a direct line from Genghis Khan and therefore had legitimate rights to the title of ruler of the Golden Horde, and in order to back up his right with force, he entered into an alliance with one of the Central Asian rulers - the “Iron Lame” Tamerlane, famous in the history of conquests. But Tokhtamysh did not take into account that a strong ally could become a most dangerous enemy, and after his accession to the throne and a successful campaign against Moscow, he opposed his former ally. This became a fatal mistake - Tamerlane responded by defeating the Golden Horde army and capturing Largest cities Ulus-Juchi, including Sarai-Berke, walked like an “iron heel” through the Crimean possessions of the Golden Horde and, as a result, caused such military and economic damage that it became the beginning of the decline of the hitherto strong state.

Capital of the Golden Horde and trade

As already mentioned, the location of the capital of the Golden Horde was very favorable in terms of trade. The Crimean possessions of the Golden Horde provided mutually beneficial shelter for the Genoese trading colonies, and sea trade routes from China, India, Central Asian states and southern Europe also led there. From the Black Sea coast it was possible to get along the Don to the Volgodonsk portage, and then by land to the Volga coast. Well, the Volga in those days, as many centuries later, remained an excellent waterway for merchant ships to Iran and the continental regions of Central Asia.

Partial list of goods transported through the possessions of the Golden Horde:

• fabrics – silk, canvas, cloth
• wood
• weapons from Europe and Central Asia
• corn
• jewelry and precious stones
• furs and leather
• olive oil
• fish and caviar
• incense
• spices

Decay

The central government, weakened during the years of unrest and after the defeat of Tokhtamysh, could no longer achieve the complete subjugation of all previously subject lands. The governors ruling in remote destinies grasped the opportunity to get out from under the hands of the Ulus-Juchi government almost painlessly. Even at the height of the Great Jam in 1361, the eastern Ulus of Orda-Ezhen, also known as the Blue Horde, separated, and in 1380 it was followed by the Ulus of Shibana.

In the twenties of the 15th century, the process of disintegration became even more intense - the Siberian Khanate was formed in the east of the former Golden Horde, a few years later in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, ten years later the Kazan Khanate separated. Somewhere between 1440 and 1450 - the Nogai Horde, in 1441 - the Crimean Khanate, and last of all, in 1465 - the Kazakh Khanate.

The last khan of the Golden Horde was Kichi Mukhamed, who ruled until his death in 1459. His son Akhmat took the reins of government already in the Great Horde - in fact, only a small part remaining from the huge state of the Chingizids.

Coins of the Golden Horde

Having become a sedentary and very large state, Golden Horde could not do without its own currency. The state's economy was based on a hundred (according to some sources, one and a half hundred) cities, not counting many small villages and nomadic camps. For external and internal trade relations, copper coins - pulas and silver coins - dirhams were issued.

Today, Horde dirhams are of considerable value for collectors and historians, since almost every reign was accompanied by the release of new coins. By the type of dirham, experts can determine when it was minted. Pools were valued relatively low, moreover, they were sometimes subject to a so-called forced exchange rate, when the coin was worth less than the metal used for it. Therefore, the number of pools found by archaeologists is large, but their value is relatively small.

During the reign of the khans of the Golden Horde, the turnover of their own, local Money, and their place was taken by Horde money. Moreover, even in Rus', which paid tribute to the Horde but was not part of it, pools were minted, although they differed in appearance and cost from those of the Horde. Sumy was also used as a means of payment - silver ingots, or more precisely, pieces cut from a silver rod. By the way, the first Russian rubles were made in exactly the same way.

Army and troops

The main strength of the Ulus-Juchi army, as before the creation of the Mongol Empire, was the cavalry, “light in march, heavy in attack,” according to contemporaries. The nobility, who had the means to be well equipped, formed heavily armed units. Lightly armed units used the fighting technique of horse archers - after inflicting significant damage with a volley of arrows, they approached and fought with spears and blades. However, impact and crushing weapons were also quite common - maces, flails, six-fingers, etc.

Unlike their ancestors, who made do with leather armor, best case scenario reinforced with metal plaques, the warriors of Ulus Jochi for the most part wore metal armor, which speaks of the wealth of the Golden Horde - only the army of a strong and financially stable state could be armed in this way. At the end of the 14th century, the Horde army even began to acquire its own artillery, something that very few armies could boast of at that time.

