What name did Leo Tolstoy's worldview receive? Meanings and values ​​of the Russian worldview in the works of Leo Tolstoy

The relevance of research. The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the need for a comprehensive historical and philosophical study of the philosophical and religious roots of Tolstoy’s work, the essence of his worldview, which had a great influence on Russian and world philosophical thought in the 19th-20th centuries.

The dissertation is devoted to the study of the religious and philosophical origins of the teachings of Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy and the evolution of his worldview. The subject of research is taken in its multidimensional complexity, that is, as a historical, philosophical and religious phenomenon. This breadth of approach ensures the convincingness of the dissertation author’s conclusions about the ideological foundations of Tolstoy’s entire work - artistic, philosophical, and journalistic. Studying these foundations from a historical point of view makes it possible to identify the origins of many of the writer’s ideas that arose in him in adulthood. These include ideas about non-violence as a special vision of the world and a way to change it, about God as the center of unity of people in a humanistic community, about life as a special state of matter - a state of balanced harmony, about morality as an objective sphere of the rational existence of people, etc. Without studying the origins of the Russian thinker’s worldview, which are seen by the dissertation author both in the psychological characteristics of his personality and in the external influence of the natural and social environment on him, it is impossible to understand the mechanism of formation of his main conceptual ideas.

The dissertation highlights four periods in the evolution of Tolstoy's worldview: 1) the early stage of creativity - the beginning of the formation of Tolstoy's worldview, in which his humanistic beliefs were just emerging and formalized in artistic form (40s - 60s of the 19th century); 2) the stage of completion of the formation of Tolstoy’s worldview (60s-70s of the 19th century), during which his views on the historical process were formed, ideas about the hidden springs of social life were formed; 3) the time of the moral and religious revolution in Tolstoy’s consciousness (late 70s - 80s of the 19th century), when he formulated his basic philosophical and religious ideas - about the principles of a non-violent structure of life, about God, religion and morality; 4) the preaching stage in Tolstoy’s work (late 80s of the 19th century - 1910), when Tolstoy’s views on the existence of nature, society and man finally took shape and his preaching activity unfolded in its entirety. At the same time, the dissertation notes a certain relativity of the chronological division of these periods. The author's goal was, first of all, a meaningful analysis of the ideological and creative evolution of the Russian thinker, and not a formal identification of a strict time frame for the designated periods of his work.

The dissertation describes in detail the basic ideological content of each of these stages. Special areas of research include: the stage of formation of Tolstoy’s worldview, the influence of Western and Eastern philosophy on his work, the content of the moral and religious revolution in the writer’s mind.

Until recently, questions about the origins and driving forces of the evolution of Leo Tolstoy’s worldview were covered in scientific literature in a tendentious manner; Tolstoy’s moral and religious ideas were considered a product only of Russian reality. The approach to Tolstoy's teachings on non-violence was one-sided and subjectivist. In the philosophical literature of the Soviet period, Tolstoy's worldview was interpreted from a social-class perspective, and the universal aspects of his work were biased and overly sharply criticized.

The most significant drawback in the study of Tolstoy's worldview is in considering it not as a systemic formation, but as a manifestation of the irrational aspirations of consciousness to build from scattered impressions a moral utopia, devoid of life roots.

A hundred years after Tolstoy’s sermon on non-violence, humanity was faced with the need to resolve global contradictions that had become extremely acute and dangerous and even threatened to end its history. Nonviolent resolution of diplomatic disputes, territorial conflicts, social problems, and religious differences has become the agenda of modern humanity. Without such permission, the integration of humanity into a single and integral world community will be impossible. Only after this will the true history of humanity be possible, where its main mover will not be instincts, human drives and needs based on them, but spirit and morality based on reason and love and beauty as the highest manifestations of life.

The need of humanity to realize this formation into a rational and united community dictates the need to develop the spiritual foundations of such aspiration towards the One. Tolstoy's teaching can serve as one of the theoretical sources helping the spiritual unity of humanity. All this makes relevant a meaningful analysis of the philosophical foundations of Tolstoy’s worldview and the development of the problems posed in it: the non-violent relationship of man to nature, society, to another person, the desire for the One through the material and ideal environment, the obligation and non-obligation of the moral principle in people’s lives, etc.

The degree of development of the topic. In numerous works on Tolstoy, his worldview was not explored deeply enough. Therefore, the main sources in the dissertation author’s work were the works of Tolstoy himself, which were poorly analyzed in philosophical literature from the point of view of their philosophical content and religious issues. The dissertation also used literary and philosophical sources in Russian and foreign languages, relating both to the period of Tolstoy’s work and to the modern period.

The works of modern authors were used to compare assessments of Tolstoy’s work at the beginning of the 20th century and at the end of it to understand the new meaning of the writer’s ideas in our lives. It is worth mentioning the works of such authors as N.N. Apostolov, V.F. Asmus, I.E. Vertsman, A.O. Gusev, N.S. Kozlov, D.Yu. Kvitko, Ya.S. Lurie , K.N.Lomunov, N.B. Mardov, L.3.Nemirovskaya, M.F.Ovsyannikov, A.S.Poltavtsev, M.N.Rozanov, B.F. Sushkov, A.I. Shifman, B.M. Eikhenbaum and others. The works of foreign authors also deserve attention - I. Berlin, M. Dorn, H.E. Davis, N. Weisbein, D. W. Spence, K. Nag , K. Hamburger, E. B. Greenwood, M. Gruseman, X. O. Hellerer, R. Gustaffson, X. L. Fausset, M. Brown, L. Stein, D. Milivojevich, A. Ya. Syrkin and etc.

