Conversation method. Types of conversation in psychology
Observation - the main empirical method of purposeful systematic study of a person. The observed does not know that he is the object of observation.
Observation is carried out using a special technique, which contains a description of the entire observation procedure:
a) selection of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed;
b) observation program: a list of those aspects, properties, features of the object that will be recorded;
c) a method of recording the information received.
When observing, a number of requirements must be met: the presence of an observation plan, a set of signs, indicators that must be recorded and assessed by the observer; preferably several expert observers whose assessments can be compared, building a hypothesis that explains the observed phenomena, testing the hypothesis in subsequent observations.
Based on observation, an expert assessment can be given. The results of observations are recorded in special protocols, certain indicators and signs are identified that should be identified during observation of the behavior of the subjects in accordance with the observation plan. Protocol data is subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing.
Observation has several options. External observation is a way of collecting data about a person's psychology and behavior by directly observing him from the outside. Internal observation, or self-observation, is used when a research psychologist sets himself the task of studying a phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly presented in his mind.
Free observation does not have a pre-established framework, program, or procedure for its implementation. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature during the Observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer.
The following types of observation are distinguished:: cross-section (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes over a number of years), selective and continuous, and a special type - participant observation (when the observer becomes a member of the study group).
Advantages of the method:
1. The wealth of information collected;
2. The naturalness of the operating conditions has been preserved;
3. It is acceptable to use a variety of technical means;
4. It is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subjects.
Flaws:
1. Subjectivity;
2. Inability to control the situation;
3. Significant time investment.
Method of introspection (introspection). The subject carefully observes the dynamics of the states he experiences at each stage of executing the instructions. The subject, who has undergone special training, describes how he feels when he finds himself in a particular situation.
Introspection has two disadvantages:
1. Extreme subjectivity, since each subject describes his own impressions or experiences, which very rarely coincide with the impressions of another subject;
2. The sensations of the same subject change over time.
Psychodiagnostic conversation as a method of obtaining information based on verbal communication.
One type of survey is a conversation. Conversation as a psychological method involves direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the subject of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified. Types of interviews: history taking, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires.
History ( lat. from memory) - information about the past of the person being studied, obtained from himself or - with an objective history - from people who know him well. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to obtain answers from the interviewee to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions. In this case, when questions and answers are presented in writing, a survey takes place.
Advantages and disadvantages of the conversation method.
Contents and plan of the conversation. A conversation is a widespread empirical method in psychology and pedagogical practice of obtaining information about a person in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. Responses are recorded either by tape recording or shorthand. A conversation is a subjective psychodiagnostic method, since a teacher or researcher subjectively evaluates the student’s answers and behavior, while influencing the student with his behavior, facial expressions, gestures, and questions, determining one or another degree of openness and trust-mistrust of the subject.
Organizing the conversation. There are a number of requirements for conversation as a method. The first is ease. You can't turn the conversation into a question. A conversation brings the greatest results when the researcher establishes personal contact with the person being examined. It is important to carefully think through the conversation, present it in the form of a specific plan, tasks, problems to be clarified. The conversation method involves, along with answers, asking questions by the subjects. Such a two-way conversation provides more information on the problem under study than just the subjects’ answers to the questions posed.
Types of tests and types of tasks in tests. Test (from English - sample, test, check) - standardized technique psychological dimension and diagnostics of the severity of mental and behavioral properties and personality states. A test is a standardized, often time-limited, test designed to establish comparable quantitative and qualitative individual psychological differences.
By standardization we mean that these techniques must be applied in the same way at all times, from the situation and instructions given to the subject, to the way the data is calculated and interpreted. Comparability means that test scores can be compared with each other regardless of where, when, how, or by whom they were obtained. Of course, if the test was applied correctly. In psychodiagnostics, there are various classifications of tests.
They can be divided:
According to the characteristics of the test tasks used for verbal tests and non-verbal (practical) tests;
According to the forms of the examination procedure - group and individual tests;
By focus: intelligence tests, personality tests, special ability tests, achievement tests, creativity tests;
Depending on the presence or absence of time restrictions - speed tests and performance tests;
According to the method of implementation - blank, manipulative, hardware, computer, situational-behavioral;
On psychometric grounds, tests are divided into those based on individual difference scales and criterion-referenced tests;
According to the purpose of application, school readiness tests, clinical tests, vocational selection tests and others are distinguished. - by composition - monometric and complex (test batteries).
Criteria-Based Tests (KORT) are intended to determine the level of individual achievements relative to some criterion based on a logical-functional analysis of the content of tasks. Specific knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the successful completion of a particular task are usually considered as a criterion (or objective standard). The criterion is the presence or absence of knowledge. This is the main difference between CORT and traditional psychometric tests, in which assessment is carried out on the basis of correlating individual results with group results (orientation to the statistical norm). An essential feature of CORT is that in them individual differences are reduced to a minimum (individual differences affect the duration of assimilation, and not the final result).
Speed tests - a type of diagnostic techniques in which the main indicator of test subjects’ work productivity is the time to complete (volume) of test tasks. Typical speed tests usually include a large number of similar tasks (items). The volume of material is selected in such a way that in the allotted time (constant for all subjects) not one of the subjects has time to cope with all the tasks. Then the indicator of productivity will be the number of correctly completed tasks. Example: proofreading test, intelligence tests. An indicator of the effectiveness of performing speed tests can also be a direct measurement of the task completion time (Schulte table).
Performance tests are focused on measuring or ascertaining the result achieved by the test subject when performing a test task. The speed of work is not taken into account or is of secondary importance. A time limit may apply but serves the purpose of standardizing the study or to save time. These are most personal techniques, questionnaires, projective tests, questionnaires.
Verbal tests . In them, the material of test tasks is presented in verbal form. This implies that the main content of the subject’s work is operations with concepts, mental actions in verbal and logical form. Verbal tests are often aimed at measuring the ability to understand verbal instructions, skills in operating grammatical language forms, and mastery of writing and reading.
Tests reflecting verbal factors of intelligence most closely correlate with the criteria of general culture, awareness, and academic performance. The results of verbal tests are very sensitive to differences in the linguistic culture of the subjects, level of education, and professional characteristics. Difficulties arise in adapting verbal tests to the conditions of examining subjects of a different nationality.
Nonverbal tests (practical). In them, the material of test tasks is represented by non-verbal tasks. Nonverbal tests reduce the influence of language and cultural differences on the examination result. Completing the task in a non-verbal form also distinguishes the examination procedure for subjects with speech and hearing impairments, as well as persons without education. Practical tasks turned out to be convenient when conducting mass test studies.
Blank tests (they used to be called "pencil and paper tests"). The use of forms is common in almost all types of test methods. The subject is offered a special survey form, brochure, questionnaire, etc., which contains instructions and examples of solutions, work assignments and a form for recording answers.
Advantages: simplicity of examination technique, no need for special equipment. In subject tests, the material of test tasks is presented in the form of real objects: cubes, cards, parts geometric shapes, structures and units technical devices and so on. The most famous are Koos cubes, test complex figures from the Wechsler set, Vygotsky-Sakharov test. Subject tests are mostly administered individually. Hardware tests require the use of special equipment to conduct research and record the data obtained.
Used to assess psychophysiological properties, study reaction time, typological features nervous system, to study the characteristics of perception, memory, thinking. The advantages of hardware tests include higher accuracy and objectivity of examination results, and the ability to automate the collection of primary data. The disadvantages are the high cost of the necessary equipment and the complexity of technical support for a psychodiagnostic laboratory. In most cases, hardware tests are carried out individually.
Computer tests - an automated type of testing in the form of a dialogue between the subject and the computer. Test tasks are presented on the display screen, and the test subject enters answers from the keyboard; The examination protocol is immediately created as a data set on magnetic media. Standard statistical packages make it possible to very quickly carry out mathematical and statistical processing of the results obtained in different directions.
If desired, you can obtain information in the form of graphs, tables, diagrams, profiles. Using a computer, you can obtain an analysis of data that is almost impossible to obtain without it: the time it takes to complete test tasks, the time it takes to obtain correct answers, the number of refusals to make a decision and seeking help, the time spent by the test taker thinking about an answer when refusing a decision; time to enter the answer /if it is complex/, etc. These features of the test subjects are used for in-depth psychological analysis during the testing process.
Individual tests - interaction between the experimenter and the subject occurs one on one.
Advantages: the ability to observe the subject (facial expressions, involuntary reactions), hear and record statements not provided for in the instructions, record functional states.
Used in working with infants and children preschool age, in clinical psychology - testing of persons with somatic or neuropsychic disorders, people with physical disabilities, etc. As a rule, it requires a lot of time and a high level of qualification of the experimenter. Group tests allow you to simultaneously examine a group of subjects (up to several hundred people). (This is not a socio-psychological diagnosis.)
