Where was the metric system introduced? Metric system

Rice. 148. Making a blocking capacitor, a – collected sheets of foil and paper; Below is a view of the relative position of the foil sheets; b – the ends of the foil sheets are bent outward;

With – a clip made of sheet brass for clamping the ends of the foil; d – finished capacitor

3. TABLES OF CONVERSION OF MEASURES FOR DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

As we said earlier, in our presentation we tried to adhere to the currently accepted metric system of measures. However, in those cases where the old Russian or English measures have not yet fallen out of use in the sale of certain types of materials, we provided data on these measures.

In case any of the readers still have to convert metric measures into Russian ones or, with a more complete establishment of the metric system in our country, the old measures placed in the text into metric ones, we provide the following tables, covering all the data found in the previous ones chapters.

Comparison of metric and Russian measures

A. Comparison of metric and Russian measures.

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• International unit

Creation and development of the metric system of measures

The metric system of measures was created at the end of the 18th century. in France, when the development of trade and industry urgently required the replacement of many units of length and mass, chosen arbitrarily, with single, unified units, which became the meter and kilogram.

Initially, the meter was defined as 1/40,000,000 of the Paris meridian, and the kilogram as the mass of 1 cubic decimeter of water at a temperature of 4 C, i.e. the units were based on natural standards. This was one of the most important features of the metric system, which determined its progressive meaning. The second important advantage was the decimal division of units, corresponding to the accepted number system, and a unified way of forming their names (by including in the name the corresponding prefix: kilo, hecto, deca, centi and milli), which eliminated complex conversions of one unit to another and eliminated confusion in names.

The metric system of measures has become the basis for the unification of units throughout the world.

However, in subsequent years, the metric system of measures in its original form (m, kg, m, m. l. ar and six decimal prefixes) could not satisfy the demands of developing science and technology. Therefore, each branch of knowledge chose units and systems of units that were convenient for itself. Thus, in physics they adhered to the centimeter - gram - second (CGS) system; in technology, a system with basic units has become widespread: meter - kilogram-force - second (MKGSS); in theoretical electrical engineering, several systems of units derived from the GHS system began to be used one after another; in heat engineering, systems were adopted based, on the one hand, on the centimeter, gram and second, on the other hand, on the meter, kilogram and second with the addition of a temperature unit - degrees Celsius and non-system units of the amount of heat - calories, kilocalories, etc. . In addition, many other non-systemic units have found use: for example, units of work and energy - kilowatt-hour and liter-atmosphere, units of pressure - millimeter of mercury, millimeter of water, bar, etc. As a result, a significant number of metric systems of units were formed, some of them covered certain relatively narrow branches of technology, and many non-systemic units, the definitions of which were based on metric units.

Their simultaneous use in certain areas led to the clogging of many calculation formulas with numerical coefficients not equal to unity, which greatly complicated the calculations. For example, in technology it has become common to use the kilogram to measure the mass of the ISS system unit, and the kilogram-force to measure the force of the MKGSS system unit. This seemed convenient from the point of view that the numerical values ​​of mass (in kilograms) and its weight, i.e. the forces of attraction to the Earth (in kilogram-forces) turned out to be equal (with an accuracy sufficient for most practical cases). However, the consequence of equating the values ​​of essentially different quantities was the appearance in many formulas of the numerical coefficient 9.806 65 (rounded 9.81) and the confusion of the concepts of mass and weight, which gave rise to many misunderstandings and errors.

Such a variety of units and the associated inconveniences gave rise to the idea of ​​​​creating a universal system of units of physical quantities for all branches of science and technology, which could replace all existing systems and individual non-systemic units. As a result of the work of international metrological organizations, such a system was developed and received the name of the International System of Units with the abbreviated designation SI (System International). The SI was adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (GCPM) in 1960 as the modern form of the metric system.

Characteristics of the International System of Units

The universality of the SI is ensured by the fact that the seven basic units on which it is based are units of physical quantities that reflect the basic properties of the material world and make it possible to form derivative units for any physical quantities in all branches of science and technology. The same purpose is served by additional units necessary for the formation of derivative units depending on the plane and solid angles. The advantage of SI over other systems of units is the principle of construction of the system itself: SI is built for a certain system of physical quantities that allows one to represent physical phenomena in the form of mathematical equations; Some of the physical quantities are accepted as fundamental and all the others - derivative physical quantities - are expressed through them. For basic quantities, units are established, the size of which is agreed upon at the international level, and for other quantities, derived units are formed. The system of units constructed in this way and the units included in it are called coherent, since the condition is met that the relationships between the numerical values ​​of quantities expressed in SI units do not contain coefficients different from those included in the initially selected equations connecting the quantities. The coherence of SI units when used makes it possible to simplify calculation formulas to a minimum by freeing them from conversion factors.