Numerous literature about Tolstoy, especially richly presented at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, was created mainly by literary scholars and historians. Certain philosophical works of this period (I.A. Ilyin, L. Shestov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, S.N. Bulgakov, N.A. Berdyaev, I.A. Ilyin, G.V. Plekhanov, etc.) were overly ideologized, openly defended the state and church, or even the revolution in society, which Tolstoy criticized. During the Soviet period, issues of studying and interpreting the ideological foundations of Tolstoy’s work were deliberately avoided, which was due to censorship and the anarchic features of his teaching. In some works (D.Yu. Kvitko, A.S. Poltavtsev, etc.) attempts were made to provide a comprehensive analysis of Tolstoy’s worldview. However, these attempts suffered from far-fetched ideological clichés about Tolstoy and, most importantly, superficial assessments of the writer’s philosophical ideas. The essence of Tolstoy's teaching on non-violence and the sources of its formation were not revealed - hence the wrong opinion was formed about this teaching as non-vital, abstract, and corresponding criticism was given to it. I.D. Ilyin’s main thesis about Tolstoy’s “morality of flight” found supporters among class-oriented interpreters of his work, which led to a one-sided assessment of it and its incorrect presentation to the reading public.

Researchers of Tolstoy's work approach him from a variety of positions. This leads to the reflection in their analysis of different aspects of Tolstoy’s worldview and often to very contradictory and even mutually exclusive assessments of his ideas. In order to avoid one-sidedness and subjectivity in the analysis of Tolstoy's ideas, the dissertation student sought to realize his research goal - to identify the philosophical and religious origins and show the substantive significance of the main stages in the evolution of Tolstoy's worldview, with the greatest completeness.

In the context of the formulated topic, some works should be mentioned in more detail. The problem of the influence of Western philosophical thought as a whole on Tolstoy’s worldview is touched upon to some extent only in the work of D. Yu. Kvitko “The Philosophy of Tolstoy” (M., 1928; 1930). The author notes the influence on Tolstoy of the ideas of Rousseau, Schopenhauer, Thomas Hardy; shows that both Tolstoy’s philosophy of history and religion were predetermined both by his environment in childhood and youth, and by the influence of social traditions in Russian life on him

The eternal contradiction between masters and slaves. “Analyzing the life of his society,” writes D. Kvitko, “we find that his ideas are an echo of the master-class, which: e:l p:lost and the peasant-class, who is still ^ate." o.5". The author extols Rousseau over Tolstoy, trying to belittle the importance of the new religion created by the Russian writer: "While Rousseau was interested in earthly life, the thought of death overshadowed the joy of life for Tolstoy." (75, p. 154). A. Davilkovsky notes something similar: “In reality, he (Tolstoy - E.R.) often found himself with his love outside of time and space, i.e. outside of life, outside of the living sensation of its most painful sides; not like Rousseau, sick with the diseases of the people." (50, N7, pp. 132-133;.

A similar, generally controversial, point of view is opposed by M. N. Rozanov’s conviction about the decisive influence of Rousseau on the personality of the young Tolstoy, which was predetermined both by the romantic literary traditions of the 18th century and by the “spontaneous, subconscious closeness” of both to “the earth, to nature, some kind of instinctive craving for the primary sources of life." (150, pp. 9-10). To Rozanov’s statement we can add the opinions of I.E. Vertsman about Rousseau as a herald of Tolstoy’s ideas about the inhumane nature of modern civilization (see: I.E. Vertsman. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, M., 1976. p. 275), G. Opreai A. Oprea about Leo Tolstoy, who “practically replaces the “good savage” with a good Russian peasant, which explains the fact that in solving many problems he seems to be more Russian than Rousseau.” (273, p. 307). In a word, the question of Rousseau’s influence on Tolstoy and the ideological similarity of Rousseauism and Tolstoyism is covered in detail and causes almost no discrepancies in his assessment.

The situation is different with the problem of reflecting the ideas of Kant and Schopenhauer in Tolstoy’s works. An article was written about the influence of Kant’s ideas on Tolstoy’s worldview: G.R.Yan. Tolstoy and Kant. //New perspectives of Russian prose of the 19th century. Columbus, Ohio, 1982, pp.60-70. The author of the article believes that Tolstoy used in his artistic works such ideas of Kantian philosophy as “the conditioning of the nature of time by the vast cosmos” in “War and Peace” (Indicative work, p. 66), “the effect of the existence of man as a being moved not by the light of truth , but a natural being in "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" (ibid., p. 67). Ian's conclusion that the range of Kantian ideas - epistemological, metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic - considered through the prism of comprehending truth, can become "the key to completeness Tolstoy’s creativity, understood as a whole” (ibid., p. 68) is, unfortunately, justified only by references to Tolstoy’s artistic works, but is not supported by an analysis of his philosophical and religious works.

Among the sources covering the influence of Schopenhauer's ideas on Tolstoy, one can point to the work of X. O. Hellerer "The World of Language and the Growth of Life. The Influence of Schopenhauer and Tolstoy on the Logical-Philosophical Treatise of Ludwig Wittgenstein" (Munich, 1985). The work shows the ideological connection between Wittgenstein's abstract rationalistic approach to the world and Schopenhauer's concept of a priori world will and Tolstoy's synthetic doctrine of love. The similarity between the thinking of Schopenhauer and Tolstoy lies, according to the author, in their identical approach to the world and human culture - from the aspect of aesthetic content. Wittgenstein's thinking developed in approximately the same way.