Advantages:
Mass character;
Speed of data collection;
The instructions and procedure are quite simple and the experimenter does not require high qualifications;
The uniformity of the experimental conditions is observed to a greater extent; - processing of results is usually more objective, often on a computer.
Flaws:
Limiting the possibility of observation;
There is less opportunity to achieve mutual understanding with the subject, to interest him, to secure cooperation - undetected illnesses, fatigue, anxiety, anxiety can affect the completion of the task.
Intelligence tests. Refers to general ability tests. Designed to measure the level of intellectual development (mental potential). Manifestations of intelligence are diverse, but they have something in common that allows them to be distinguished from other behavioral features. This commonality is the activation in any intellectual act of thinking, memory, imagination, all those mental functions, which provide knowledge of the surrounding world. Accordingly, intelligence as an object of measurement is understood as those human characteristics that are related to cognitive properties.
This is reflected in numerous tests to assess various intellectual functions (tests of logical thinking, semantic and associative memory, arithmetic, spatial visualization, etc.). These tests are quite clearly separated from other methods for measuring individual psychological characteristics - personality tests aimed at measuring behavior in certain social situations, interests and emotions of an individual.
In most intelligence tests, the test taker is asked on a special form to establish the logical relationships of classification, analogy, generalization, and others specified by the instructions between the terms and concepts from which the test tasks are composed. He communicates his decisions either in writing or by marking one of several options available on the form. The success of the test subject is determined by the number of correctly completed tasks, and the IQ is calculated from this number.
The success of the test subject is related to the fact (by G. Eysenck ):
To what extent in his previous experience has he mastered the terms and concepts from which the test tasks are constructed;
To what extent have they mastered exactly those mental actions that are necessary to solve test problems;
And can he arbitrarily actualize these actions;
To what extent are the mental stereotypes developed by the subject in his past experience suitable for solving test problems?
Thus, the test results reveal not the mental potential of the test subject, but rather those features of his past experience and training that inevitably affect his work on the test. This circumstance served as the basis for calling the results obtained when using intelligence tests “test” or “psychometric” intelligence.
Tests of special abilities, creativity, personality.
Achievement Tests - assessment of the achieved level of development of abilities, skills and knowledge. Unlike intelligence tests, which reflect the influence of accumulated experience and general abilities, achievement tests measure the influence of special educational programs, professional and other training on the effectiveness of teaching a particular set of knowledge and the formation of various special skills. Thus, achievement tests are aimed at assessing a person's achievements after completion of training. Achievement tests used in school psychodiagnostics have noticeable advantages compared to the existing assessment of student performance.
Their indicators are focused on measuring uptake key concepts, themes and elements curriculum rather than a specific body of knowledge, as is the case with traditional school assessment. Achievement tests, thanks to a standardized form of assessment, make it possible to correlate the student’s level of achievement in the subject as a whole and in its individual essential elements with similar indicators in the class or in any other sample of subjects. This assessment is more objective and less time consuming (as it is often a group test) than traditional school assessments.
They cover a larger number of topics. Tests provide an opportunity for an unambiguous objective assessment of the student, while exams do not provide such an assessment. For example, in 1994 in Moscow, out of 50,000 graduates, 110 received gold medals, and in Novosibirsk, out of 8,000, 55 graduates received gold medals. Ratio 1:4.
Creativity test - techniques designed to study and evaluate the creative abilities of an individual. Creativity is the ability to produce new ideas and find unconventional ways to solve problematic problems. Factors of creativity - fluency, clarity, flexibility of thinking, sensitivity to problems, originality, inventiveness, constructiveness in solving them, etc. If solving creativity tests can be taken as one of the evidence of the presence of creative abilities in a person, then not solving them is not proof of the absence such.
The most famous tests for measuring the cognitive aspect of creativity were developed by Joe Guilford and his colleagues (1959) and Paul Torrance (1962). In domestic research, based on identifying a unit of measurement of creative abilities called “intellectual initiative,” an original “creative field” methodology has been developed. D.B. Epiphany (1983).
Special ability tests - techniques designed to measure the level of development of certain aspects of intelligence and psychomotor functions, primarily ensuring effectiveness in specific, fairly narrow areas of activity. Unlike intelligence tests, which are aimed at broad areas of activity, special ability tests are aimed at specific areas of activity and often serve as a supplement to intelligence tests.
They emerged for the purpose of professional selection and career guidance abroad. In foreign psychodiagnostics, the following groups of ability tests are distinguished: sensory, motor, technical (mechanical) and professional (counting, musical, reading speed and reading comprehension, etc.). Complex batteries of abilities are most widespread abroad.
Advantages and disadvantages of the test method.
The tests consist of a series of tasks with a choice of ready-made answer options. When calculating test scores, the selected answers receive an unambiguous quantitative interpretation and are summed up. The total score is compared with quantitative test norms, and after this comparison, standard diagnostic conclusions are formulated.
The popularity of the test method is explained by the following main advantages (below, traditional oral and written exams are taken as a comparison):
1. Standardization of conditions and results. Test methods are relatively independent of the qualifications of the user (performer), for whose role even a laboratory assistant with secondary education can be trained. This, however, does not mean that in order to prepare a comprehensive conclusion on a battery of tests it is not necessary to involve qualified specialist with a full-fledged higher psychological education.
2. Efficiency and efficiency. A typical test consists of a series of short tasks, each of which usually takes no more than half a minute to complete, and the entire test usually takes no more than an hour (in school practice this is one lesson); A group of subjects is tested simultaneously, thus saving significant time (man-hours) on data collection.
3. Quantitative differentiated nature of the assessment. The granularity of the scale and the standardization of the test allows us to consider it as a “measuring instrument” that gives a quantitative assessment of the properties being measured (knowledge, skills in a given area). In addition, the quantitative nature of the test results makes it possible to apply in the case of tests a well-developed psychometric apparatus, which makes it possible to assess how well a given test works on a given sample of subjects under given conditions.
4. Optimal difficulty. A professionally done test consists of tasks of optimal difficulty. In this case, the average subject gains approximately 50 percent of the maximum possible quantity points. This is achieved through preliminary tests - a psychometric experiment. If during the test it becomes known that approximately half of the examined contingent can cope with the task, then such a task is considered successful and is left in the test.
5. Reliability. This is perhaps the most important advantage of the tests. The “lottery” nature of modern exams with the drawing of “lucky” or “unlucky” tickets is known to everyone. The lottery for the examinee here results in low reliability for the examiner - the answer to one fragment of the curriculum, as a rule, is not indicative of the level of mastery of the entire material. In contrast, any well-constructed test covers the main sections of the curriculum (the area of knowledge being tested or the manifestations of some skill or ability). As a result, the opportunity for “tail-leaders” to become excellent students, and for an excellent student to suddenly “fail,” is sharply reduced.
6. The most important social consequence of the above advantages of the test method is fairness. It should be understood as protection from examiner bias. Good test puts all subjects on equal terms.
7. Possibility of computerization. In this case, this is not just an additional convenience that reduces the human labor of qualified performers during a mass examination. As a result of computerization, all testing parameters are improved. It is possible to ensure information security. It is possible to create a “bank of test tasks”, which can technically prevent abuse by unscrupulous examiners. The choice of tasks offered to a particular subject can be made from such a bank by the computer program directly during testing, and presenting a given test subject with a certain task in this case is as much a surprise for the examiner as for the subject.
8. Psychological adequacy. This is the most important psychological consequence of optimal complexity. Presence in the test (compared to traditional exam options) a larger number of short tasks of average difficulty gives many subjects (especially anxious, unconfident ones) a chance to believe in themselves, to activate psychologically optimal installation"to overcome." When such a subject remains face to face with one or two very complex and large tasks and does not see how he can cope with them at all, then he loses heart and does not reveal all his capabilities.
And if there are a lot of tasks and some of them clearly begin to “give in” (the test subject is confident that he can cope with them), the person during the testing process becomes encouraged and begins to “fight” for the maximum result. The property of optimal complexity not only provides the measuring (discriminating) power of the test, but also ensures optimal psychological attitude subjects. A test situation of optimal complexity is an optimal stimulus - people experience a normal level of stress (tension) necessary in order to show the highest result. A lack of stress (in the case of an easy test), and even more so an excess (in the case of a difficult one), distort the measurement results.
Disadvantages of testing:
1. The danger of “blind”, automatic errors. The blind faith of unqualified performers that the test should work correctly automatically sometimes gives rise to errors and incidents: the test subject did not understand the instructions and began to answer in a completely different way than required by the standards of the instructions, the test subject for some reason used distorting tactics, a “shift” occurred in the application stencils-key to the answer form (for manual, non-computer scoring), etc.
2. The danger of profanity. The apparent ease of conducting tests attracts people who do not want to get seriously acquainted with psychodiagnostics.