The SI eliminates the plurality of units for expressing quantities of the same kind. So, for example, instead of the large number of units of pressure used in practice, the SI unit of pressure is only one unit - the pascal.

Establishing its own unit for each physical quantity made it possible to distinguish between the concepts of mass (SI unit - kilogram) and force (SI unit - newton). The concept of mass should be used in all cases when we mean a property of a body or substance that characterizes its inertia and ability to create a gravitational field, the concept of weight - in cases where we mean a force arising as a result of interaction with a gravitational field.

Definition of basic units. And it is possible with a high degree of accuracy, which ultimately not only improves the accuracy of measurements, but also ensures their uniformity. This is achieved by “materializing” units in the form of standards and transferring from their sizes to working measuring instruments using a set of standard measuring instruments.

The International System of Units, due to its advantages, has become widespread throughout the world. Currently, it is difficult to name a country that has not implemented the SI, is at the implementation stage, or has not made a decision to implement the SI. Thus, countries that previously used the English system of measures (England, Australia, Canada, USA, etc.) also adopted the SI.

Let's consider the structure of the International System of Units. Table 1.1 shows the main and additional SI units.

Derived SI units are formed from basic and supplementary units. Derived SI units that have special names (Table 1.2) can also be used to form other derived SI units.

Due to the fact that the range of values ​​of most measured physical quantities can currently be quite significant and it is inconvenient to use only SI units, since the measurement results in too large or small numerical values, the SI provides for the use of decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units , which are formed using the multipliers and prefixes given in Table 1.3.

International unit

On October 6, 1956, the International Committee of Weights and Measures considered the recommendation of the commission on a system of units and made the following important decision, completing the work of establishing the International System of Units of Measurement:

"The International Committee of Weights and Measures, Having regard to the mandate received from the Ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures in its Resolution 6, regarding the establishment of a practical system of units of measurement which could be adopted by all countries signatory to the Metric Convention; Having regard to all documents received from the 21 countries that responded to the survey proposed by the Ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures; taking into account Resolution 6 of the Ninth General Conference on Weights and Measures, establishing the choice of basic units of the future system, recommends:

1) that the system based on the basic units adopted by the Tenth General Conference, which are as follows, be called the “International System of Units”;

2) that the units of this system listed in the following table be used, without predefining other units that may be added subsequently."

At a session in 1958, the International Committee of Weights and Measures discussed and decided on a symbol for the abbreviation of the name "International System of Units". A symbol consisting of two letters SI (the initial letters of the words System International) was adopted.

In October 1958, the International Committee of Legal Metrology adopted the following resolution on the issue of the International System of Units:

metric system measure weight

“The International Committee of Legal Metrology, meeting in plenary session on October 7, 1958 in Paris, announces its adherence to the resolution of the International Committee of Weights and Measures establishing an international system of units of measurement (SI).

The main units of this system are:

meter - kilogram-second-ampere-degree Kelvin-candle.

In October 1960, the issue of the International System of Units was considered at the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures.

On this issue, the conference adopted the following resolution:

"The Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures, Having regard to Resolution 6 of the Tenth General Conference on Weights and Measures, in which it adopted six units as a basis for the establishment of a practical system of measurement for international relations, Having regard to Resolution 3 adopted by the International Committee of Measures and scales in 1956, and having regard to the recommendations adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures in 1958 relating to the abbreviated name of the system and to the prefixes for the formation of multiples and submultiples, decides:

1. Give the system based on six basic units the name “International System of Units”;

2. Set the international abbreviated name for this system “SI”;

3. Form the names of multiples and submultiples using the following prefixes:

4. Use the following units in this system, without prejudging what other units may be added in the future:

The adoption of the International System of Units was an important progressive act, summing up many years of preparatory work in this direction and summarizing the experience of scientific and technical circles in different countries and international organizations in metrology, standardization, physics and electrical engineering.

The decisions of the General Conference and the International Committee of Weights and Measures on the International System of Units are taken into account in the recommendations of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) on units of measurement and are already reflected in the legal provisions on units and in the standards for units of some countries.