Culture

The era of the Golden Horde did not leave any special cultural achievements for humanity. Nevertheless, this state originated as the seizure of sedentary peoples by nomads. Own cultural values of any nomadic people are relatively simple and pragmatic, since there is no possibility of building schools, creating paintings, inventing a method of making porcelain, or erecting majestic buildings. But having largely switched to a settled way of life, the conquerors adopted many of the inventions of civilization, including architecture, theology, writing (in particular, the Uyghur writing for documents), and the more subtle development of many crafts.

Russia and the Golden Horde

The first serious clashes between Russian troops and Horde troops date back approximately to the beginning of the existence of the Golden Horde as an independent state. At first, Russian troops tried to support the Polovtsians against a common enemy - the Horde. The Battle of the Kalka River in the summer of 1223 brought defeat to the poorly coordinated squads of Russian princes. And in December 1237, the Horde entered the lands of the Ryazan region. Then Ryazan fell, followed by Kolomna and Moscow. Russian frosts did not stop the nomads, hardened in campaigns, and at the beginning of 1238 Vladimir, Torzhok and Tver were captured, there was a defeat on the Sit River and a seven-day siege of Kozelsk, which ended with its complete destruction - along with its inhabitants. In 1240, the campaign against Kievan Rus began.

The result was that the remaining Russian princes on the throne (and alive) recognized the need to pay tribute to the Horde in exchange for a relatively quiet existence. However, it was not truly calm - the princes, who intrigued against each other and, of course, against the invaders, in the event of any incidents, were forced to appear at the khan’s headquarters to report to the khan about their actions or inactions. By order of the khan, the princes had to bring their sons or brothers with them as additional hostages of loyalty. And not all princes and their relatives returned to their homeland alive.

It should be noted that the rapid seizure of Russian lands and the inability to overthrow the yoke of the invaders was largely due to the disunity of the principalities. Moreover, some princes were able to take advantage of this situation to fight their rivals. For example, the Principality of Moscow strengthened by annexing the lands of two other principalities as a result of the intrigues of Ivan Kalita, Prince of Moscow. But before this, the Tver princes sought the right to a great reign by all means, including the murder of the previous Moscow prince right at the khan's headquarters.

And when, after the Great Jame, internal turmoil began to increasingly distract the disintegrating Golden Horde from pacifying the rebellious principalities, the Russian lands, in particular, the Moscow Principality, which had strengthened over the past century, began to increasingly resist the influence of the invaders, refusing to pay tribute. And what is especially important is to act together.

At the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, the united Russian forces won a decisive victory over the army of the Golden Horde led by Temnik Mamai, sometimes mistakenly called the khan. And although two years later Moscow was captured and burned by the Horde, the rule of the Golden Horde over Russia came to an end. And at the beginning of the 15th century, the Great Horde also ceased to exist.

Epilogue

To summarize, we can say that the Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its era, born thanks to the militancy of nomadic tribes, and then disintegrated due to their desire for independence. Its growth and flourishing occurred during the reign of strong military leaders and wise politicians, but, like most aggressive states, it lasted relatively short-lived.

According to a number of historians, the Golden Horde had not only Negative influence on the life of the Russian people, but also unwittingly helped the development of Russian statehood. Under the influence of the culture of rule brought by the Horde, and then to counteract the Golden Horde, the Russian principalities merged together, forming a strong state, which later turned into the Russian Empire.

Photos of Valentina Balakirev and Tatyana Sherstneva

Having crossed the endless Eurasian steppes like a hurricane, the Mongols formed cities in the lower reaches of Itil (Volga) that were uncharacteristic for nomadic peoples.

According to archaeological data, the capital of the Golden Horde migrated along the eastern bank of Itil or the modern Volga-Akhtuba floodplain. Perhaps initially in the middle of the 13th century, Khan Batu founded it near the modern village of Krasny Yar, then the capital was moved to the area of ​​​​the village of Selitrennoye (Old Saray) and finally, under Khan Uzbek, it moved north to New Saray near the village of Tsarev, Volgograd region.