3. Loss of an individual approach, “stressiness”. The test is for everyone. It is quite possible to miss the unique individuality of a non-standard person (especially a child). The test subjects themselves feel this, and it makes them nervous - especially in the situation of certification testing. People with reduced resistance to stress even experience a certain violation of self-regulation - they begin to worry and make mistakes in basic questions for themselves.
4. Loss of an individual approach, “reproduction”. Knowledge tests are designed to identify ready-made, standard knowledge. Most tests are not aimed at creative, constructive activities.
5. Lack of trust. The testing procedure can give the test subject the impression that the psychologist has little interest in him personally, in his problems and difficulties. Dialogical methods in this regard have an undoubted advantage.
6. Inadequate complexity. Sometimes unskilled “testologists” impose tests on a child that are too difficult for his or her age. He has not yet developed the necessary concepts and conceptual skills to adequately comprehend both the general instructions for the test and the meaning of individual questions.
Tests cannot be made the only comprehensive method of any diagnosis; they require the parallel use of other diagnostic methods. The best guarantee against profanity and profanity is a serious and qualified interest in what experimental and scientific work the test developers have done, how fully this work and its results are reflected in the accompanying documentation. These are, first of all, issues of reliability, validity and representativeness.
Questionnaires as a standardized self-report.
Questionnaires are large group techniques, the tasks of which are presented in the form of questions or statements, and the task of the subject is to independently report some information about himself in the form of answers. The theoretical basis of this method can be considered introspectionism - the psychology of introspection. The questionnaire method was initially considered as a type of self-observation. But given the given answer options, this self-observation, which is given a standardized character, in many formal characteristics comes close to objective testing.
A research instrument that asks respondents to answer a variety of written questions. A group of psychodiagnostic techniques in which tasks are presented in the form of questions and statements. Designed to obtain data from the words of the subject (standardized self-report).
Types of questionnaires.
A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, but requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, a lot of time to conduct the research. The responses of subjects obtained during an oral survey depend significantly on both the personality of the person conducting the survey and on individual characteristics who is answering the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the interview situation.
A written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that when using a questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account in advance the reactions of the respondent to the content of its questions and, based on this, change them. A free survey is a type of oral or written survey in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly change research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them.
Personality questionnaires.
Standardized questionnaires, with the help of which the degree of expression of the subjects’ personality traits or other personality characteristics is clearly and quantitatively assessed. As a rule, there are no “right” or “wrong” answers in personality questionnaires. They only reflect the degree of agreement or disagreement of the subject with a particular statement. Based on the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into questionnaires with prescribed answers (closed questionnaires) and with free answers (open questionnaires).
In closed questionnaires, options for answering the question are provided in advance. The test taker must choose one of them. The most common is a two- or three-alternative answer choice (for example: “yes, no”; “yes, no, I find it difficult to answer”). The advantage of closed questions is the simplicity of the registration and data processing procedure, the clear formalization of assessment, which is important for mass surveys. At the same time, this form of response “coarsens” the information. Often, subjects have difficulties when it is necessary to make a categorical decision.
Open questionnaires allow for free responses without any special restrictions. Subjects give answers at their own discretion. Standardization of processing is achieved by assigning random responses to standard categories. Advantages: obtaining detailed information about the subject; conducting a qualitative analysis of responses. Disadvantages: difficulty in formalizing answers and their assessments; difficulties in interpreting the results; the procedure is cumbersome and time consuming.
Personality Trait Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality traits. Directly observable personality traits act as the source material for constructing questionnaires. In contrast to the construction of typological questionnaires, this approach requires the grouping of personality traits and those not surveyed. In personality trait questionnaires, diagnosis is carried out gradually in the severity of traits. Example: (16 personality factors) - Cattell questionnaire, USC.
Typological questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires developed on the basis of identifying personality types as integral entities that cannot be reduced to a set of traits (or factors). This approach requires grouping the subjects themselves, and not their personal characteristics. In typological questionnaires, diagnosis is carried out on the basis of comparison with the corresponding /average/ personality type. Example: G. Eysenck, MMPI.
Motive Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires designed to diagnose the motivational-need sphere of the individual, which makes it possible to establish what a person’s activity is aimed at (motives as the reasons that determine the choice of direction of behavior) and how the dynamics of behavior are regulated.
Interest Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure interests and the choice of professional activity. Interest questionnaires, depending on the saturation of personal indicators, can be classified as both personal questionnaires and questionnaires.
Values Questionnaires - a group of personality questionnaires designed to measure values and value orientations personality. Values are formed in the process of assimilation of social experience and are found in interests, attitudes and other manifestations of personality.
Attitude Questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to measure a person’s relative orientation in a one-dimensional continuum of attitudes.
Biographical questionnaires - a group of questionnaires to obtain data about a person’s life history. Most often, questions relate to age, health, marital status, level and nature of education, special skills, career advancement and other relatively objective indicators. They help gather the information needed to reliably interpret test scores.
Question forms: open and closed (dichotomous and alternative). Forms for presenting results. Ways to increase the reliability of questionnaires (multiple duplication of questions, introduction of a “lie scale”, abandonment of direct questions, etc.).
Specifics of the questionnaire survey. Questioning is an empirical method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions that make up a questionnaire. Preparing the questionnaire requires professionalism. Questioning can be oral, written, individual, or group. The survey material is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.
Questionnaires are used to obtain any information about a person that is not directly related to his psychological and personal characteristics. They require a strictly fixed order, content and form of questions, and a clear indication of the form of answers. Questionnaire surveys are classified according to the content and design of questions (open, closed, semi-open). Respondent is a person answering questions in a questionnaire or interview.
Features of interviewing. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to obtain answers from the interviewee to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions.
Conversation method is a dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies psychological characteristics another is called the conversation method.
Conversation- a method of studying human behavior specific to psychology, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and object of research is impossible. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. It is enough to name Piaget and the representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists.
"Usually very important for successful conversation development has the very beginning of a conversation . His first phrases can arouse either interest and a desire to enter into a dialogue with the researcher, or, conversely, a desire to evade him. For supporting good contact With the interlocutor, the researcher is recommended to demonstrate his interest in his personality, in his problems, in his opinions. But one should refrain from open agreement, much less disagreement, with the respondent’s opinion.
The specificity of psychological conversation, in contrast to everyday conversation, is inequality of interlocutors' positions. The psychologist here usually acts as the proactive party. , it is he who directs the topic of conversation and asks questions. His partner usually acts as the answerer to these questions.
Another important feature of psychological conversation is due to the fact that society has developed an attitude towards the psychologist as a specialist in the human soul and human relations. His conversation partners are often determined to receive immediate solutions to their problems, expect advice on behavior in everyday life and unambiguous answers to questions of spiritual life, including questions from the “eternal” category. And the psychologist leading the conversation must correspond to this system of expectations. He must be sociable, tactful, tolerant, emotionally sensitive and responsive, observant and reflexive, well erudite on a wide range of issues and, of course, must have deep psychological knowledge.
It is very important both when conducting a conversation and when interpreting it to take into account that some types of remarks can disrupt the flow of communication until its termination. Sometimes such remarks are called communication barriers . These include:
1) order, instruction (for example, “speak more clearly!”, “repeat!”);
2) warning, threat (“you will regret this”);
3) promise – trade (“calm down, I’ll listen to you”);
4) teaching, moralizing (“this is wrong”, “you should do this”, “in our time they did this”);
6) disagreement, condemnation, accusation (“you acted stupidly,” “you are mistaken,” “I can’t argue with you anymore”);
7) agreement, praise (“I think you’re right”, “I’m proud of you”);
8) humiliation (“oh, you’re all the same,” “well, Mr. Know-It-All?”);
9) abuse (“scoundrel, you ruined everything!”);
10) interpretation (“you yourself don’t believe in what you say”, “now it’s clear why you did this”);
11) reassurance, consolation (“everyone is wrong”, “I’m upset about this too”);
12) interrogation (“what do you intend to do?”, “Who told you this?”);
13) avoiding the problem, distraction, laughing it off (“let’s talk about something else,” “get it out of your head,” “ha-ha, it’s not serious!”).
Such remarks often disrupt the interlocutor’s train of thought, confuse him, force him to resort to defense, and can cause irritation and even indignation. Of course, reactions to these “barriers” are situational, and advice should not necessarily cause irritation, much less praise – indignation. But such negative reactions for communication are possible, and it is the responsibility of the psychologist to reduce the likelihood of their occurrence in a conversation to a minimum.”
"The conversation includes:
Additional method in the experimental structure at the first stage - the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc.;
- on last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview.
Types of conversation
Researchers distinguish:
Clinical talk
Clinical conversation, component“clinical method” is not necessarily carried out with a clinic patient. This term is attached to the method of studying a holistic personality, in which, during a dialogue with the subject, the researcher strives to get the most complete information about his individual and personal characteristics, life path, the content of his consciousness and subconscious, etc. The clinical conversation is most often carried out in a specially equipped room. It is often included in the context of psychological consultation or psychological training.