In 1958, the GDR approved a new Regulation on units of measurement, based on the International System of Units.

In 1960, the government regulations on units of measurement of the People's Republic of Hungary adopted the International System of Units as a basis.

State standards of the USSR for units 1955-1958. were built on the basis of the system of units adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures as the International System of Units.

In 1961, the Committee of Standards, Measures and Measuring Instruments under the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved GOST 9867 - 61 "International System of Units", which establishes the preferred use of this system in all fields of science and technology and in teaching.

In 1961, the International System of Units was legalized by government decree in France and in 1962 in Czechoslovakia.

The International System of Units is reflected in the recommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and adopted by the International Electrotechnical Commission and a number of other international organizations.

In 1964, the International System of Units formed the basis of the "Table of Legal Measurement Units" of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

During the period 1962 to 1965. A number of countries have enacted laws adopting the International System of Units as mandatory or preferable and standards for SI units.

In 1965, in accordance with the instructions of the XII General Conference on Weights and Measures, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures conducted a survey regarding the situation with the adoption of SI in countries that had joined the Metric Convention.

13 countries have accepted the SI as mandatory or preferable.

In 10 countries, the use of the International System of Units has been approved and preparations are underway to revise laws in order to make this system legal, mandatory in a given country.

In 7 countries, SI is accepted as optional.

At the end of 1962, a new recommendation of the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU) was published, devoted to quantities and units in the field of ionizing radiation. Unlike previous recommendations of this commission, which were mainly devoted to special (non-systemic) units for measuring ionizing radiation, the new recommendation includes a table in which the units of the International System are placed first for all quantities.

At the seventh session of the International Committee of Legal Metrology, which took place on October 14-16, 1964, which included representatives of 34 countries that signed the intergovernmental convention establishing the International Organization of Legal Metrology, the following resolution was adopted on the implementation of SI:

“The International Committee of Legal Metrology, taking into account the need for the rapid dissemination of the International System of SI Units, recommends the preferred use of these SI units in all measurements and in all measurement laboratories.

In particular, in temporary international recommendations. adopted and disseminated by the International Conference of Legal Metrology, these units should be used preferably for the calibration of measuring instruments and instruments to which these recommendations apply.

Other units permitted by these guidelines are permitted only temporarily and should be avoided as soon as possible."

The International Committee of Legal Metrology has established a rapporteur secretariat on the topic "Units of Measurement", whose task is to develop a model draft legislation on units of measurement based on the International System of Units. Austria took over as the rapporteur secretariat for this topic.

Advantages of the International System

The international system is universal. It covers all areas of physical phenomena, all branches of technology and the national economy. The international system of units organically includes such private systems that have long been widespread and deeply rooted in technology, such as the metric system of measures and the system of practical electrical and magnetic units (ampere, volt, weber, etc.). Only the system that included these units could claim recognition as universal and international.

The units of the International System are for the most part quite convenient in size, and the most important of them have practical names that are convenient in practice.

The construction of the International System corresponds to the modern level of metrology. This includes the optimal choice of basic units, and in particular their number and size; consistency (coherence) of derived units; rationalized form of electromagnetism equations; formation of multiples and submultiples using decimal prefixes.

As a result, various physical quantities in the International System, as a rule, have different dimensions. This makes a complete dimensional analysis possible, preventing misunderstandings, for example, when checking layouts. Dimension indicators in SI are integer, not fractional, which simplifies the expression of derived units through basic ones and, in general, operating with dimension. The coefficients 4n and 2n are present in those and only those equations of electromagnetism that relate to fields with spherical or cylindrical symmetry. The decimal prefix method, inherited from the metric system, allows us to cover huge ranges of changes in physical quantities and ensures that the SI corresponds to the decimal system.

The international system is characterized by sufficient flexibility. It allows the use of a certain number of non-systemic units.

SI is a living and developing system. The number of basic units can be further increased if this is necessary to cover any additional area of ​​phenomena. In the future, it is also possible that some of the regulatory rules in force in the SI will be relaxed.

The International System, as its name itself suggests, is intended to become a universally applicable single system of units of physical quantities. The unification of units is a long overdue need. Already, SI has made numerous systems of units unnecessary.

The International System of Units is adopted in more than 130 countries around the world.

The International System of Units is recognized by many influential international organizations, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Among those who recognize the SI are the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, etc.