The influence of the ideas of Eastern philosophy and religion on Tolstoy’s worldview is discussed in detail in the works of D. Milivojevich and A. Syrkin. D. Milivojevich in the article “Tolstoy’s Views on Buddhism” (Tolstoy studies Journal. Vol.III. New-York, p.62-75.) identifies four criteria for Tolstoy’s ideal religion, which he developed in the process of his spiritual evolution. The first criterion is the universality of general religious ethics, the second is the consonance of religion with the dictates of reason, the third is the vital-practical aspect of religion, the last, and most important, is the karmic law that connects the individual and the proper in the individual. (Op. cit., p. 63). The author believes that many Buddhist ideas were used by Tolstoy in his work: the idea of ​​the unity of all living things, the connection between the individual and the common in people’s lives, empathy for the unity of the individual and nature in early Buddhism and the rationalistic attitude towards the world in the late Tolstoy, which makes him similar to the mystical motives of the late Tolstoy. Buddhism. (Ibid., pp. 72-73).

A. Syrkin in his work “Descent to Ascend” (Jerusalem, 1993) uses the idea of ​​moral purification through the secularization of the individual, through the atonement of his sins by repentance and enlightenment, so characteristic of the Eastern mentality. The author emphasizes that the idea of ​​“departure”, characteristic of Buddhism and clearly visible in Tolstoy’s work, manifests itself in him as a “conscious “descent”, a decrease in one’s social and property status (begging, vagrancy), accompanied by self-abasement, the desire to “limit” oneself ". (Op. cit., p. 113).

The works of D. Bodd “Tolstoy and China” (London, 1950) and A. I. Shifman “Leo Tolstoy and the East” (Moscow, 1971) contain a lot of bibliographical and reference material: Tolstoy’s interest in China is explained by his religious crisis at the end of the 60s -x - 70s XIX century, and Tolstoy's frequent references to Indian, Buddhist sources - his desire to find the common foundations of a new, unified world religion. About this desire of Tolstoy, which originated in the days of his youth, see also M.F. Ovsyannikov (L.N. Tolstoy. // History of the philosophy of the peoples of the USSR. T.Z. M., 1968, p. 366). Tolstoy's philosophy of history is discussed in detail in the work of Ya.S. Lurie "After Leo Tolstoy" (St. Petersburg, 1993). According to the author, Tolstoy’s historical determinism brings his philosophy of history closer to Hegel’s dialectics, and the idea of ​​“homogeneous drives of people” leading to “satisfaction of their needs” - with historical materialism. However, the author accurately notes a characteristic feature of Tolstoy’s philosophy of history - its alienness to the superstition of the world order in people’s lives. Therefore, being convinced that “... one person or group of people is not capable of changing the world” (op. cit., p. 26), Tolstoy could not possibly agree with the Marxist thesis about the destruction of the world of violence.

I. Berlin in his work “The Hedgehog and the Fox” (New York, 1957) speaks of the duality of Tolstoy’s approach to history: on the one hand, the Russian writer was a monist, on the other, a pluralist. His monism was manifested in a constant desire to perceive the world and history through the prism of his “I”, and pluralism - in his beliefs and interpretations of his beliefs (op. cit., p. 12). Based on this, we can assume, in the opinion of this author, that the idea of ​​differentials of history, integrating into the general historical trend, is a kind of theoretical expression of this conviction of Tolstoy’s worldview.

The question of the inconsistency of Tolstoy's worldview, of the conflicts in his consciousness, is often touched upon in Tolstoy studies. You can read about this in the works of H.P. Fausset ("Tolstoy. Inner Drama". New York, 1968, pp. 16-17, 25), M. Brown ("Tolstoy. Literary Biography". Gottingen, 1978, p. .299, 304-305, 313-315, 345-351), R. Gustaffson ("Leo Tolstoy. Resident and Stranger. Stages of Fiction and Theology." Princeton, 1986, pp. 18,20,269,455).

The conflict between reason and feeling, the individual and society, nature and civilization, the personal “I” and the social environment in which it is located, or the “Not-I,” runs through Tolstoy’s entire work. It underlies both Tolstoy’s spiritual crisis and his moral and religious teachings.

S. Mittal speaks a lot about the origins of Tolstoy’s moral and religious teachings (“Tolstoy: Social and Political Ideas.” Delhi-Calcutta, 1966). The Russian writer is characterized by the author as a rationalist, which is confirmed by the religion he created, in which morality prevails without the theological and mystical doctrines of Christianity. Tolstoy’s question about the meaning of life comes down to the need to fulfill the law of human unity with everything that exists. Non-resistance is seen as a way of forming human brotherhood through conviction and peaceful thoughts.

In the programmatic article for the topic under study, Ludwig Stein “Tolstoy’s Place in the History of Philosophy” (Archive on the History of Philosophy. T. XXXII. PNU Notebook. Berlin, 1920, pp. 125-141) Tolstoy as a social reformer and religious prophet is called a unique phenomenon of “similar which we can hardly find among the greatest peaks of world literature11 (op. cit., p. 126).Highlighting two main types of thinkers in the history of philosophy - rationalists and artists - the author not only classifies Tolstoy as a poet-thinker, but also calls him their spiritual leader. On a par with Tolstoy are the Stoics, Rousseau, medieval mystics, the intuitionist Bergson, the neo-romantic G. Keyserling. In the end, Tolstoy’s closeness to nature, the metaphysical and figurative nature of his worldview direct his spiritual development to a unique philosophy of life, which originates in the old metaphysics of hylozoism. However, Tolstoy supported his philosophy with his life destiny, which earns respect for him. In general, according to the author, “Tolstoy represents a powerful cultural factor who led to the highest artistic and conceptual religious expression of one of the great tendencies of human thinking - the sensual demon of our nature" (ibid., p. 141).