During the conversation, the researcher puts forward and tests hypotheses about the characteristics and causes of individual behavior. To test these particular hypotheses, he can give the subject assignments, tests. Then the clinical conversation turns into clinical experiment .
The data obtained during the clinical conversation is recorded the experimenter himself, or better yet, an assistant or researcher who records information after the conversation from memory. Both methods of recording information have their own disadvantages. If the recording is made during a conversation, the trusting contact with the interlocutor may be broken. In these cases, hidden audio and video recording helps, but this raises ethical problems. Recording from memory leads to the loss of some information due to incompleteness and memorization errors caused by fluctuations in attention, interference and other reasons. Some information is lost or distorted due to the fact that the researcher can evaluate some of the subject’s messages as more significant, while neglecting others. If the conversation is recorded manually, then it is advisable to encode the speech information.
From the history of the conversation method. Conversation is one of the survey methods for studying personality in psychology. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. Among them are J. Piaget and representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of “deep” psychology.
The historical background of conversation should be sought in the dialogues of Socrates and the Sophists, where the forms of conversation were related to the various positions that the participants were required to take and the goals that the conversation could pursue. The main goal of sophistic dialogue is conversation as such; The task of the questioner is to force the answerer to contradict himself, and the task of the answerer is to avoid this trap at all costs. The main goal in Socrates' conversation is the search and discovery of truth, the essence of things. The respondent’s task was to, starting from an intuitive idea of some quality or virtue, give its verbal definition as a concept. The questioner’s task was to lead the interlocutor on the path of revealing those concepts that the definer knows, but so vaguely that he is not able to give them an exact definition.
The creation of scientific psychology in the mid-19th century began with the development of research methods on the basis of which a scientific theory could be built: experiment, comparative method, as well as survey methods, which included questionnaires and conversation (interviewing). The source of these methods was the parallel development of sociology and the practice of mass population surveys. At this time, questionnaires began to be used very widely in psychological research. F. Galton was one of the first to use it to study the mental abilities and conditions of development of scientists; a little later, A. Binet developed a questionnaire to study the intelligence of children; S. Hall actively used the questionnaire method within the framework of genetic psychology. Currently, the conversation method has gained recognition and widespread use thanks to Carl Rogers, who proposed a “client-centered” approach to therapy. Within the framework of this approach, the conditions for successful therapeutic conversation are most fully considered.
Psychological characteristics of the conversation. Conversation is a method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication. Conversation as a method of psychological research can be used independently, or can be used as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage (collection of primary information about the subject, instruction, motivation, etc.), and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview, or supplement observation results. The use of this method has age restrictions. They are associated with the characteristics of the age of children: up to a certain age, a child cannot always give a verbal account of his experiences, feelings, or explain his preferences and actions. The ability for non-situational-personal communication with an adult appears in a child only in the middle of preschool age; During the conversation, the subject may consciously or unconsciously distort true information, and therefore the importance of non-verbal means of communication increases, the interpretation of which imposes additional requirements on the qualifications of the researcher, his skill and professional maturity.
Object conversation is a person; subject can become a variety of mental phenomena, relationships and aspects of human life. Depending on the specific goals, the subject of conversation may include:
Individual psychological properties of a person (features of the cognitive sphere; abilities; character);
Features of the motivational sphere (needs, interests, inclinations);
System of social relations of the individual;
Self-awareness (I-concept, self-esteem, self-attitude);
The semantic sphere of the personality (values, meanings, existential problems), etc.
The general direction of the conversation depends on the goals and objectives of the specific study. Conversation can act as diagnostic tool, the main function of which is to obtain the richest, most complete, and correct information possible. The conversation can also be viewed as psychotherapeutic tool. In this case, this method is a means of verbalization, comprehension, awareness, transformation of individual experience, its main function is to help the client in the processes of self-change and personal growth.
Types of conversation. One of the main criteria for classifying a conversation as a certain type is the features of a pre-prepared plan (program and strategy) and the nature of standardization of the conversation, i.e. tactics. Under program And strategy imply a set of semantic themes compiled by a psychologist in accordance with the goals and objectives of the conversation and the sequence of movement between them. The higher the degree of standardization of the conversation, the more strict, defined and unchangeable the set and form of the psychologist’s questions in it, that is, the more rigid and limited his tactics are. Standardization of the conversation also means the fact that the initiative in it moves to the side of the psychologist asking the questions.
A fully controlled conversation presupposes a rigid program, strategy and tactics, while a practically free conversation presupposes the absence of a pre-formulated program and the presence of an initiative position in the conversation by the person with whom it is being conducted. In addition to the types presented, there are the following main types of conversation (see Table 1).
Some researchers, within the framework of the conversation method, distinguish clinical conversation. The term “clinical conversation” is assigned to a method of studying a holistic personality, in which, during a dialogue with the subject, the researcher seeks to obtain the most complete information about his individual personality characteristics, life path, the content of his consciousness and subconscious. The clinical conversation is most often carried out in a specially equipped room. It is often included in the context of psychological consultation or psychological training.
She gave a special place to clinical conversation in her work. B.V. Zeigarnik. Clinical conversation can be considered in a broad sense of the word, because “this is not a conversation of a doctor, this is a conversation of an experimental psychologist with a mentally ill person, with a somatically ill person, with a person who is sick and is in a hospital or coming to a dispensary.” “There is no conversation at all. The conversation is always carried out on the basis of many indicators, conditions, parameters that you received from the doctor with whom you spoke, from the medical history. But this does not mean that the conversation should concern the symptoms of the disease, the disease itself... The conversation should be conducted depending on the problems that are facing practical pathopsychologist... The nature of our questions, our conversation, should depend on how the patient relates to the whole situation of the conversation. Whether he came in gloomy or cheerful, or with an open soul.”
Table 1. Psychological characteristics of conversation types
|
Conversation type |
Main features and possibility of use |
Advantages |
Disadvantages |
|
Standardized |
Tough program, strategy and tactics. They are used if the psychologist has already established cooperation with the interlocutor, the problem under study is simple and partial in nature. |
Allows comparison different people; These types of interviews are more flexible in timing, can draw on the psychologist's less clinical experience, and limit unintended exposure to the subject. |
They seem to be a not entirely natural procedure, they constrain spontaneity and call into action protective mechanisms. |
|
Partially standardized |
Rigid program and strategy, tactics much more free. They are used if the psychologist has already established cooperation with the interlocutor, the problem under study is relatively simple and is partial in nature. | ||
|
Free |
The program and strategy are not defined in advance, or are defined only in basic terms; tactics are completely free. It is used by a psychologist in case of sufficiently long communication with the interlocutor; it can be used in psychotherapeutic process. |
Focused on a specific interlocutor. It allows you to receive a lot of data not only directly, but also indirectly, maintain contact with your interlocutor, has a strong psychotherapeutic content, and ensures high spontaneity in the manifestation of significant signs. It is characterized by high demands on the professional maturity and level of the psychologist and his experience. |
Limitations in application regarding the professional maturity and competence of the psychologist. |
It is also necessary to take into account the attitude towards this experimenter (age, professional maturity and competence of the psychologist). “A clinical conversation cannot be schematic; it is impossible to construct a diagram of this conversation. You can construct the scheme negatively: you should not ask the patient about symptoms, you should not repeat the doctor’s questions, you should not ask how he evaluates his treatment. There are some things you shouldn't touch. And the positive invariants of the conversation follow from what the patient came with and, most importantly, for what purpose he came; and one more thing: in order to find out who is sitting in front of you, you must find out the characteristics of his personality before his illness... You cannot approach a conversation with abstract standards. You need to think about who is sitting in front of you, what he is sitting with, why... The experimenter’s conversation with the patient is not limited to just a conversation in the proper sense of the word, it continues further during the experiment... A psychologist is like a psychoanalyst without interpreting ideas.. You yourself must prepare for your conversation, for your behavior during the experiment... A conversation during an experiment is always active communication, and always verbal, using facial expressions, gestures... To briefly summarize, there is no scheme in a conversation with a patient . There is a scheme for conducting an experiment" (From a speech by B.V. Zeigarnik at the Faculty of Psychology of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University in 1986).
Various schools and areas of psychology have their own strategies for conducting clinical interviews. During the conversation, the researcher puts forward and tests hypotheses about the characteristics and causes of individual behavior. To test these particular hypotheses, he can give the subject tasks and tests. Then the clinical conversation turns into a clinical experiment.
Requirements for the conversation.
The researcher should have a clear and specific purpose for the conversation, but this purpose should not be known to the subject.
The researcher must prepare a program for the conversation and a detailed development of its tactics (system and types of questions); the questions drawn up by the researcher must correspond to the goals of the conversation; they must be remembered.
Before conducting a conversation, it is necessary to establish a trusting relationship with the subject.
The conversation should be conducted casually, tactfully, unobtrusively and in no case be in the nature of questioning.