Bibliography

1. Burdun, Vlasov A.D., Murin B.P. Units of physical quantities in science and technology, 1990

2. Ershov V.S. Implementation of the International System of Units, 1986.

3. Kamke D, Kremer K. Physical foundations of units of measurement, 1980.

4. Novosiltsev. On the history of SI basic units, 1975.

5. Chertov A.G. Physical quantities (Terminology, definitions, notations, dimensions), 1990.

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Metrology in the modern sense is the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and ways of achieving the required accuracy. Physical quantities and the international system of units. Systematic, progressive and random errors.

The International System of Units is a structure based on the use of mass in kilograms and length in meters. Since its inception, there have been various versions of it. The difference between them was the choice of key indicators. Today, many countries use units of measurement in which the elements are the same for all states (the exceptions are the USA, Liberia, Burma). This system is widely used in various fields - from everyday life to scientific research.

Peculiarities

The metric system of measures is an ordered set of parameters. This significantly distinguishes it from the previously used traditional methods of determining certain units. To designate any quantity, the metric system of measures uses only one basic indicator, the value of which can change in multiple fractions (achieved by using decimal prefixes). The main advantage of this approach is that it is easier to use. This eliminates a huge number of different unnecessary units (feet, miles, inches and others).

Timing parameters

Over a long period of time, a number of scientists have made attempts to represent time in metric units of measurement. It was proposed to divide the day into smaller elements - millidays, and the angles - into 400 degrees or take a full rotation cycle as 1000 milliturns. Over time, due to inconvenience in use, this idea had to be abandoned. Today, time in SI is denoted by seconds (composed of milliseconds) and radians.

History of origin

The modern metric system is believed to have originated in France. In the period from 1791 to 1795, a number of important legislative acts were adopted in this country. They were aimed at determining the status of the meter - one ten-millionth of 1/4 of the meridian from the equator to the North Pole. On July 4, 1837, a special document was adopted. According to it, the mandatory use of the elements that made up the metric system of measures was officially approved in all economic transactions carried out in France. Subsequently, the adopted structure began to spread to neighboring European countries. Due to its simplicity and convenience, the metric system of measures gradually replaced most of the national ones used previously. It can also be used in the USA and UK.

Basic quantities

The founders of the system, as noted above, took the meter as the length. The element of mass became the gram - the weight of one millionth of a m3 of water at its standard density. For more convenient use of units of the new system, the creators came up with a way to make them more accessible - by making standards from metal. These models are made with perfect precision in reproducing values. Where the standards of the metric system are located will be discussed below. Later, when using these models, people realized that comparing the desired value with them is much simpler and more convenient than, for example, with a quarter of the meridian. At the same time, when determining the mass of the desired body, it became obvious that estimating it using a standard is much more convenient than using the corresponding amount of water.

"Archive" samples

By resolution of the International Commission in 1872, a specially made meter was adopted as the standard for measuring length. At the same time, the commission members decided to take a special kilogram as the standard. It was made from alloys of platinum and iridium. The “archival” meter and kilogram are in permanent storage in Paris. In 1885, on May 20, a special Convention was signed by representatives of seventeen countries. Within its framework, the procedure for determining and using measurement standards in scientific research and works was regulated. This required special organizations. These include, in particular, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Within the framework of the newly created organization, the development of samples of mass and length began, with the subsequent transfer of their copies to all participating countries.

Metric system of measures in Russia

The adopted models were used by more and more countries. Under the current conditions, Russia could not ignore the emergence of a new system. Therefore, by the Law of July 4, 1899 (author and developer - D.I. Mendeleev), it was allowed for optional use. It became mandatory only after the Provisional Government adopted the corresponding decree in 1917. Later, its use was enshrined in a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated July 21, 1925. In the twentieth century, most countries switched to measurements in the international system of SI units. Its final version was developed and approved by the XI General Conference in 1960.

The collapse of the USSR coincided with the rapid development of computer and household appliances, the main production of which is concentrated in Asian countries. Huge quantities of goods from these manufacturers began to be imported into the Russian Federation. At the same time, Asian states did not think about the possible problems and inconveniences of using their goods by the Russian-speaking population and supplied their products with universal (in their opinion) instructions in English, using American parameters. In everyday life, the designation of quantities according to the metric system began to be replaced by elements used in the USA. For example, the sizes of computer disks, monitor diagonals and other components are indicated in inches. At the same time, initially the parameters of these components were designated strictly in terms of the metric system (the width of CDs and DVDs, for example, is 120 mm).