The capital of the Golden Horde was an international trading city; in addition to the Mongols, Kipchaks, Alans, Circassians, Russians, Bulgars and Byzantines lived here. In 1261, in Sarai-Batu, Metropolitan Kirill of Kyiv, at the request of Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky and the permission of Khan Berke, created the Sarai diocese of the Russian Church. All that was left of the former capital of the Golden Horde was a scorched steppe.

In 2012, large-scale screening began in Russian cinemas. historical film directed by Andrei Proshkin “Horde”, dedicated to the great Mongol state of the 14th century. Filming took place in Astrakhan region at the border of the steppe and the Volga-Akhtuba floodplain between the villages of Selitrennoe and Tambovka. Here, on the banks of the Ashuluk River, a city was built - the capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai-Batu. The present settlement is located to the south near the village of Selitrennoe. In the 14th century, the course of the Itil (Volga) ran along the eastern bank of the floodplain.

After filming the film, the Sarai-Batu Cultural and Historical Complex was created. Every year in August, the International Festival of Contemporary Musical Culture “Golden Horde” is held on its territory.

On the picturesque steep bank of the Ashuluk River (Five Yarakh) models of the khan’s palace, fortress walls, streets and city square, mosques, merchant shops and mud hut houses were erected. The scenery recreated the details and decorative elements of the medieval city. A model of a medieval water supply system that existed in the Golden Horde was created.

The medieval water supply system has been recreated

Jugs tied to a large rotating wheel were filled with river water.

History of the Golden Horde

Title and boundaries

Name "Golden Horde" was first used in Rus' in 1566 in the historical and journalistic work “Kazan History,” when the state itself no longer existed. Until this time, in all Russian sources the word "Horde" used without the adjective "golden". Since the 19th century, the term has been firmly established in historiography and is used to refer to the Jochi ulus as a whole, or (depending on the context) its western part with its capital in Sarai.

In the Golden Horde proper and eastern (Arab-Persian) sources, the state did not have a single name. It was usually designated by the term “ulus”, with the addition of some epithet ( "Ulug Ulus") or the name of the ruler ( "Ulus Berke"), and not necessarily the current one, but also the one who reigned earlier ( "Uzbek, ruler of the Berke countries", “ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, sovereign of the land of Uzbekistan”). Along with this, the old geographical term was often used in Arab-Persian sources Desht-i-Kipchak. Word "horde" in the same sources it denoted the headquarters (mobile camp) of the ruler (examples of its use in the meaning of “country” begin to be found only in the 15th century). Combination "Golden Horde" meaning “golden ceremonial tent” is found in the description of the Arab traveler Ibn Battuta in relation to the residence of the Uzbek Khan. In Russian chronicles, the concept of “Horde” usually meant an army. Its use as the name of the country has become constant since the turn of the 13th-14th centuries; before that time, the term “Tatars” was used as the name. In Western European sources, the names “country of Komans”, “Comania” or “power of the Tatars”, “land of the Tatars”, “Tataria” were common.

The Chinese called the Mongols “Tatars” (tar-tar). Later, this name penetrated into Europe and the lands conquered by the Mongols began to be called “Tataria”.

The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the 14th century, defined the borders of the Horde as follows:

“The borders of this state from Jeyhun are Khorezm, Saganak, Sairam, Yarkand, Jend, Saray, the city of Majar, Azaka, Akcha-Kermen, Kafa, Sudak, Saksin, Ukek, Bulgar, the region of Siberia, Iberia, Bashkyrd and Chulyman...

Batu, medieval Chinese drawing

[ Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)

Separation Mongol Empire Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224, can be considered the emergence of the Ulus of Jochi. After Western campaign (1236-1242), led by Jochi's son Batu (in Russian chronicles, Batu), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai was held in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed great khan. Batu, "eldest of the family" ( aka), supported Möngke, probably hoping to gain full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided between Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids who recognized their power.

Rise of the Golden Horde

After Batu's death, his son Sartak, who was at that time in Mongolia, at the court of Munke Khan, was to become the legal heir. However, on the way home, the new khan unexpectedly died. Soon, the young son of Batu (or son of Sartak), Ulagchi, who was proclaimed khan, also died.