You should first consider ways of recording data (keeping a protocol, using technical means, etc.); Not only the content of the conversation should be recorded, but also the nature of its course: the emotional reactions of the subject, the duration of pauses, features of facial expressions, gestures, postures.
Structure of the conversation. All types of conversation have a number of structural constant blocks, sequential movement along which gives an idea of the conversation as holistic. The stages of the conversation do not have strict boundaries; transitions between them are gradual and planned.
Introductory part of the conversation plays a very important role in the composition of the entire conversation. It is at this stage of the conversation that it is necessary to interest the interlocutor in the topic of the upcoming conversation, awaken the desire to participate in it, and make clear the significance of his personal participation in the conversation. This can be achieved by appealing to the past experience of the interlocutor, showing friendly interest in his views, assessments, and opinions. The subject is also informed about the approximate duration of the conversation, its anonymity, and, if possible, the purpose and further use of the results. It is in the introductory part of the conversation that the first check of its stylization occurs: the vocabulary, style, and conceptual form of statements should evoke and maintain a positive reaction in the interlocutor and a desire to give complete and true information. The duration and content of the introductory part of the conversation depend on the goals, objectives of the study, as well as on the circumstances of whether it will be the only one with a given interlocutor or whether it can be developed.
On initial stage During conversations, a special role in establishing and maintaining contact is played by the psychologist’s non-verbal behavior, which indicates the understanding and support of the interlocutor. At this stage, the goals and objectives of the conversation are consistently implemented.
Second phase characterizes the presence of acute open questions on the topic of the conversation, causing as many free statements as possible from the interlocutor, his presentation of his thoughts and experiences, which will allow the researcher to accumulate certain factual event information in the future.
Third stage conversation becomes a detailed study of the content of the problems discussed, through the transition from general open questions to specific, concrete ones. This is the culmination of the conversation, one of its most difficult stages. The effectiveness of this stage of the conversation is determined by the psychologist’s ability to ask questions, listen to answers, and observe the behavior of the interlocutor.
Final phase - this is the end of the conversation. At this point, some form of attempt is made to ease the tension that arises during the conversation and appreciation for cooperation is expressed.
Verbal features of communication in a conversation: basic classifications of types of questions. It is known that there is quite strict semantic and formal coordination between question and answer. The question is structured depending on the potential answer. There are several classifications of the types of questions used in conversation.
The basis first classification The types of questions are based on the breadth of the expected answer. It identifies three groups of questions.
1. Closed questions - These are questions to which the answer is expected to be “yes” or “no.” They address the entire volume of meaning contained in them. The use of questions of this type is carried out with a strictly defined purpose - to expand or narrow the speaker’s initial message, to aim at making a decision. Examples of questions of this type could be: “Is that all you wanted to say?”; "It's difficult?"; “Would you rather do it yourself?” Questions of this type lead to the creation of a tense atmosphere in the conversation, switch the focus of communication from the speaker to the listener, force the speaker to take a defensive position, and disrupt his train of thought.
2. Open questions - these are questions that require some kind of explanation. Questions of this type allow communication to move into a type of dialogue - a monologue, with an emphasis on the monologue of the interlocutor. Thanks to the use of questions of this type, the interlocutor has the opportunity, without preparation, at his own discretion, to construct the content of the answers. These are the so-called “who”, “what”, “how”, “how many”, “why” questions. For example: “What is your opinion on this issue?”; “Why do you consider this view insufficient?”; “What are you going to do in the summer?”
3. Clarifying questions - are an appeal to the speaker for clarification. They force the interlocutor to think, carefully consider and comment on what has already been said. For example: “Is this the problem as you understand it?”; "What do you have in mind?". However, for in-depth clarification of the content of the interlocutor’s answer, it is more convenient not to formulate questions, but to paraphrase, when the speaker is conveyed his own message, but in the words of the listener. When paraphrasing, only the main, essential points of the message are selected. The purpose of paraphrasing is to formulate the speaker's own message to check its accuracy. Paraphrasing can begin in the following words: “As I understood you...”; “As I understand it, you say...”; “In other words, you think...”; “In your opinion...”
basis second classification is the nature of the connection between the issues and the subject being studied and discussed. It identifies the following types of questions:
1. Direct - directly relate to the subject under study, for example: “Are you afraid to approach a stranger?”
2. Indirect - relate more indirectly to the subject under study, leaving the subject a wide choice of answers, for example: “What do you do when you are afraid to approach a stranger?”
3. Projective - relate to the area in which the subject under study is included (“Is everyone afraid to approach strangers?”). You need to add auxiliary questions to them (“Well, how are you?”).
There are a number of general rules regarding unacceptable in a conversation types of statements:
You should avoid leading questions that, by their wording, suggest the answer: “Of course, you like to read books?”;
Questions, the first part of which contains any evaluative position or point of view of the experimenter: “I know that confident people like you communicate easily. Is not it?";
Questions of an arbitrary, untested, alternative nature: “Is it easy for you to get to know other people or is it difficult for you to do this?”, the subject may adhere to the third point of view;
Questions that are too broadly formulated regarding the subject of discussion: “How do you relate to other people?”
Nonverbal communication during a conversation. Nonverbal communication includes forms of self-expression that do not rely on words and other speech symbols. It is spontaneous and occurs unconsciously. Nonverbal communication contains several components.
Facial expression - facial expressions - These are expressive movements of the facial muscles, this is an indicator of a person’s feelings and moods. Facial expressions can be lively, sluggish, pale, rich, inexpressive, tense, calm, etc. .
Eye contact helps regulate the conversation. Visual eye contact allows you to focus attention and indicates interest in the conversation. Interlocutors avoid him, discussing confusing and unpleasant issues.
Intonation and timbre of voice. You can evaluate the tone of voice, speed of speech, notice deviations in the construction of phrases (agrammatisms, incompleteness of sentences), and the frequency of pauses. These vocal expressions, along with word choice and facial expressions, are very important in understanding the message. The interlocutor's feelings are reflected in the tone of voice; the strength and pitch of the voice convey additional information about the speaker's message. Speech deficiencies (increased speed of speech, errors and repetition of words) are more pronounced when the interlocutor is unsure of himself, in a state of excitement or when trying to deceive.
Poses and gestures. A person’s attitude and feelings can largely be determined by his motor skills (gestures, movements, body position).
Interpersonal space - shows how close or far the interlocutors are in relation to each other. The more interlocutors are interested in each other, the closer they are. Social distance for informal social and business relations ranges from 1.2 to 2.7 m, with the upper limit more consistent with formal relationships.
Advantages and disadvantages of the conversation method
Advantages The conversation method consists of the following: the possibility of simultaneous exploration of aspects of the subject’s personality; the ability to quickly collect information about both one individual and a group; the possibility of repeated conduct in order to study the dynamics of changes. Flaws The conversation method is as follows: there may be a violation of objectivity, because and the selection of material for the conversation, and the preparation of questions, and the establishment of contact with the subject, and the interpretation of the content of the conversation are largely dependent on the personality, skills and professional experience of the researcher.
Conversation is one of the main methods of psychology and pedagogy, which involves obtaining information about the phenomenon being studied in a logical form both from the individual being studied, members of the group being studied, and from surrounding people. In the latter case, the conversation acts as an element of the method of generalizing independent characteristics. The scientific value of the method lies in establishing personal contact with the object of research, the ability to obtain data promptly, and clarify it in the form of an interview.
The conversation can be formalized or informal. Formal conversation involves standardized formulation of questions and registration of answers to them, which allows you to quickly group and analyze the information received. Informal conversation is carried out on loosely standardized questions, which makes it possible to consistently pose additional questions based on the current situation. During a conversation of this type, as a rule, closer contact is achieved between the researcher and the respondent, which contributes to obtaining the most complete and in-depth information.
In the practice of psychological and pedagogical research, certain rules application of the conversation method:
♦ talk only on issues directly related to the problem under study;
♦ formulate questions clearly and clearly, taking into account the degree of competence of the interlocutor in them;
♦ select and pose questions in an understandable form that encourages respondents to give detailed answers;
♦ avoid incorrect questions, take into account the mood and subjective state of the interlocutor;
♦ conduct a conversation so that the interlocutor sees in the researcher not a leader, but a comrade who shows genuine interest in his life, thoughts, and aspirations;
♦ do not conduct a conversation in a hurry, in an excited state;
♦ choose a place and time for the conversation so that no one interferes with its progress, and maintain a friendly attitude.
Usually the conversation process is not accompanied by recording. However, the researcher can, if necessary, make some notes for himself that will allow him, after finishing his work, to completely reconstruct the entire course of the conversation. A protocol or diary as a form of recording research results is best filled out after the end of the conversation. In some cases, technical means of recording it can be used - a tape recorder or a voice recorder. But at the same time, the respondent must be informed that the conversation will be recorded using appropriate technology. If it fails, the use of these funds is not recommended.