International use

Currently, the most common system of measures on planet Earth is the metric system of measures. A table of masses, lengths, distances and other parameters allows you to easily convert one indicator to another. Every year there are fewer and fewer countries that, for certain reasons, have not switched to this system. Such states that continue to use their own parameters include the United States, Burma and Liberia. America uses the SI system in scientific production. In all others, American parameters were used. The UK and Saint Lucia have not yet adopted the world SI system. But it must be said that the process is in an active stage. The last country to finally switch to the metric system in 2005 was Ireland. Antigua and Guyana are just making the transition, but the pace is very slow. An interesting situation is in China, which officially switched to the metric system, but at the same time the use of ancient Chinese units continues on its territory.

Aviation parameters

The metric system of measures is recognized almost everywhere. But there are certain industries in which it has not taken root. Aviation still uses a measurement system based on units such as feet and miles. The use of this system in this area has developed historically. The position of the International Civil Aviation Organization is clear - a transition to metric values ​​must be made. However, only a few countries adhere to these recommendations in their pure form. Among them are Russia, China and Sweden. Moreover, the civil aviation structure of the Russian Federation, in order to avoid confusion with international control centers, in 2011 partially adopted a system of measures, the main unit of which is the foot.

Metric system is the general name for the international decimal system of units based on the use of the meter and kilogram. Over the past two centuries, there have been various versions of the metric system, differing in the choice of base units.

The metric system grew out of regulations adopted by the French National Assembly in 1791 and 1795 defining the meter as one ten-millionth of one quarter of the earth's meridian from the North Pole to the equator (Paris meridian).

The metric system of measures was approved for use in Russia (optional) by the law of June 4, 1899, the draft of which was developed by D. I. Mendeleev, and introduced as mandatory by decree of the Provisional Government of April 30, 1917, and for the USSR - by decree Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated July 21, 1925. Until this moment, the so-called Russian system of measures existed in the country.

Russian system of measures - a system of measures traditionally used in Rus' and the Russian Empire. The Russian system was replaced by the metric system of measures, which was approved for use in Russia (optional) according to the law of June 4, 1899. Below are the measures and their meanings according to the “Regulations on Weights and Measures” (1899), unless indicated other. Earlier values ​​of these units may have differed from those given; so, for example, the code of 1649 established a verst of 1 thousand fathoms, while in the 19th century the verst was 500 fathoms; versts of 656 and 875 fathoms were also used.

Sa?zhen, or sazhen (sazhen, sazhenka, straight sazhen) - old Russian unit of distance measurement. In the 17th century the main measure was the official fathom (approved in 1649 by the “Cathedral Code”), equal to 2.16 m and containing three arshins (72 cm) of 16 vershok each. Even in the time of Peter I, Russian measures of length were equalized with English ones. One arshin took the value of 28 English inches, and a fathom - 213.36 cm. Later, on October 11, 1835, according to the instructions of Nicholas I “On the system of Russian weights and measures”, the length of a fathom was confirmed: 1 government fathom was equal to the length of 7 English feet , that is, to the same 2.1336 meters.

Machaya fathom- an old Russian unit of measurement equal to the distance in the span of both hands, at the ends of the middle fingers. 1 fly fathom = 2.5 arshins = 10 spans = 1.76 meters.

Oblique fathom- in different regions it ranged from 213 to 248 cm and was determined by the distance from the toes to the end of the fingers of the hand extended diagonally upward. This is where the popular hyperbole “slant fathoms in the shoulders” comes from, which emphasizes heroic strength and stature. For convenience, we equated Sazhen and Oblique Sazhen when used in construction and land work.

Span- Old Russian unit of measurement of length. Since 1835 it has been equal to 7 English inches (17.78 cm). Initially, the span (or small span) was equal to the distance between the ends of the outstretched fingers of the hand - the thumb and index. The “big span” is also known - the distance between the tip of the thumb and middle finger. In addition, the so-called “span with a somersault” (“span with a somersault”) was used - a span with the addition of two or three joints of the index finger, i.e. 5-6 vershoks. At the end of the 19th century it was excluded from the official system of measures, but continued to be used as a folk measure.

Arshin- was legalized in Russia as the main measure of length on June 4, 1899 by the “Regulations on Weights and Measures.”