When conducting a comparative analysis of the ideas of Tolstoy and representatives of world philosophical thought, the dissertation widely used the works of Russian religious philosophers, the works of Kant, Schopenhauer, Rousseau, Laozi, Confucius, Mo Di, Buddhist sources, as well as literature about them.

Purpose and objectives of the study. The purpose of the dissertation research is to meaningfully analyze the main stages in the evolution of Tolstoy’s worldview: the formation of his philosophical views, the formation of his moral and religious doctrine and preaching it to people of all continents.

More specifically, the dissertation student set the following tasks:

1. To identify the sources of formation of Tolstoy’s worldview, especially in the early period of his work, for which to provide an analysis of the writer’s early diaries.

2. Show the role of the ideas of J.-J. Rousseau in the formation of the spiritual foundations of Tolstoy’s personality.

3. Analyze the role of the natural and social environment - the external conditions that shaped the nationality and the desire for natural harmony of life as characteristic features of Tolstoy’s worldview.

4. Explore Tolstoy’s philosophy of history, which served as the methodological basis for both the writing of the novel “War and Peace” and the creation of his moral and religious doctrine.

5. Trace the influence of the philosophy of Kant and Schopenhauer on Tolstoy’s work and the development of his original worldview.

6. Trace the influence of philosophy and religion of the Ancient East on Tolstoy’s work.

7. Show the indirect influence of Russian religious philosophical thought on Tolstoy’s views in the last years of his life.

8. Provide an analysis and interpretation of Tolstoy’s main religious and philosophical ideas, based on the works created by the writer both during his moral and religious revolution and in the late period of his creativity.

9. Show the relationship between Tolstoy’s ideas about God, religion and morality, which served as a comprehensive theoretical basis for his teaching about love as a special harmonious synthesis of the existence of nature, society and man.

10. Consider and analyze the quintessence of Tolstoy’s worldview - his teaching on non-violence, show the multidimensional nature of this teaching.

11. Reveal the humanistic nature of Tolstoy’s utopian doctrine, its contribution to the treasury of world culture, its relevance for solving a number of problems in the political and spiritual life of both the Russian people and all of humanity.

Scientific novelty of the research and provisions submitted for defense. A significant amount of literature about Tolstoy presented the author with a difficult task: to find his own special approach to the analysis of Tolstoy’s work and try to identify the philosophical foundations and ideas in it. The author of the dissertation made an attempt to show Tolstoy not just as a religious prophet and preacher, but as a deep philosopher, who relied in his work on the entire wealth of world philosophical and religious thought. This allows the author to make a number of new assessments of Tolstoy’s work and determine the novelty of his research in the following provisions :

1. The periodization of Tolstoy’s creative development is determined and the sources of the formation of his worldview are considered.

2. Tolstoy’s creative evolution is shown as an integrative process, which was determined by the following main factors: the genetic inclinations of the individual, the social environment and world philosophical and religious thought.

3. For the first time, the influence of the ideas of Kant, Schopenhauer, Laozi, Confucius, Mo Di, and the basic ideas of Buddhism on Tolstoy’s worldview and all his work is shown in detail. As a result, the writer truly appears before us as a thinker who combined the richness of the Russian soul with a moral-religious, universally synthetic perception of life and human history.

4. Tolstoy’s thoughts about God as the source of spiritual unity of people and the objective nature of morality, which is based on the concept of love, are considered in the dissertation as the philosophical foundations of his teaching on non-violence.

5. The quintessence of Tolstoy's worldview - the doctrine of non-violence as the basic condition for the life of the human community - is analyzed as a complex multidimensional phenomenon. The philosophical and religious prerequisites of this teaching are revealed, its ontological origins, methodological foundations, moral meaning, political aspects and religious content of the idea of ​​​​non-violence are shown.

Main provisions submitted for defense:

1. Tolstoyism is a philosophical teaching about the world, society and man, in which the material and spiritual foundations of existence are united through the love of God into a harmonious system, or the highest Good.

This conclusion is supported by the interpretation of Tolstoy’s worldview as a religious version of the philosophy of life, which has its origins in the unity of man and nature, in the polymorphism of matter and spirit, in the universal nature of the moral teachings of world religions and great philosophers of the past. The philosophy of Leo Tolstoy can be otherwise called the philosophy of the One Life.

2. The doctrine of non-violence is a special case in Leo Tolstoy’s philosophy of Good. Love, as the highest good of life, and the path to this good are possible only in conditions of non-violence. .An integrated approach to the category of nonviolence makes it possible to identify not only its moral character, but also its ontological and methodological foundations, its religious and philosophical prerequisites, as well as its practical applicability in solving political problems.

3. Tolstoy’s morality, that is, the morality of non-violence and love, provides an example of the application of religious consciousness to people’s lives, which is based on a newly understood Christianity as a teaching about love and the moral improvement of man.

4. The evolution of Leo Tolstoy’s worldview went from the stage of formation, where ideas of nationality and a romantic perception of life prevailed, to the stage of a moral and religious revolution in his consciousness, when his transition from a mechanistic view of the world to a synthetic-harmonic one took place. The evolution of Tolstoy’s worldview ended with the stage of preaching his teachings, at which the Russian apostle of non-violence came to the idea of ​​the inevitability of humanity’s transition from life according to the laws of selfish morality to life according to the laws of altruistic morality.