Currently, in the scientific literature, clearly insufficient attention is paid to the analysis this method research. At the same time, it is recognized that through conversation one can obtain very valuable information, which sometimes cannot be obtained by other methods. The form of conversation, like no other method, must be mobile and dynamic. In one case, the purpose of the conversation - to obtain this or that important information - may be hidden, since this ensures greater reliability of the data. In another case, on the contrary, an attempt to obtain objective information using indirect questions can cause a negative, skeptical reaction from the participants in the conversation (such as “He’s pretending to be a smart guy”). The likelihood of such a reaction is especially high in people with high self-esteem. In such situations, the researcher will receive more reliable information if he takes the following position, for example: “You know a lot, help us.” This position is usually supported by an increased interest in obtaining information. This tends to encourage people to be more open and sincere. Calling a person to be frank and listening to him is a great art. Naturally, people’s frankness must be valued and the information received must be handled carefully and ethically. The frankness of the conversation increases when the researcher does not take any notes.
In a conversation, the researcher communicates with a specialist. In the process of this communication, certain relationships between two individuals are formed. They are made up of small touches, nuances that bring two people together or separate them as individuals. In most cases, the researcher strives for rapprochement in communication with the respondent’s personality. However, there are times when the rapprochement and achieved frankness need to be “curtailed” and returned to a certain distance in communication. For example, sometimes a respondent, having perceived the sincere interest of the researcher (and interest in most cases is psychologically regarded as internal agreement with what the interviewee is telling him), begins to impose his, as a rule, subjective point of view, strives to eliminate the distance in communication, etc. In this situation, it is unwise to go for further rapprochement, since the end of the conversation complete harmony in communication, even if purely external, can lead to negative consequences. Therefore, it is psychologically advisable for the researcher to end the conversation with such people by setting a certain boundary or disagreeing with something. This will protect him from an excessive negative reaction from his interlocutor in the future. Creating these subtle facets of communication is a real art, which should be based on the researcher’s knowledge of human psychology.
Survey methods in the structure of psychological and pedagogical research
Survey methods of psychological and pedagogical research represent written or oral, direct or indirect requests from the researcher to respondents with questions, the content of the answers to which reveals individual aspects of the problem being studied. These methods are used in cases where the source of the necessary information is people - direct participants in the processes and phenomena being studied. Using survey methods, you can obtain information both about events and facts, as well as about the opinions, assessments, and preferences of respondents.
The importance of survey methods in psychology and pedagogy is greater, the weaker the provision of the area under study (psychological and pedagogical processes and phenomena) with research information and the less accessible this area is to direct observation. However, survey methods are not universal. They are used most fruitfully in combination with other methods of psychological and pedagogical research.
The widespread use of survey methods is explained by the fact that the information obtained from respondents is often richer and more detailed than that which can be obtained using other methods. It is easy to process and can be obtained relatively quickly and cheaply.
Disadvantages of survey methods include the following:
♦ subjectivity of the information received: respondents often tend to overestimate the significance of certain facts or phenomena and their role in them;
♦ distortion of information, which can occur due to methodological errors in compiling research instruments, determining the sample population (“sample”), and interpreting data;
♦ unknown information to the respondents.
Survey methods in psychological and pedagogical research are used in the following forms: interviews (oral surveys), questionnaires (written surveys), expert surveys, testing (with standardized forms for assessing survey results), as well as using sociometry, which allows
demonstrate interpersonal relationships in a group of people. Let us briefly describe each of these methods.
Questionnaire- a method of empirical research based on a survey of a significant number of respondents and used to obtain information about the typicality of certain psychological and pedagogical phenomena.
This method makes it possible to establish common views and opinions of people on certain issues; identify the motivation of their activities, the system of relationships.
The following survey options are available: personal(with direct contact between the researcher and the respondent) or indirect(questionnaires are distributed by handout, and respondents answer them at a convenient time); individual or group; continuous or selective.
As in a conversation, the questionnaire is based on a special questionnaire - a questionnaire. Based on the fact that the questionnaire is developed in accordance with established rules a research document containing a series of questions and statements ordered by content and form, often with possible answers to them; its development requires special attention, thoughtfulness."
The questionnaire should include three semantic parts:
♦ introductory which contains the purpose and motivation of the questionnaire, emphasizes the importance of the respondent’s participation in it, guarantees the secrecy of answers and clearly sets out the rules for filling out the questionnaire;
♦ main, consisting of a list of questions to be answered;
♦ socio-demographic, designed to reveal the basic biographical data and social status of the interviewee.
Practice shows that when development In the research questionnaire, it is advisable to take into account the following basic requirements:
♦ conduct testing (piloting) of the questionnaire in order to check and evaluate its validity (validity), search for the optimal option and volume of questions;
♦ explain before starting the survey its purpose and significance for the research results;
♦ ask questions correctly, as this presupposes a respectful attitude towards respondents;
♦ leave the possibility of anonymous answers;
♦ exclude the possibility of ambiguous interpretation of questions and the use of special terms and foreign words, which may not be clear to respondents;
♦ make sure that the question does not ask you to evaluate several facts at once or express an opinion about several events at the same time;
♦ build a questionnaire according to the principle: from simpler questions to more complex ones;
♦ do not get carried away with verbose, long questions and the proposed answers to them, as this complicates perception and increases the time for filling them out;
♦ pose questions in linear (each subsequent question develops and specifies the previous one) and cross-sectional (the answer to one question checks the reliability of the answer to another question) in ways that create in the respondents a favorable psychological attitude and a desire to give sincere answers;
♦ provide for the possibility of quick processing large quantity answers using mathematical statistics methods.
Experience in conducting surveys shows that the respondent gives more complete and meaningful answers when the questionnaire includes a small number of questions (no more than 7-10).
When compiling a questionnaire, several options for constructing questions are used. These are open, closed and semi-closed questions, as well as filter questions and ranking questions.
Open name questions to which respondents must independently give answers and enter them in specially designated spaces in the questionnaire or on a special form. Such questions are used in cases where the researcher seeks to involve the respondent in active work on the formation of proposals, advice on any problem, or when the set of alternatives for the question being asked is not entirely clear.
Closed These are the questions for which the questionnaire offers possible answers. They are used in cases where the researcher clearly understands what the answers to a question might be, or when it is necessary to evaluate something according to certain characteristics that are important for study, etc. The advantages of closed questions are: the ability to eliminate misunderstandings of the question, compare responses from various groups of respondents, as well as the ease of filling out the questionnaire and processing the data received. Half-closed question differs from a closed one in that, in addition to the proposed answer options, there is a kind of line on which the respondent can reflect his personal opinion on the substance of the question. This is done in cases where the researcher is not sure that a list of possible alternatives will be enough for the respondent to express his opinion.
The number of answer options in closed and semi-closed questions should not be too large - a maximum of 15. In addition, in any question of a closed or semi-closed type, an alternative should be given: “I don’t know.” This is necessary so that respondents who do not know how to answer the question, or do not have a definite opinion on the issue raised in it, can reflect their position.
Quite often used in questionnaires filter questions. They consist simultaneously of two questions: first, it is determined whether the respondent belongs to a certain group or whether he knows the fact (phenomenon), which will be discussed further. Then respondents who answered in the affirmative are asked to express their opinion or assessment of a fact, event, or property.
There is another type of questionnaire used in psychological and pedagogical research - ranking questions. They are used when, among many answer options, it is necessary to identify the most important and significant for the respondent. In this case, the respondent assigns each answer a corresponding number depending on the degree of its significance.
It is essential preliminary testing of the questionnaire. External signs of answers (stereotypicality, monosyllabicity, alternativeness, significant number answers like “I don’t know”, “I find it difficult to answer” or blanks, white stripes; “guessing” the answer desired by the researcher, etc.) indicate that the wording of the questions is complex, imprecise, to a certain extent duplicated one another, similar in content, that the respondents did not realize the significance of the survey being conducted, the importance for the researcher of truthful answers.
A questionnaire survey is an accessible, but also more vulnerable to all kinds of subjectivist “reefs” research method. It cannot be absolutized or carried away by “questioning mania.” It is advisable for a researcher to resort to it only in cases where there is a need to identify the opinions of a large number of people unfamiliar to him. In other words, studying cannot be substituted real facts studying opinions about them. At correct use Questionnaires can provide reliable and objective information.
Interview- a type of survey method, a special type of targeted communication with a person or group of people.
The interview is based on casual conversation. However, in contrast to it, the roles of the interlocutors are fixed, standardized, and the goals are determined by the design and objectives of the research being conducted.
Specifics The interview consists of the fact that the researcher determines in advance only the topic of the upcoming conversation and the main questions to which he would like to receive answers. All necessary information, as a rule, is drawn from information obtained in the process of communication between the person taking the interview (interviewer) and the person giving it. The success of the interview and the completeness and quality of the information received largely depend on the nature of this communication, the closeness of contact and the degree of mutual understanding of the parties.