The height of humans and large animals was indicated in vershok over two arshins, for small animals - over one arshin. For example, the expression “a man is 12 inches tall” meant that his height is 2 arshins 12 inches, that is, approximately 196 cm.

Bottle- there were two types of bottles - wine and vodka. Wine bottle (measuring bottle) = 1/2 t. octagonal damask. 1 vodka bottle (beer bottle, commercial bottle, half bottle) = 1/2 t. ten damask.

Shtof, half-shtof, shtof - used, among other things, when measuring the amount of alcoholic beverages in taverns and taverns. In addition, any bottle with a volume of ½ damask could be called a half-damask. A shkalik was also a vessel of the appropriate volume in which vodka was served in taverns.

Russian measures of length

1 mile= 7 versts = 7.468 km.
1 mile= 500 fathoms = 1066.8 m.
1 fathom= 3 arshins = 7 feet = 100 acres = 2.133 600 m.
1 arshin= 4 quarters = 28 inches = 16 vershok = 0.711 200 m.
1 quarter (span)= 1/12 fathoms = ¼ arshin = 4 vershok = 7 inches = 177.8 mm.
1 foot= 12 inches = 304.8 mm.
1 inch= 1.75 inches = 44.38 mm.
1 inch= 10 lines = 25.4 mm.
1 weave= 1/100 fathoms = 21.336 mm.
1 line= 10 points = 2.54 mm.
1 point= 1/100 inch = 1/10 line = 0.254 mm.

Russian measures of area

1 sq. verst= 250,000 sq. fathoms = 1.1381 km².
1 tithe= 2400 sq. fathoms = 10,925.4 m² = 1.0925 hectares.
1 year= ½ tithe = 1200 sq. fathoms = 5462.7 m² = 0.54627 hectares.
1 octopus= 1/8 tithe = 300 sq. fathoms = 1365.675 m² ≈ 0.137 hectares.
1 sq. fathom= 9 sq. arshins = 49 sq. feet = 4.5522 m².
1 sq. arshin= 256 sq. vershoks = 784 sq. inches = 0.5058 m².
1 sq. foot= 144 sq. inches = 0.0929 m².
1 sq. inch= 19.6958 cm².
1 sq. inch= 100 sq. lines = 6.4516 cm².
1 sq. line= 1/100 sq. inches = 6.4516 mm².

Russian measures of volume

1 cu. fathom= 27 cu. arshins = 343 cubic meters feet = 9.7127 m³
1 cu. arshin= 4096 cu. vershoks = 21,952 cubic meters. inches = 359.7278 dm³
1 cu. inch= 5.3594 cu. inches = 87.8244 cm³
1 cu. foot= 1728 cu. inches = 2.3168 dm³
1 cu. inch= 1000 cu. lines = 16.3871 cm³
1 cu. line= 1/1000 cc inches = 16.3871 mm³

Russian measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”)

1 cebr= 26-30 quarters.
1 tub (tub, fetters) = 2 ladles = 4 quarters = 8 octopuses = 839.69 l (= 14 pounds of rye = 229.32 kg).
1 sack (rye= 9 pounds + 10 pounds = 151.52 kg) (oats = 6 pounds + 5 pounds = 100.33 kg)
1 polokova, ladle = 419.84 l (= 7 pounds of rye = 114.66 kg).
1 quarter, quarter (for bulk solids) = 2 octagons (half-quarters) = 4 half-octagons = 8 quadrangles = 64 garnets. (= 209.912 l (dm³) 1902). (= 209.66 l 1835).
1 octopus= 4 fours = 104.95 liters (= 1¾ pounds of rye = 28.665 kg).
1 half-half= 52.48 l.
1 quadruple= 1 measure = 1⁄8 quarters = 8 garnets = 26.2387 l. (= 26.239 dm³ (l) (1902)). (= 64 lbs of water = 26.208 L (1835 g)).
1 semi-quadruple= 13.12 l.
1 four= 6.56 l.
1 garnets, small quadrangle = ¼ bucket = 1⁄8 quadrangle = 12 glasses = 3.2798 l. (= 3.28 dm³ (l) (1902)). (=3.276 l (1835)).
1 half-garnets (half-small quadrangle) = 1 shtof = 6 glasses = 1.64 l. (Half-half-small quadrangle = 0.82 l, Half-half-half-small quadrangle = 0.41 l).
1 glass= 0.273 l.