Berke (1257-1266), Batu’s brother, became the ruler of the ulus. Berke converted to Islam in his youth, but this was, apparently, a political step that did not entail the Islamization of large sections of the nomadic population. This step allowed the ruler to gain the support of influential trading circles in urban centers Volga Bulgaria and Central Asia, to attract educated Muslims to the service. During his reign it reached significant proportions. urban planning, Horde cities were built up with mosques, minarets, madrassas, and caravanserais. First of all, this applies to Saray-Batu, the capital of the state, which at this time became known as Saray-Berke (there is a controversial identification of Saray-Berke and Saray al-Jedid) . Having recovered after the conquest, Bulgar became one of the most important economic and political centers of the ulus.

Great minaret Bulgar Cathedral Mosque, whose construction began shortly after 1236 and was completed at the end of the 13th century

Berke invited scientists, theologians, poets from Iran and Egypt, and artisans and merchants from Khorezm. Trade and diplomatic ties with the countries of the East have noticeably revived. Highly educated immigrants from Iran and Arab countries began to be appointed to responsible government posts, which caused discontent among the Mongolian and Kipchak nomadic nobility. However, this dissatisfaction has not yet been openly expressed.

During the reign of Mengu-Timur (1266-1280), the Ulus of Jochi became completely independent of the central government. In 1269, at a kurultai in the valley of the Talas River, Munke-Timur and his relatives Borak and Khaidu, rulers Chagatai ulus, recognized each other as independent sovereigns and formed an alliance against the Great Khan Kublai Khan in case he tried to challenge their independence.

Tamga of Mengu-Timur, minted on Golden Horde coins

After the death of Mengu-Timur, a political crisis began in the country associated with the name of Nogai. Nogai, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan, held the post of beklyarbek, the second most important in the state, under Batu and Berke. His personal ulus was located in the west of the Golden Horde (near the Danube). Nogai set as his goal the formation of his own state, and during the reign of Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287) and Tula-Buga (1287-1291), he managed to subjugate a vast territory along the Danube, Dniester, and Uzeu (Dnieper) to his power.

With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1298-1312) was placed on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, he opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was again restored.

Fragments of tiled decoration of the palace of Genghisid. Golden Horde, Saray-Batu. Ceramics, overglaze painting, mosaic, gilding. Selitrennoye settlement. Excavations of the 1980s. State Historical Museum

During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312–1342) and his son Janibek (1342–1357), the Golden Horde reached its peak. Uzbek proclaimed Islam state religion, threatening the “infidels” with physical violence. The revolts of the emirs who did not want to convert to Islam were brutally suppressed. The time of his khanate was characterized by strict reprisals. Russian princes, going to the capital of the Golden Horde, wrote spiritual wills and paternal instructions to their children in case of their death there. Several of them were actually killed. Uzbek built a city Saray al-Jedid(“New Palace”), paid a lot of attention to the development of caravan trade. Trade routes became not only safe, but also well-maintained. The Horde conducted brisk trade with the countries Western Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, India, China. After Uzbek, his son Janibek, whom Russian chronicles call “kind,” ascended the throne of the khanate.

"The Great Jam"

Battle of Kulikovo. Thumbnail from "Tales of the Massacre of Mamayev"

WITH From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans changed on the Golden Horde throne, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources was called the “Great Jam.”

During the lifetime of Khan Janibek (no later than 1357), the Ulus of Shiban proclaimed its own khan, Ming-Timur. And the murder of Khan Berdibek (son of Janibek) in 1359 put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the emergence of a variety of contenders for the Sarai throne from among the eastern branches of the Juchids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Horde for some time, following the Ulus of Shiban, acquired their own khans.

The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklyaribek of the murdered khan, Temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was the grandson of Isatai, an influential emir from the time of Uzbek Khan, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, right up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Genghisid, Mamai had no rights to the title of khan, so he limited himself to the position of beklyaribek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan.

Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They really failed to do this; the khans changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the favor of the merchant elite of the cities of the Volga region, which was not interested in the strong power of the khan.

Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also the grandson of Isatay, tried to create an independent ulus on the Syrdarya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Buga in 1360 and killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming a khan from among themselves.

Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatay and at the same time the grandson of Khan Janibek, captured Hadji-Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, son of Emir Nangudai and grandson of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in Khorezm in 1361. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgierd seized lands in the Dnieper basin.