5. Stages of formation and design of Tolstoy’s social. historical and philosophical views were influenced mainly by Western European thought. The ideas of Eastern philosophy helped Tolstoy form his religion of love, which reflected the generic essence of man, at the third stage of his spiritual evolution. At the preaching stage, Tolstoy's worldview was gradually transformed under the influence of both Western and Eastern philosophy and religion (and indirectly under the influence of the ideas of Russian religious philosophers) into a philosophy of active love - through an inevitable revolution in the moral consciousness of society.

6. The moral and religious teaching of Leo Tolstoy, by its nature, is a humanistic utopia, which has roots in the real contradictions of the world itself. Tolstoy's teaching does not protect escape from life, but its highest religious understanding - as life organized according to the laws of reason and love. Tolstoy's credo is the belief in love, not only as the highest value of existence, but also as a factor in the practical change of the world to its harmonious state, where Goodness, Truth and Beauty will reign.

Research methods and techniques. When writing the work, a specific historical approach was used in revealing the topic, due to the historical and philosophical nature of the research. The author took into account that the development of Tolstoy’s worldview went through a number of stages that do not have a strict time frame. This necessitated a combination of the historical method with the logical-analytical one, which makes it possible to deeply explore the essential content of various parts of the writer’s worldview - philosophical, religious, ethical.

Another main method of research is a comparative analysis of the concepts and problems of Tolstoy and world philosophical thought, which made it possible to compare in the historical and philosophical context the similarities and differences in the interpretation of a number of important ideological issues. The comparative and substantive analysis of the most important terms and ideas in Tolstoy’s worldview is also complemented by a synthetic approach, which allows us to comprehend them as a certain holistic system of views, which is understood in the dissertation as Tolstoy’s teachings.

In the dissertation, the author widely uses the system-structural approach both in creating classifications of Tolstoy’s problems and ideas, and in determining the main stages in the periodization of his work. This approach allows us to study Tolstoy’s philosophical worldview as an integrative and holistic phenomenon that received impulses in its systemic evolution from religious sources, and from moral value systems, and from the epistemological need to explain the world through the prism of sensory-rational, imaginative perception of it.

The dissertation author often used the technique of logical extrapolation of Tolstoy’s ideas to concepts and problems related to those being studied (for example, violence, the dichotomy of the world into a thing and an idea, the reasons for the emergence and evolution of religious faith, etc.). This made it possible to move away from the established traditional cliches in the interpretation of Tolstoy’s philosophy and evaluate his work taking into account the needs of today’s life.

Practical value of the work. The dissertation materials make a certain contribution to the philosophical study of Tolstoy’s heritage and can be used in the preparation and delivery of general and special lecture courses for undergraduate and graduate students on the history of philosophy, cultural history, literary history, literary studies, religious studies, and ethics. The main ideas of the dissertation can be used in research work when studying such issues as the characteristics and structure of religious consciousness, the causes and conditions for the formation of morality, the connection of literary creativity with its philosophical origins, ontological, psychological and methodological foundations of non-violence, the influence of religion and morality on the political consciousness and politics, etc.

Approbation of work. The main results of the study were presented by the author at seminars at the State Museum of Leo Tolstoy in 1991, at a scientific seminar at the Yasnaya Polyana State Museum-Reserve (January 1992), at the First International Philosophical Symposium "Dialogue of Civilizations: East - West" in Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (May 1992), at Lomonosov readings at Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov (March 1993), at the International Scientific Conference "The Long Path of Russian Peacekeeping" at the Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences (September 1992), at the All-Russian Conferences "Tolstoy and Ecology" (June 1994) and “Tolstoy and non-violence” (June 1995) at the Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, at the XXII Tolstoy Readings at the Tula State Pedagogical University named after L.N. Tolstoy (September 1995), at the scientific and methodological conference of humanitarian departments of MGIEM "Russia on the threshold of the 21st century (Methodological aspect: the study of modern processes. June 1,997)."

Work structure. The dissertation with a total volume of 369 pages consists of an introduction, three sections, ten chapters, thirty-five paragraphs, a conclusion and a list of references (291 titles) in Russian and foreign languages.

Tolstoy's teaching on non-violence cannot be understood as exclusively religious and moralizing. It has a complex nature, which is determined by the complex structure of existence itself.

The religious premises of the teaching are rooted in the ideological foundations of the largest religions. Non-action in Taoism, man's path to self-improvement in Buddhism, the merging of man with the spirit of the Universe in Hinduism, God's chosenness of the Jewish people in Judaism as a unique expression of the uniqueness of life, moral effort in Islam, love as a means of unifying people in Christianity express the archetypal nature of non-violence rooted in religious consciousness human initially. The philosophical sources of the doctrine of nonviolence can be called the ideas of Rousseau, Kant, Schopenhauer, Confucius, Mo Di, Plato’s doctrine of ideas, the Neoplatonists’ ideas about the One, Spinoza’s pantheism, etc.

The ontological basis for the principle of non-violence are three laws of nature: the law of balance in the evolution of natural systems, the law of systematicity in the structure of matter, the law of ectropion as a manifestation of one of the branches of development. In connection with this, Tolstoy’s ideological predecessor can be called, to some extent, Spencer, and indirect defenders of his teachings are A.A. Bogdanov and L. von Bertalanffy. The principle of the tendency of matter towards Novum. or the principle of nature searching for its new state through the flow of information from one system to another, also substantiates Tolstoy’s teaching.

Methodologically, non-violence, according to Tolstoy, can be established in society through people’s observance of certain rules: the basic commandments of Christ, the separation of the law of God and the law of man, the liberation of people from false faith, a person’s determination of his position in the world as tragic, the absorption of evil by good, the awareness of the impossibility live in conditions of violence.