Russian measures of liquid bodies ("wine measures")

1 barrel= 40 buckets = 491.976 l (491.96 l).
1 pot= 1 ½ - 1 ¾ buckets (holding 30 pounds of clean water).
1 bucket= 4 quarters of a bucket = 10 damasks = 1/40 of a barrel = 12.29941 liters (as of 1902).
1 quarter (buckets) = 1 garnets = 2.5 shtofas ​​= 4 wine bottles = 5 vodka bottles = 3.0748 l.
1 garnets= ¼ bucket = 12 glasses.
1 shtof (mug)= 3 pounds of clean water = 1/10 of a bucket = 2 vodka bottles = 10 glasses = 20 scales = 1.2299 l (1.2285 l).
1 wine bottle (Bottle (volume unit)) = 1/16 bucket = ¼ garnets = 3 glasses = 0.68; 0.77 l; 0.7687 l.
1 vodka or beer bottle = 1/20 bucket = 5 cups = 0.615; 0.60 l.
1 bottle= 3/40 of a bucket (Decree of September 16, 1744).
1 braid= 1/40 bucket = ¼ mug = ¼ damask = ½ half-damask = ½ vodka bottle = 5 scales = 0.307475 l.
1 quarter= 0.25 l (currently).
1 glass= 0.273 l.
1 glass= 1/100 bucket = 2 scales = 122.99 ml.
1 scale= 1/200 bucket = 61.5 ml.

Russian weight measures

1 fin= 6 quarters = 72 pounds = 1179.36 kg.
1 quarter waxed = 12 pounds = 196.56 kg.
1 Berkovets= 10 pudam = 400 hryvnia (large hryvnia, pounds) = 800 hryvnia = 163.8 kg.
1 congar= 40.95 kg.
1 pood= 40 large hryvnias or 40 pounds = 80 small hryvnias = 16 steelyards = 1280 lots = 16.380496 kg.
1 half pood= 8.19 kg.
1 Batman= 10 pounds = 4.095 kg.
1 steelyard= 5 small hryvnias = 1/16 pood = 1.022 kg.
1 half-money= 0.511 kg.
1 large hryvnia, hryvnia, (later - pound) = 1/40 pood = 2 small hryvnias = 4 half-hryvnias = 32 lots = 96 spools = 9216 shares = 409.5 g (11th-15th centuries).
1 pound= 0.4095124 kg (exactly, since 1899).
1 hryvnia small= 2 half-kopecks = 48 zolotniks = 1200 kidneys = 4800 pirogues = 204.8 g.
1 half hryvnia= 102.4 g.
Also used:1 libra = ¾ lb = 307.1 g; 1 ansyr = 546 g, has not received widespread use.
1 lot= 3 spools = 288 shares = 12.79726 g.
1 spool= 96 shares = 4.265754 g.
1 spool= 25 buds (until the 18th century).
1 share= 1/96 spools = 44.43494 mg.
From the 13th to the 18th centuries, such weight measures were used asbud And pie:
1 kidney= 1/25 spool = 171 mg.
1 pie= ¼ kidney = 43 mg.

Russian measures of weight (mass) are apothecary and troy.
Pharmacist's weight is a system of mass measures used when weighing medicines until 1927.

1 pound= 12 ounces = 358.323 g.
1 oz= 8 drachmas = 29.860 g.
1 drachma= 1/8 ounce = 3 scruples = 3.732 g.
1 scruple= 1/3 drachm = 20 grains = 1.244 g.
1 grain= 62.209 mg.

Other Russian measures

Quire- units of counting, equal to 24 sheets of paper.

On the facade of the Ministry of Justice in Paris, under one of the windows, a horizontal line and the inscription “meter” are carved in marble. Such a tiny detail is barely noticeable against the backdrop of the majestic Ministry building and Place Vendôme, but this line is the only one remaining in the city of “meter standards”, which were placed throughout the city more than 200 years ago in an attempt to introduce the people to a new universal system of measures - metric.

We often take a system of measures for granted and don’t even think about what story lies behind its creation. The metric system, which was invented in France, is official throughout the world, with the exception of three countries: the United States, Liberia and Myanmar, although in these countries it is used in some areas such as international trade.

Can you imagine what our world would be like if the system of measures was different everywhere, like the situation with currencies that we are familiar with? But everything was like this before the French Revolution, which flared up at the end of the 18th century: then the units of weights and measures were different not only between individual states, but even within the same country. Almost every French province had its own units of measures and weights, incomparable with the units used by their neighbors.