The turmoil in the Golden Horde ended after Genghisid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Transoxiana in 1377-1380, first captured uluses on the Syrdarya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Sarai, when Mamai came into direct conflict with Moscow Principality (defeat at Vozha(1378)). Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated those gathered by Mamai after the defeat in Battle of Kulikovo remnants of troops on the Kalka River.

Board of Tokhtamysh

During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the unrest ceased, and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382 he made a campaign against Moscow and achieved the restoration of tribute payments. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns of 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated the troops of Tokhtamysh, captured and destroyed Volga cities, including Sarai-Berke, robbed the cities of Crimea, etc. The Golden Horde was dealt a blow from which it could no longer recover.

Collapse of the Golden Horde

In the sixties of the 13th century, important political changes took place in life. former empire Genghis Khan, which could not but affect the nature of Horde-Russian relations. The accelerated collapse of the empire began. The rulers of Karakorum moved to Beijing, the uluses of the empire acquired actual independence, independence from the great khans, and now rivalry between them intensified, acute territorial disputes arose, and a struggle for spheres of influence began. In the 60s, the Jochi ulus became involved in a protracted conflict with the Hulagu ulus, which owned the territory of Iran. It would seem that the Golden Horde had reached the apogee of its power. But here and within it, the process of disintegration, inevitable for early feudalism, began. The “splitting” of the state structure began in the Horde, and now a conflict arose within the ruling elite.

In the early 1420s it was formed Khanate of Siberia, in the 1440s - the Nogai Horde, then Kazan (1438) and Crimean Khanate(1441). After the death of Khan Kichi-Muhammad, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.

The Great Horde continued to be formally considered the main one among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Rus' was finally freed from Tatar-Mongol yoke . At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.

Government structure and administrative division

According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, the Ulus of Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The right wing, which represented the Ulus of Batu, was considered the eldest. The Mongols designated the west as white, which is why Batu's Ulus was called the White Horde (Ak Horde). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, North Caucasus, Don, Dnieper steppes, Crimea. Its center was Sarai.

The left wing of the Jochi Ulus was in a subordinate position in relation to the right; it occupied the lands of central Kazakhstan and the Syr Darya valley. The Mongols designated the east in blue, so the left wing was called the Blue Horde (Kok Horde). The center of the left wing was Orda-Bazar. Batu's elder brother Orda-Ejen became the khan there.

The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses, which were owned by the other sons of Jochi. Initially there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who traveled to the east in 1246-1247, identifies the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the places of nomads: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mautsi on the eastern steppes, Kartan, married to Batu’s sister, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousand people on two banks of the Urals. Berke owned lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.

At first, the ulus division was characterized by instability: possessions could be transferred to other persons and change their boundaries. At the beginning of the 14th century, Uzbek Khan carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of the Ulus of Jochi was divided into 4 large uluses: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Dasht-i-Kipchak, led by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. The main ulusbek was the beklyarbek. The next most important dignitary is the vizier. The other two positions were occupied by particularly noble or distinguished feudal lords. These four regions were divided into 70 small estates (tumens), headed by temniks.

The uluses were divided into smaller possessions, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, foreman).

The capital of the Golden Horde under Batu became the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan); in the first half of the 14th century, the capital was moved to Sarai-Berke (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266), near modern Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek Saray-Berke was renamed Saray Al-Jedid.

Army

The overwhelming part of the Horde army was cavalry, which used traditional combat tactics in battle with mobile cavalry masses of archers. Its core were heavily armed detachments consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was the bow, which the Horde used with great skill. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear strike that followed the first strike with arrows. The most popular bladed weapons were broadswords and sabers. Impact-crushing weapons were also common: maces, six-fingers, coins, klevtsy, flails.

Lamellar and laminar metal armor were common among Horde warriors, and from the 14th century - chain mail and ring-plate armor. The most common armor was the Khatangu-degel, reinforced from the inside with metal plates (kuyak). Despite this, the Horde continued to use lamellar shells. The Mongols also used brigantine type armor. Mirrors, necklaces, bracers and leggings became widespread. Swords were almost universally replaced by sabers. Since the end of the 14th century, cannons have been in service. Horde warriors also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields - chaparres. In field battles they also used some military-technical means, in particular crossbows.