The moral meaning of the idea of ​​non-violence lies in the need for people to move from the principles of “animal” morality, based on the selfishness of the individual, to the principles of reasonable morality, based on serving the race with the help of love.

The political aspect of the problem is expressed in Tolstoy’s idea of ​​non-participation in state violence against the individual, in the renunciation of violence not only to change morality, but also to change the entire structure of social relations.

In a religious sense, the teaching of non-violence is the elimination from the lives of people of false faiths, violent forms of ideology legitimized by customs and the state, persecution for faith, and the rejection of blind fetishism in the understanding of social and church hierarchy.

In general, Tolstoy's teaching on non-violence can be characterized as a humanistic religious utopia that promotes the spiritual unity of humanity.

CONCLUSION

Tolstoy's worldview, the core of which is the doctrine of non-violence as a principle of existence, developed gradually over decades. We can distinguish four main stages in the development of Tolstoy’s worldview.

1) The early stage of creativity, at which the formation of the writer’s worldview began (40s - 60s of the 19th century). This is the time of Tolstoy's early diaries, the creation of his first stories, the story "Cossacks". This stage is characterized by Tolstoy’s fascination with Rousseau’s philosophy, in which man was understood primarily as a natural being, consideration of social life as a complex and contradictory process of the clash of interests and wills of people, and an orientation toward the analysis of the inner world of the individual. The main feature of the works of this period is nationality and romantic pathos in the perception of life.

Three sources shaped Tolstoy’s soul and his worldview: innate inclinations, which included a natural desire for good and a desire for justice for all people; connection with the life of the people, the people's environment, which forms the basis of public life; nature and its laws.

2) The second stage of creativity (60-70s of the 19th century) is the stage at which the formation of Tolstoy’s worldview was completed. This is the time when the novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina” and other works were created. Then the writer, along with the person, was more interested in society with its problems and contradictions.

3) The third stage in the evolution of Tolstoy’s worldview is the time of a religious revolution in his consciousness (late 70s - 80s of the 19th century). During this period, Tolstoy carried out a lot of serious mental work; he subjected to a thorough analysis the sacred books of the main world religions - the Bible, Talmud, Buddhist works, the four Gospels were translated anew and interpreted differently, the “Dogmatic Theology” of the Orthodox theologian Macarius, the “Catechism” of the Moscow Metropolitan Philaret, etc. were critically examined. At the same time, “Confession”, “What is my faith?", "The Kingdom of God is within you", "So what should we do" and other works.

The moral and religious revolution in Tolstoy’s worldview did not occur suddenly, under the influence of spiritual insight or any social events, but was prepared by the previous development of the writer’s personality. The formation of Tolstoy's worldview and its main content - the doctrine of non-violence - was greatly influenced by the philosophy of the West and the Ancient East. In his youth, the works of Rousseau, Voltaire, Hume, Western historians Plutarch, Herder, Russian historians N.M. Karamzin, T.N. Granovsky, M.P. Pogodin awakened in Tolstoy a thirst for scientific research, paradoxical thinking, a critical attitude to reality, awareness human connection with all humanity. In his mature period of creativity, the works of Kant, Schopenhauer, ancient Chinese philosophers Laozi, Confucius, Mo Di and others helped the founder of the doctrine of nonviolence to develop his own approach to the moral world of man and its influence on social life.

The essence of the most moral and religious revolution in Tolstoy’s worldview can be briefly expressed in one phrase: it was a transition from an analytical-mechanistic view of the world to a synthetic-harmonic one. Tolstoy stopped understanding the world as heterogeneous chaos and began to understand it as harmonious wholeness. One, expressed by the word God. In ethics, this was a transition from an understanding of morality as the sphere of action of people with obsolete stereotypes of animal aspirations to morality as the sphere of action of rational beings. This meant a transition from the ethics of selfishness and evil to the ethics of Good, where the highest goal of man and society will not be personal gain, but the Good for all. In religion, this revolution meant a change in the Orthodox Christian worldview with its rule “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”, a new understanding of Christianity with its Gospel commandments and the idea of ​​love for all people - brothers among themselves and children before infinity, or God .

In socio-political views, this revolution meant a refusal to consider the state as a condition and guarantor of social unity and to consider it as an organ of violence and deception. Tolstoy began to interpret the Church as a harmful and conservative organization that imposes false faith on people and thereby carries out spiritual violence against them.

In general, the moral and religious revolution in Tolstoy’s worldview was prepared by the course of his philosophical and life development and reflected the complexity and contradictory nature of the spiritual atmosphere in Russia at the end of the 19th century. The contradictions between the owners and the proletariat, wealth and poverty, the enlightened minority and the dark downtrodden masses of the people, the social elite and the powerless crowd led to social ferment, which could not but express itself in the spiritual realm. Tolstoy's moral and religious protest was generated by the hopelessness of the lives of peasants and workers, the search for the meaning of life and the social ideal by the advanced intelligentsia, the desire of the people's spirit to take shape in a living, understandable and attractive ideal for the masses. According to Tolstoy, his philosophy of love and Christian ethics could fulfill these tasks.