An interview has its advantages and disadvantages compared to a questionnaire. The main difference between them is in the form of contact. When surveying, communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by a questionnaire. The respondents interpret the questions contained therein and their meaning independently within the limits of their existing knowledge. He forms the answer and records it in the questionnaire in the manner indicated in the text of the questionnaire or announced by the person conducting the survey. When conducting an interview, contact between the researcher and the person who is the source of information is carried out with the help of a specialist (interviewer), who asks questions provided for in the research program, organizes and directs the conversation with respondents, and also records the answers received according to the instructions.
In this case, the following are clearly revealed: advantages of the interview: firstly, in the course of working with respondents, it is possible to take into account their level of training, determine their attitude to the topic of the survey, individual problems, and record intonation and facial expressions. Secondly, it becomes possible to flexibly change the wording of questions, taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers. Thirdly, you can ask additional (clarifying, control, guiding, explanatory, etc.) questions. Fourthly, the proximity of the interview to everyday conversation contributes to the emergence of a relaxed atmosphere of communication and sincerity of answers. Fifthly, the interviewer can monitor the psychological reactions of the interlocutor and, if necessary, adjust the conversation.
As main drawback This method should highlight the high labor intensity of the work with a small number of respondents surveyed.
According to the goal that the researcher seeks to achieve, they distinguish opinion interview, elucidating assessments of phenomena, events, and documentary interview, related to the establishment of facts 1 .
One of the most effective methods collecting information in psychological and pedagogical research is expert survey, involving the acquisition of data using the knowledge of competent persons.
They do not mean ordinary respondents, but highly qualified, experienced specialists who give an opinion when considering any issue. Survey results based on expert judgment are called expert assessments. Therefore, this method is often called the method of expert assessments.
The expert survey method in psychological and pedagogical research is used to solve the following problems:
♦ clarifying the main provisions of the research methodology, identifying procedural issues, choosing methods and techniques for collecting and processing information;
♦ assessing the reliability and clarification of data from mass surveys, especially when there is a danger of their distortion;
♦ deeper analysis of the research results and prediction of the nature of changes in the studied psychological and pedagogical phenomenon;
♦ confirmation and clarification of information obtained using other methods;
♦ analysis of research results, especially if they allow different interpretations.
In each of the mentioned cases, an expert survey is subordinated to the goals and objectives of a specific study and is one of the tools for collecting information about the object being studied. Increasing the reliability of the results of an expert survey is achieved using logical and statistical procedures, selection of specialists, organization of the survey, and processing of the data obtained.
Practice shows that the more experts are involved in the assessment, the more accurate the overall result, the more accurately the level of development of a person’s personality or a group of respondents is diagnosed. Taking into account the opinions of all experts on all parameters being assessed is a difficult task. In order to optimize the generalization of expert opinions, quantitative assessments are usually used. Experts are asked to express their opinion on a five-point (sometimes three- or four-point) discrete scale. To assess personality quality, the following scale is usually used:
5 - a very high level of development of this personality quality, it has become a character trait, manifests itself in various types activities; 4 - a high level of development of this personality quality, but it is not yet manifested in all types of activities;
3 - the assessed and the opposite personality quality are not clearly expressed and generally balance each other out;
2 - the personality quality opposite to the one being assessed is noticeably more pronounced and more often manifested
1 - the opposite quality to the one being assessed is clearly expressed and manifests itself in various types of activities, and has become a personality trait.
These are the most general criteria to formalize expert opinions. In each specific case, when assessing certain parameters, more specific and meaningful criteria are determined.
In the case where expert opinion is expressed quantitatively, the research method in question is often called using the polar point method.
Formalization of expert opinions makes it possible to use mathematical and statistical methods 1 and modern computer technology when processing research results. It can be carried out not only on an order scale, but also by ranking individuals (groups or microgroups), that is, by arranging them in ascending (or descending) order of one or another of their characteristics.
Let's say you can make a list of respondents according to their degree of discipline. If the first on the list is the most disciplined of them, the second is the one closest in terms of the degree of development of this personality quality, etc. The most undisciplined will close the list. Naturally, each expert will have a strictly individual list. The degree of consistency of expert opinion can be measured using various correlation coefficients, for example, the Spearman correlation coefficient. For example, two experts ranked specialists according to their degree of discipline in this order.
| Iexpert | II expert | d | d 2 | |
| A | ||||
| B | -2 | |||
| IN | -1 | |||
| G | ||||
| D |
Sum d n= 6.
The Spearman correlation coefficient is found using the following formula:
Where R s- rank correlation coefficient (it can range from +1 to -1), D 2 i- square of rank differences, N- number of individuals being compared.
Let us substitute the results obtained into the proposed formula
This is a fairly high level of agreement among experts. In practice, there are cases when the unity of expert opinions is also assessed by the negative value of the Spearman correlation coefficient. At R s= -1 - there is a complete opposite of expert opinions. At R s = + 1 - their complete coincidence. However, in most cases R s ranges from 0.5 to 0.9. This is usually the actual degree of agreement between expert opinions. The degree of accuracy of expert assessments depends on the level of qualification of experts, their number and the number of ranking objects. It is important that experts have observation skills, life experience, and practice of working with people; their opinion is not deformed by conflictual relationships with the individuals being assessed or relationships of extra-work dependence. Team leaders best meet these requirements. However, the assessments of the respondents' fellow students are very important and useful. A strong difference in assessments “from below” and “from above” may be a sign of ignorance of the essential features of the person being assessed.
It is believed that the accuracy of expert assessments depends on the number of experts. In some cases, the opinion of 15-20 experts is used. This is explained by the fact that the relationships between respondents are in most cases multifaceted. Number of ranked personal qualities or other signs, as a rule, there should not be more than 20, and this procedure is most reliable when their number is less than 10.
The expert assessment method is also called GOL method(group personality assessment). Abroad, it is often called the “method of competent judges”, or “rating”. When each member of the group acts as an expert when assessing the relationship between themselves and other respondents (according to a certain criterion), then the method of expert assessments turns into a sociometric procedure - one of the main methods of research in social psychology and pedagogy.
Sociometric method(sociometry method) allows you to identify interpersonal relationships in a group of people using their preliminary survey.
Relationships between people are predetermined by objective necessity joint activities(it gives rise to the official structure of groups) and the emotional factor - likes and dislikes (this factor gives rise to unofficial relationships in the group). You can find out the informal relationships of people, the structure of their relationships, likes and dislikes with the help of simple questions like: “Who would you like to spend time with? free time?”, “Who would you like to work with?” etc. These questions are the criteria for sociometric choice. They can be very diverse.
To study the structure of relationships in a group, sociometry is used in two versions: parametric and non-parametric. Parametric sociometry consists in the fact that subjects are asked to make a strictly defined number of choices according to a given criterion. For example, name five friends with whom he would like to spend his free time. Nonparametric sociometry allows you to select and reject any number of individuals, provided that the subjects have a positive attitude towards the study. Otherwise, there may be answers: “I choose all” or “I reject all,” which significantly distort the survey results.
It is important that sociometric choice occurs according to significant criteria. This is due to the fact that the structure of interpersonal relationships, revealed according to different criteria, will not be the same. And by selecting some question - a criterion for sociometric choice, the researcher, as it were, predicts what kind of group structure he would like to reveal: the one that manifests itself in the process of rest or in the process of joint educational activities. If a sociometric procedure is carried out according to two or more criteria, then a separate matrix is compiled for each criterion. Below is an example of compiling one of these matrices.
Selection Matrix
| Who chooses | Who is chosen | Total | |||||||||
| + | + | ||||||||||
| + | + | + | |||||||||
| + | + | + | + | ||||||||
| + | |||||||||||
| + | + | ||||||||||
| + | + | ||||||||||
| + | + | + | |||||||||
| + | |||||||||||
| + | |||||||||||
| + | + | ||||||||||
| Total |
In the matrix, each number in order corresponds to a specific surname. The results of the sociometric survey serve as the basis for analyzing student relationships. By simple calculations based on the number of positive or negative choices and mutual choices made, the following sociometric indices can be determined: the need for communication, the sociometric status of a group member, psychological compatibility, group unity, group disunity, group cohesion. In addition, it is possible to identify the leaders of the group, the presence of microgroups in it, as well as members of the group who do not enjoy authority in it.
For a more visual representation of the system of likes and dislikes of the subjects, a sociogram is used. To compile sociograms, certain symbolism is adopted. Using it, the sociogram (Fig. 4.1) reflects the results of the sociometric measurement given in the selection matrix.
Rice. 4.1. Sociogram
The arrows on the sociogram indicate who chooses whom. If the arrow is bidirectional, then the choice is mutual. Sometimes the dotted line on the sociogram also shows the negative attitude of the subjects towards each other.
When conducting a sociometric survey, it is advisable to ensure the confidentiality of the information received in order to increase the objectivity of the study. The study results should be interpreted with caution.