The revolution brought a wind of change to this area: in the period from 1789 to 1799, activists sought to overturn not only the government regime, but also to fundamentally change society, changing traditional foundations and habits. For example, in order to limit the influence of the church on public life, the revolutionaries introduced a new Republican calendar in 1793: it consisted of ten-hour days, one hour equaled 100 minutes, one minute equaled 100 seconds. This calendar was fully consistent with the new government's desire to introduce a decimal system in France. This approach to calculating time never caught on, but people came to like the decimal system of measures, which was based on meters and kilograms.

The first scientific minds of the Republic worked on the development of a new system of measures. Scientists set out to invent a system that would obey logic, and not local traditions or the wishes of authorities. Then they decided to rely on what nature had given us - the standard meter should be equal to one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the equator. This distance was measured along the Paris meridian, which passed through the building of the Paris Observatory and divided it into two equal parts.

In 1792, scientists Jean-Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain set out along the meridian: the former's destination was the city of Dunkirk in northern France, the latter followed south to Barcelona. Using the latest equipment and the mathematical process of triangulation (a method of constructing a geodetic network in the form of triangles in which their angles and some of their sides are measured), they hoped to measure the meridian arc between two cities at sea level. Then, using the method of extrapolation (a method of scientific research consisting of extending conclusions drawn from observations of one part of a phenomenon to another part of it), they intended to calculate the distance between the pole and the equator. According to the initial plan, scientists planned to spend a year on all measurements and the creation of a new universal system of measures, but in the end the process lasted for seven years.

Astronomers were faced with the fact that in those turbulent times people often perceived them with great caution and even hostility. In addition, without the support of the local population, scientists were often not allowed to work; There were cases when they were injured while climbing the highest points in the area, such as church domes.

From the top of the dome of the Pantheon, Delambre took measurements of the territory of Paris. Initially, King Louis XV erected the Pantheon building for the church, but the Republicans equipped it as the central geodetic station of the city. Today the Pantheon serves as a mausoleum for the heroes of the Revolution: Voltaire, René Descartes, Victor Hugo, etc. In those days, the building also served as a museum - all the old standards of weights and measures were stored there, which were sent by residents of all of France in anticipation of a new perfect system.

Unfortunately, despite all the efforts scientists spent on developing a worthy replacement for the old units of measurement, no one wanted to use the new system. People refused to forget the usual methods of measurement, which were often closely related to local traditions, rituals and way of life. For example, the el, a unit of measurement for cloth, was usually equal to the size of the looms, and the size of arable land was calculated solely in the days that had to be spent on cultivating it.

Parisian authorities were so outraged by residents' refusal to use the new system that they often sent police to local markets to force it into use. Napoleon eventually abandoned the policy of introducing the metric system in 1812 - it was still taught in schools, but people were allowed to use the usual units of measurement until 1840, when the policy was renewed.

It took France almost a hundred years to fully adopt the metric system. This finally succeeded, but not thanks to the persistence of the government: France was rapidly moving towards the industrial revolution. In addition, it was necessary to improve terrain maps for military purposes - this process required accuracy, which was not possible without a universal system of measures. France confidently entered the international market: in 1851, the first International Fair was held in Paris, at which event participants shared their achievements in the field of science and industry. The metric system was simply necessary to avoid confusion. The construction of the Eiffel Tower, 324 meters high, was timed to coincide with the International Fair in Paris in 1889 - then it became the tallest man-made structure in the world.

In 1875, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was established, with its headquarters located in a quiet suburb of Paris - in the city of Sèvres. The Bureau maintains international standards and the unity of the seven measures: meter, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, Mole and Candela. A platinum meter standard is kept there, from which standard copies were previously carefully made and sent to other countries as a sample. In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and Measures adopted a definition of the meter based on the wavelength of light—thus bringing the standard even closer to nature.

The Bureau's headquarters also houses the kilogram standard: it is housed in an underground storage facility under three glass bells. The standard is made in the form of a cylinder made of an alloy of platinum and iridium; in November 2018, the standard will be revised and redefined using the quantum Planck constant. The resolution on the revision of the International System of Units was adopted back in 2011, but due to some technical features of the procedure, its implementation was not possible until recently.

Determining units of weights and measures is a very labor-intensive process, which is accompanied by various difficulties: from the nuances of conducting experiments to financing. The metric system underlies progress in many fields: science, economics, medicine, etc., and is vital for further research, globalization and improving our understanding of the universe.