4) the fourth stage in the development of Tolstoy’s worldview is the preaching stage,” the time of the final formation of Tolstoyism as a religious teaching and social movement (late 80s of the 19th century - 1910). During this period, Tolstoy, as if by inertia, created his works of art “Resurrection”, “Hadji Murat”, the artistic and aesthetic treatise “What is Art?”, and some short stories. But the main content of Tolstoy’s creative activity at this stage is expressed in his journalistic articles. This stage ended with the creation of the philosophical and encyclopedic works “The Circle of Reading” and “The Path of Life,” which summed up Tolstoy’s creative development and absorbed the wisdom of past centuries and Tolstoy’s own thoughts. They provide explanations of his philosophy of love and non-violence, and powerfully criticize the state and church as bodies of violence and coercion. Tolstoy's calls to those in power to stop violence as contrary to the nature of man and his divine essence are interspersed with appeals to revolutionaries to abandon violence in the struggle for power. This did not express the unprincipledness of Tolstoyism, but his reliance on reason as the highest motive in the behavior of any people - rich and poor, smart and not very smart, good and evil. Here lies the root of some of Tolstoy's misconceptions concerning the nature of the social ideal and the methods of its implementation.

What were the driving forces of Tolstoy’s spiritual evolution? Why did Tolstoy’s worldview cause and cause such controversial debates? In fact, if you approach Tolstoy from the standpoint of abstract metaphysics, then he is an eclectic. If we judge him as a politician, then he is an anarchist. In general, his philosophical concept is assessed as utopian. Tolstoy's teachings are characterized by fideism, mysticism, fatalism, pantheism, rigorism, idealism and elements of materialism, the dialectic of the plural and the unified and unsystematic nature, subjectivism and messianism, rationalism and solipsism, abstractness and at the same time an appeal to practice. This variety of features of Tolstoy's worldview was as rich and full of various nuances as life itself. The derogatory assessments of Tolstoy's teachings given to him at the beginning of the 20th century are unfair, if only because they did not take into account the main feature of Tolstoyism - the growth of its polyphony from the polymorphy of life itself.

The only correct approach to Tolstoy's teaching will be to consider it as a philosophy of the unity of life - natural and spiritual. The idea of ​​the universality of life in its diverse manifestations is present throughout Tolstoy’s work and constitutes the essence of his spiritual evolution. The first stage of the writer’s creative activity was influenced by Rousseau’s naturalism, the main thing in which was the idea of ​​natural life; The second stage was predetermined by Tolstoy's approach to history as a natural and necessary life process. At the third stage, during his spiritual revolution, Tolstoy in “Confession” raises the question of the meaning of life, then he writes a philosophical treatise “On Life”, where he formulates his understanding of the laws of life. Finally, at the fourth stage, the preaching stage, Tolstoy, both by his very established concept and by his spiritual evolution, shows what the Path of life is. This path for him is seen as a necessary striving from the particular to the general and unified, from the bodily to the spiritual, from enmity to non-violence, and from non-violence to love, from man to God. Thus, all of the above “isms” characteristic of Tolstoy’s creativity turn out to be only special cases in the general stream of life of Tolstoy’s creative genius. They are not essential for him, but are subordinated to the natural and elemental freedom of his life manifestation. *)

In Tolstoy's teachings on non-violence, the emphasis is on the spiritual insight of a person, on appealing to the conscience and reason of any individual, including those who commit violence. Tolstoy proceeds from the fact that changes in the social order are determined not by external factors - revolutions, wars, constitutions, science - but by internal ones, i.e. religion and morality. The social structure is determined by the state of religious consciousness, or the sum of rules and norms that express a person’s connection with God and with other people. As social progress progresses, the entire structure of people's lives changes, with its contradictions and disasters, the increasing danger of self-destruction of life, which also changes people's ideas about God. This necessarily calls for a change in religious guidelines, a change in the religious consciousness itself. The morality of non-violence thus grows both from the contradictions of social life and from religious consciousness.

Tolstoy's mistake is that he actually neglects the influence of the external environment on morality and limits himself mainly to ontological, moral, religious and political arguments in justifying the idea of ​​​​non-violence. All of them cover the sphere of consciousness, define a person as a rational being striving for Good. Man is subordinate in this striving to the highest law of life - the law of Love, the condition for the implementation of which is non-violence, i.e. a state of balance in relation to both love and Brazda. But man is also a physical, biological being, living in space and time. He fights for life by continuing his Confirmation of our point of view can be found in the works of L. Stein, I. Berlin. I.B. Mardov, V. Paporny. indicated in the bibliography. city, by harmonizing space and creating the material environment necessary for its life. This struggle is expressed in the desire for Beauty, which is also Good, like Love and Truth. The desire for Beauty expresses mainly the bodily and material needs of a person, which, as they are reasonably satisfied, consolidate the cause of Love in a person’s life. Tolstoy ignored this desire - for him, love and its condition, non-violence, are possible only through rational awareness, moral inevitability, spiritual insight. At the same time, Tolstoy does not notice that reason, morality, and spirit are not only autonomous, but also determined by the external environment of human existence. There is a gap between mind and feeling, body and soul, spirit and matter in human life, which turns Tolstoy’s ideal into an inferior one and gives it abstractness.

Tolstoy's contemporaries characterized his teaching as utopian. Now, a hundred years after Tolstoy’s religious, moral and political sermons, we can evaluate him somewhat differently. Tolstoyism is a philosophical teaching about the world, society and man, in which the material and spiritual foundations of existence are united through the love of God into a harmonious system, or the highest Good. The teaching of non-violence is a special case in this philosophy of Good, which shows a necessary condition for the realization of the good of love and the path to this good. Reasonable morality, or the morality of non-violence and love, is the practical application of religious consciousness to people's lives, which is based on a newly understood Christianity as a teaching about love and the moral improvement of man.

The utopianism of Tolstoyism is obvious, and it is determined by the abstractness of his ideals, the incompleteness of the approach to understanding the essence of human life, and the lack of effective means in implementing the doctrine. But this assessment of Tolstoyism is not enough - for what is utopia and what is its role in people's lives?