Advantages sociometry are considered:
♦ opportunity for a short time collect significant material that is amenable to statistical processing and can be presented visually;
♦ the ability to register relationships between all group members.
TO shortcomings sociometry include:
♦ fixation of predominantly emotional relationships, expressed in likes and dislikes;
♦ inability to identify the true motives of the elections;
♦ the fact that the number of mutual elections may reflect not so much the cohesion of the group as the friendly ties of individual microgroups.
Thus, sociometry makes it possible to reveal the structure in the shortest possible time interpersonal relationships in a group, a system of likes and dislikes, but it does not always allow one to reliably diagnose the substantive characteristics of communication and relationships.
The individual and the group are specific objects of psychological and pedagogical research that have significant features, which predetermine the use of a number of special methods for studying the productivity of the system of influence on these objects. One of them is the testing method.
Test method- the test subject performs tasks of a certain kind with precise methods for assessing the results and their numerical expression.
This method makes it possible to identify the level of knowledge, skills, abilities and other personality qualities, as well as their compliance with certain standards by analyzing the way the subject performs a number of special tasks. Such tasks are usually called tests.
“A test is a standardized task or tasks related in a special way that allow the researcher to diagnose the degree of expression of the property being studied in the subject, his psychological characteristics, as well as his relationship to certain objects. As a result of testing, they usually obtain some characteristic that shows the degree of severity of the trait under study in the individual. It must be correlated with the standards established for this category of subjects” 1.
Consequently, with the help of testing, it is possible to determine the current level of development of a certain property in the object of study and compare it with the standard or with the development of this quality in the subject in an earlier period.
The tests are characterized by the following features: objectivity(excluding the influence of random factors on the subject), model-like(expressed in the specification of any complex, complex whole phenomenon), standardization(by establishing identical requirements and standards when analyzing the properties of subjects, or processes and results).
By direction tests are divided into achievement tests, aptitude tests and personality tests.
Achievement Tests mainly didactic, determining the level of mastery of educational material, the formation of students' knowledge, skills and abilities. Didactic test should be understood as a system of tasks of a specific form and specific content, arranged in order of increasing difficulty, created for the purpose of objectively assessing the structure and measuring the level of preparedness of students. Thus, it is advisable to consider a didactic test not as an ordinary set or set of tasks, but as a system that has two main system factors: the content composition of test tasks that form the best integrity, and the increase in difficulty from task to task. The principle of increasing difficulty allows you to determine the level of knowledge and skills in the controlled discipline, and the mandatory limitation of testing time allows you to identify the presence of skills and abilities. Difficulty of the task As a subjective concept, it is determined empirically, by the size of the proportion of incorrect answers. This is how difficulty differs from an objective indicator - difficulties, which is understood as the totality of the number of concepts included in the task, the number of logical connections between them and the number of operations necessary to complete the task. Note that the test items are not questions or tasks, but statements that, depending on the test takers’ answers, turn into true or false.
Aptitude tests most often associated with the diagnosis of the cognitive sphere of the individual, the characteristics of thinking and are usually called intellectual. They allow us to judge not only the results in mastering a certain educational material, but also about the respondent’s prerequisites for completing tasks of a given type or class. These include, for example, the Raven test, the Amthauer test, Wechsler subtests, etc.
Personality tests make it possible to judge, by reaction to test tasks, the characteristics of personality traits - orientation, temperament, character traits. Manifestations of personality traits are evoked through the presentation of projective material (unfinished sentences, images that stimulate associative reactions of respondents).
The testing method is the most controversial and at the same time widespread in personality research. What is controversial about this method? What difficulties have become recognized in testing? What is stopping its spread?
Firstly, Successful completion of a test under normal conditions does not mean success in similar mental efforts in a difficult environment. A respondent who receives a high score based on test results under normal conditions may turn out to be emotionally unstable to stress and get lost in a dangerous situation. Of course, in order to bring the conditions for solving a test closer to real social conditions, one can create tension among test takers during the testing process, reduce the time for solving the test, introduce elements of simulating these conditions, etc., until this significantly complicates the use of test methods.
The conversation method can be used at almost all stages of psychological research: both for initial orientation and for clarifying conclusions obtained by other methods, for example, the observation method.
Conversation- a method of obtaining the necessary information based on verbal communication. It is widely used in various spheres of human activity, being the main way of introducing a subject into a specific situation. Conversation- one of the methods of psychology, which involves obtaining information about the mental phenomenon being studied in a verbal logical form, both from the individual under study, members of the group being studied, and from surrounding people.
This research method is specific to psychology, because in other sciences, communication (communication) between the subject and object of research is impossible. Conversation- a dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the mental characteristics of the other.
Stages of a conversation
Drawing up a plan for the upcoming communication (collect information about the profession, communicative qualities of the interlocutor; find out the interlocutor’s attitude to the issues that will be discussed; the topic must be clearly defined and acceptable to the interlocutor; for the experimenter himself it is necessary to clearly find out what he wants to achieve during the conversation, what pursues a goal; the questions of the conversation should be thought out, but not strictly defined).
Creation external conditions to facilitate contact (think about where you and your interlocutor are sitting).
Establishing contact.
Adaptation. In the process of adaptation, the following points are highlighted: a) personal adaptation (to the one with whom the conversation is being conducted, cognition and adaptation); b) situational adaptation (getting used to the conditions, subject and purpose of communication); c) social adaptation (awareness and adaptation to a new social role in communication).
Monitoring the mental state of the interlocutor and his attitude towards the beginning of communication (how he behaves).
Actions to eliminate obstacles that arise in communication (incomplete psychological adaptation; negative attitude of the interlocutor toward contact; the presence of mental states that make communication difficult (anger, grief, excitement).
Analysis after the conversation.
Types of conversation
Researchers distinguish clinical interview and targeted face-to-face interviewing - interview.
Clinical talk is not necessarily carried out with a clinic patient. This type of conversation is a method of studying an integral personality, in which, during a dialogue with the subject, the researcher seeks to obtain the most complete information about his individual personal characteristics, life path, the content of his consciousness and subconscious, etc. Typically, a clinical conversation is carried out in a specially equipped indoors, in the process of psychological consultation or psychological training.
Various schools and areas of psychology have their own strategies for conducting clinical interviews. During the conversation, the researcher puts forward and tests hypotheses about the characteristics and causes of individual behavior. To test these particular hypotheses, he can give the subject tasks and tests. Then the clinical conversation turns into a clinical experiment.
The data obtained during the clinical conversation is recorded either by the experimenter himself or by the assistant. The researcher may also record information after the interview from memory. However, both methods of recording information have their own disadvantages. If the recording is made during a conversation, the trusting contact with the interlocutor may be broken. In these cases, hidden audio and video recording helps, but this raises ethical problems. Recording from memory leads to the loss of some information due to incompleteness and memorization errors caused by fluctuations in attention, interference and other reasons. Some information is lost or distorted due to the fact that the researcher may evaluate some of the subject's messages as more significant and ignore others. If the conversation is recorded manually, then it is advisable to encode the speech information.
A targeted survey is called interview . The interview method has become widespread in social psychology, personality psychology, and labor psychology, but its main area of application is sociology. Therefore, according to tradition, it is classified as sociological and socio-psychological methods.
An interview is defined as a “pseudo-conversation”: the interviewer must always remember that he is a researcher, do not lose sight of the plan and conduct the conversation in the direction he needs. Establishing a trusting relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee is critical. The next chapter of this manual will be devoted to methods of constructing interviews and recommendations for conducting them. Let us only note that in social psychology interviews are classified as one of the types of survey methods.
Another type is correspondence survey, survey. The questionnaires are intended for subjects to fill out independently, without the participation of the researcher. This method is also given attention in the manual.
I would like to note that any individual conversation should not be reduced to a pointless conversation. It is a purposeful form of personality study and requires compliance certainconditionscarrying out.
One of the first conditions for a highly effective conversation is careful preparation for its conduct. Before the conversation begins, it is necessary to clearly define the main goal, think through the sequence of asking questions, and study all available information, including the results of a psychodiagnostic examination.
Another requirement of the conversation is its ease. Care must be taken that the interview takes place in a calm and confidential atmosphere, in the absence of unauthorized persons and without interruption. All questions should be simple and understandable, they should be posed in such a way that they contribute to the development of a single, holistic story of the respondent about himself and his life.
The conversation should not turn into a simple survey. Preliminarily outlined questions cannot limit the content of the conversation - they are only the main guidelines for its general direction. At the same time, it is advisable to adhere to a certain plan, especially for a novice psychologist.
All information received about the personality characteristics of the subject and your conclusions should be written down only after the conversation. It should be remembered that as a result of the conversation, it is important not only to obtain the necessary information about the individual, but also to have a positive psychological and pedagogical impact. At the end of the conversation, it is advisable to express wishes, give useful advice and recommendations.