Population

The Golden Horde was inhabited by: Mongols, Turkic (Cumans, Volga Bulgars, Bashkirs, Oguzes, Khorezmians, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Alans, etc.) and other peoples. The bulk of the nomadic population were Kipchaks, who, having lost their own aristocracy and the previous tribal division, Assimilated-Turkicized [source not specified 163 days] relatively few in number [source not specified 163 days] Mongolian elite. Over time, the name “Tatars” became common to most Turkic peoples of the western wing of the Golden Horde.

It is important that for many Turkic peoples the name “Tatars” was only an alien exoethnonym and these peoples retained their own self-name. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of the modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogais.

Trade

Ceramics of the Golden Horde in the collection State Historical Museum.

Large centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Hadji-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Dzhuketau, Madzhar, Mokhshi, Azak (Azov), Urgench and others.

Genoese trading colonies in Crimea ( captaincy of Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde for trading cloth, fabrics and linen, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain, forest, fish, caviar, olive oil.

The Golden Horde sold slaves and other booty captured by Horde troops during military campaigns to Genoese merchants.

From the Crimean trading cities trade routes began, leading both to southern Europe, and to Central Asia, India and China. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran passed along the Volga.

External and internal trade relations were ensured by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhams and copper pools.

Rulers

In the first period, the rulers recognized the primacy of the great kaan of the Mongol Empire.

1. Jochi, son of Genghis Khan, (1224 - 1227)
2. Batu (c. 1208 - c. 1255), son of Jochi, (1227 - c. 1255), orlok (jehangir) Yeke Mongol of Ulus (1235 -1241)
3. Sartak, son of Batu, (1255/1256)
4. Ulagchi, son of Batu (or Sartak), (1256 - 1257) under the regency of Borakchin Khatun, widow of Batu
5. Berke, son of Jochi, (1257 - 1266)
6. Munke-Timur, son of Tugan, (1266 - 1269)

Khans

1. Munke-Timur, (1269—1282)
2. There Mengu Khan, (1282 -1287)
3. Tula Buga Khan, (1287 -1291)
4. Ghiyas ud-Din Tokhtogu Khan, (1291 —1312 )
5. Ghiyas ud-Din Muhammad Uzbek Khan, (1312 —1341 )
6. Tinibek Khan, (1341 -1342)
7. Jalal ud-Din Mahmud Janibek Khan, (1342 —1357 )
8. Berdibek, (1357 -1359)
9. Kulpa, (August 1359 - January 1360)
10. Muhammad Nauruzbek, (January-June 1360)
11. Mahmud Khizr Khan, (June 1360 - August 1361)
12. Timur Khoja Khan, (August-September 1361)
13. Ordumelik, (September-October 1361)
14. Kildibek, (October 1361 - September 1362)
15. Murad Khan, (September 1362 - autumn 1364)
16. Mir Pulad khan, (autumn 1364 - September 1365)
17. Aziz Sheikh, (September 1365 -1367)
18. Abdullah Khan Khan of Ulus Jochi (1367 -1368)
19. Hasan Khan, (1368 -1369)
20. Abdullah Khan (1369 -1370)
21. Bulak Khan, (1370 -1372) under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
22. Urus Khan, (1372 -1374)
23. Circassian Khan, (1374 - early 1375)
24. Bulak Khan, (beginning 1375 - June 1375)
25. Urus Khan, (June-July 1375)
26. Bulak Khan, (July 1375 - end of 1375)
27. Ghiyas ud-Din Kaganbek Khan(Aibek Khan), (end 1375 -1377)
28. Arabshah Muzzaffar(Kary Khan), (1377 -1380)
29. Tokhtamysh, (1380 -1395)
30. Timur Kutlug Khan, (1395 —1399 )
31. Ghiyas ud-Din Shadibek Khan, (1399 —1408 )
32. Pulad Khan, (1407 -1411)
33. Timur Khan, (1411 -1412)
34. Jalal ad-Din Khan, son of Tokhtamysh, (1412 -1413)
35. Kerim Birdi Khan, son of Tokhtamysh, (1413 -1414)
36. Kepek, (1414)
37. Chokre, (1414 -1416)
38. Jabbar-Berdi, (1416 -1417)
39. Dervish, (1417 -1419)
40. Kadir Birdi Khan, son of Tokhtamysh, (1419)
41. Haji Muhammad, (1419)
42. Ulu Muhammad Khan, (1419 —1423 )
43. Barak Khan, (1423 -1426)
44. Ulu Muhammad Khan, (1426 —1427 )
45. Barak Khan, (1427 -1428)
46. Ulu Muhammad Khan, (1428 )
47. Kichi-Muhammad, Khan of Ulus Jochi (1428)
48. Ulu Muhammad Khan, (1428 —1432 )
49. Kichi-Muhammad, (1432 -1459)