Utopia is an ideal model of a better future, which has its own natural and ideological prerequisites. The ontological roots of utopia lie in the objective possibilities found in all things and events of the world and in the anticipatory reflection of reality characteristic of living systems. Utopian is information wandering on the horizon of existence, which lies between the present and the future, which can be realized into a systematically organized and harmonious whole. First, ideal realization occurs, as a result of which we receive a utopian doctrine. Then, with a successful confluence of objective and subjective factors, material realization occurs - as a result, we have a project that seemed utopian to us, implemented in practice. Subjective factors should be understood as dreams, desires, hopes, goals and means for realizing the utopian. When the doctrine, or ideal model, is realized and materialized, people are able to test the effectiveness, usefulness and concreteness of the utopia in practice.

It should be taken into account that utopia should be considered in a broad aspect: as technical, geographical, cultural, moral, religious, social, political, etc. In this sense, the progress of society is possible only through the implementation of utopias, which means the victory of a new principle, a new form, a new type of connections, a new system. Thus, it can be observed that when utopias are realized, there is a movement of human thought and action from the abstract to the concrete, from idea to thing, from word to deed. Utopia can become, and in some cases becomes - history confirms this - a means of changing the world.

The novelty of Tolstoy's approach to the world lies in the fact that he views God as infinity and considers him the main category of being. Man transfers his highest value ideals - Good, Truth, Beauty - to the endless and omnipotent Beg. I believe. Hope. Love, giving them the status of necessary phenomena of existence and its laws. The union of finite humanity and God, personifying infinity, is possible in two ways: material and spiritual. The first way is the connection of a finite system with infinity through information, or signals. The second path is the movement of humanity towards God through the idea and, above all, through the idea of ​​​​the immortality of the human race, which puts man on the same level with God. Both paths mean a person’s connection with God, or a religious connection, as really existing and having the prerequisites for its strengthening in practice. Since a materialized connection with infinity is difficult to realize, Tolstoy gives preference to a spiritual connection realized with the help of rational love. Tolstoy's religious utopia, having received the instrument for its implementation, ceases to be an abstract dream and becomes a matter for man and humanity - a matter of affirming love in one's life. The call of the Apostle John “Love one another!” takes on a completely different meaning - a saving, reasonable and only possible meaning for people. As a result, Tolstoy’s statement about the effectiveness of religious consciousness in history is confirmed not only by past religious experience, but also by the very process of realizing utopias.

One can endlessly and from different sides criticize Tolstoyism for its abstractness, and for its utopianism, and for its lack of reliance on spiritual experience, and for its moralizing and rigorism. But in the end, for the sake of objectivity, it should be recognized that the global problems of humanity are the nuclear threat and the depletion of natural resources. environmental pollution, the growth of the world's population, interethnic contradictions, endless wars, the exploitation of people and their poverty, the alienation of the power of governments from the people they rule, put on the agenda the problem of its unification by non-violent means. Humanity has grown from an age when it was spontaneously guided in its existence by animal drives and uncontrolled spatial-mechanical expansion. The time has come for the formation of humanity as an integral entity, or the One, on a reasonable basis. This only confirms the correctness of Tolstoy’s prophecy about the unity of people in divine love and gives us the right to consider Tolstoyism as a humanistic utopia, making a significant contribution to the cultural treasury of humanity.

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227. Critical Essays on Tolstoy. / Ed. Edward Waslolek. Boston, Massachusetts: G.K.Hall Sc Co, 1986. - 200 p. - Selected1. Blbllogr. :p. 193-198.

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231. Dukmeyer F. Tolstoi, prophet oder Popenz. Berlin: Verlag von Eduard Hengel. E.r. - 38 s.

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234. Erster Jahrbuch der Schopenhauer Gesellschaft. Kiel: Druck und Verlag von Schmidt und Klaunlg, 1912. - 117 s.

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236. Fausset H. Tolstoy. The Inner drama. Reissued. New York: Russell and Russeil, 1968. - 320 p.

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250. Hamburger K. Tolstoi. Gestalt und Problem. Güttingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, 1963. - 174 s.

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253. Jahn J. Tolstoj and Kant. // New Perspectives on nineteenth-century Russian prose. Columbus. Ohio, 1982. -p.60-70.

254. Kapllnsky V. Tolstoj und Plato. Ein Deutungsversuch der Erzählung "Nabeg". // Zeltschrift fur Slavische Philologie. 1929. Band YI. Heft 1/2. s.43-56.

255. Knapp L. Tolstoy on musical mimesis: Platonic Aesthetics and Erotics in the "Kreutzer Sonata". // T.S.J, vol. iv. 1991. -p.25-42.

256. Krasnov G. Herder und Lev TolstoJ: Sonderdruck aus "Zeitschrift fur Slawistik". Band YI. Heft 3. Berlin, 1961. -433 s.

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261. Mann T. Goethe und Tolstoi. Zur Problem der Humanitat.

262. Berlin: Fischer. 1932. 152 s.

263. McLean H. Tolstoy and Jesus. // California Slavic studies 17.Vol.2. Christianity and the Eastern slavs. Russian culture in Modern Times.- Berkley; Los Angeles; London; Univ. of

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265. Milivojevic D. Tolstoj's views on Buddism // rolstoj studies journal. Vol. III. New York, 1990, - p. 62-75,

266. Mittal S. Tolstoy: social and political ideas, a.o. Meenakshi Prakashan, 1966. - 238 p. - Bubllogr.: p.224-231.

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