Beklyarbeki

• Kurumishi, son of Orda-Ezhen, beklyarbek (1227 -1258) [source not specified 610 days]
• Burundai, beklarbek (1258 -1261) [source not specified 610 days]
• Nogai, great-grandson of Jochi, beklarbek (?—1299/1300)
• Iksar (Ilbasar), son of Tokhta, beklyarbek (1299/1300 - 1309/1310)
• Kutlug-Timur, beklyarbek (ca. 1309/1310 - 1321/1322)
• Mamai, beklyarbek (1357 -1359), (1363 -1364), (1367 -1369), (1370 -1372), (1377 -1380)
• Edigei, son Mangyt Baltychak-bek, beklarbek (1395 -1419)
• Mansur-biy, son of Edigei, beklyarbek (1419)

There is one extremely interesting settlement in the Astrakhan steppes - the village of Selitrennoye. Its current history began with embarrassment: several decades ago, rich deposits of saltpeter were discovered here and they even wanted to set up a plant, but it suddenly ended in the most surprising way. Surprised, geologists took a closer look - and realized that their deposit was just a colossal site of ancient nomadic tribes.
Historians and archaeologists laughed at attempts to build a mine on the site of an ancient stable, then they dug themselves - and gasped. For many kilometers around Selitrennoye there are traces of the ancient capital of the Golden Horde - the city of Sarai Batu.

I’ll start the tour not with a photograph, but with a video. This is a trailer for the feature film "Horde" about St. Alexis, which was filmed in Selitrennoe (almost the entire population played as extras) and was released in September of this year:

Based on the scenery for the film, a museum complex was created, which now operates in Selitrennoye. It stands a little away from the real archaeological excavations of Sarai-Batu and historians only visit it during the annual professional holiday, taking place on the river bank in the form of a large-scale musical show "Shovel-party".

The entrance to the complex itself is open to tourists, but I will immediately note: it is better to plan a trip here in late spring or early autumn; in the summer you will simply die here from the heat and will not be able to see all the interesting things.

Saray-Batu is not only a historical tour of the recreated city, but also a large amount of interactivity. Souvenir shops at the "oriental bazaar", guards in medieval armor, a cafe in a camp tent - this is the minimum that greets tourists if a thematic event is not held in the complex.

In autumn it is especially crowded here; various shows attract several thousand guests. They are imported by local travel agencies, they come to public transport or on personal. Here, for example, is what the gathering of guests for the last rock festival looked like from the outside:

There are even those who walk here, stopping for the night on the banks of the Volga or Akhtuba in tourist tent. Someone makes fun of them, but it is they who most often come across ancient coins - the size of the lost city was such that in the bare steppe under their feet people regularly discover ancient monuments.

By those standards, the city of Saray-Batu was huge - it was located along the Akhtuba River for 10 kilometers, and the population was (according to various sources) up to one hundred thousand inhabitants. Apart from its administrative value, Sarai Batu was known for its economic and commercial importance. The city was home to many artisans, gunsmiths, potters, glassblowers and jewelers. There were all the necessary buildings and structures: sewerage, water supply, school, mosques and church, bazaar, cemetery and beautiful gardens and even central heating! Of particular value to Batu Khan was his khan's palace, decorated with gold.

But it was not so long that the majestic city of Sarai-Batu stood on the banks of the Akhtuba. In 1282 the capital of the Khanate was moved to Sarai-Berke, and this marked the beginning of the end. And it all ended later, during the invasion even more cruel conqueror from Central Asia - Timur (Tamerlane). Having defeated the troops of the Great Khan, he ravaged many cities of the Golden Horde, including Sarai-Batu, plunging it into oblivion for centuries.

And many years passed before the first excavations began in the village of Selitrennoye, Kharabalinsky district, Astrakhan region, revealing all the grandeur and luxury of the capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai-Batu.

In Sarai-Batu, on the Selitrennoe settlement, many buildings with decorations, various glass, metal and ceramic products of that time, and coins of ancient mintage were found. At the Selitrennoe settlement, it was planned to create an open-air museum complex at the excavation site.

And I still can’t believe that on these vast expanses of steppe, near the village of Selitrennoe, there was a huge Golden Horde city of Sarai-Batu, which amazed travelers with its size and wealth, which is now buried underground, under our feet.

Sarai Batu (Old Sarai) is the capital of the Golden Horde, medieval city on the Akhtuba River, located 80 kilometers from the city of Astrakhan, near the village of Selitrennoye, Kharabalinsky district.

Description of the city of Saray Batu, Astrakhan region.

The ancient city of Saray Batu was founded by Khan Batu in 1250. Khan Batu (Mongolian Bat Khan) was the grandson of Genghis Khan, in Rus' he was called Batu. From his name the name of the city of Sarai Batu, the capital of the Golden Horde, appeared. Initially in place ancient city An ordinary headquarters for nomads was built, only years later it was overgrown with new buildings and structures, turning into a city. Although Old Sarai was the political center of the Golden Horde, it did not immediately become an economic center.

The central part of the capital of the Golden Horde occupied an area of ​​approximately 10 square meters. km, the rest of the area around was built up with estates and estates, and this is about another 20 sq. km. During its prosperity, the city of Sarai Batu was considered incredibly huge. It was home to about 75 thousand people from various ethnic groups. The multinational population included Mongols, Russians, Kipchaks, Alans, Circassians, and Bulgars. Each ethnic group settled in a separate quarter, where all the infrastructure was developed (schools, churches, bazaars, cemeteries). Craftsmen, such as potters, blacksmiths, glassblowers, and jewelers, settled separately, creating their own neighborhoods.

Palaces of rich people and public buildings in the city of Sarai Batu were built exclusively from baked bricks using limestone mortar as a binding material. At home ordinary people were built from cheaper and available material: mud brick and wood. It is interesting that in such ancient times the Old Barn had a sewerage system and a water supply system, and some buildings even had central heating.

History of the city Saray Batu (Old Saray).

The most beautiful and majestic in the capital of the Golden Horde was, of course, the Khan's palace, decorated with real gold. In 1261, Sarai Batu in the Astrakhan region became the center of the Sarai diocese of the Russian Church, and 50 years later - the Catholic bishopric. There were no security structures in the city, but during the period of internecine wars in the middle of the 14th century, the city was surrounded by a low rampart. Sarai Batu was badly damaged during the Great Jame in 1359-1380. During these years there was a huge economic and political crisis in the Golden Horde. Some historians associate this phenomenon with a dynastic crisis - the death of Berdibek, the last grandson of Batu Khan, was the catalyst for this phenomenon. Other historians say that during the “Great Zamyatnya” more than 25 khans changed on the Golden Horde throne, many uluses made attempts to become independent, so all these factors weakened the Golden Horde’s control over Russia. Discord and disagreements began within the dynasty, which the enemies took advantage of.

Finally city Barn Batu fell into decay towards the end of the 15th century. Enemy raids, natural disasters and time destroyed the capital of the Golden Horde. Interesting fact: bricks from the ruins of the city of Sarai Batu were used in the construction of the Astrakhan Kremlin.

The capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai Batu - excavations.

Centuries later, in 1965, the first excavations of this unique ancient city began. Archaeologists have done greatest discovery, buildings with decorations, metal and glass products, weapons and household items, ancient coins minted during the heyday of the Golden Horde.

Initially, it was planned to open a museum at the excavation site. But in 2010, Sarai Batu was completely reconstructed specifically for the large-scale filming of the feature film “St. Alexis.” After filming was completed, it was decided to use the revived city as a tourist attraction. Indeed, when you get to the capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai Batu, the city amazes with its maximum historical authenticity, which archaeologists helped to recreate thanks to their long and painstaking work.