The population of ancient China features of life. Features of home life
Chinese culture is one of the oldest. The earliest cultural monuments found in China date back to the 5th-3rd millennium BC. On Chinese soil, one of the most ancient ancestors of modern man was formed - Sinanthropus, which existed about 400 thousand years ago. However, the civilization of Ancient China developed somewhat later than in. and India - only in 11 thousand BC. For a long time it was of a non-irrigation type: only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The Chinese began to create irrigation systems. In addition, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Chinese civilization existed in isolation, apart from other ancient civilizations.
Like other cultures, Chinese culture original and unique. Unlike the Indian one, it is more rational, pragmatic, addressed to the values of real earthly life. Its second characteristic feature is its exceptional, enormous and defining the role of traditions, customs, rituals and ceremonies. Hence the existing expression - “Chinese ceremonies”.
Another feature of Chinese culture is related to religion and attitude towards nature. As in other religions, Chinese beliefs primarily deify the forces of nature. For the Chinese, the supreme deity is Heaven, the main temple is the Temple of Heaven, and they call their country the Celestial Empire. They have a cult of the Sun and other luminaries. Since ancient times, the Chinese have worshiped mountains and waters as shrines.
However, along with the deification of nature, Chinese culture, like no other, is characterized by its aestheticization and poeticization. That is why landscape painting, poetry and architecture appear in it first of all. One could even say that "landscape" view extends in China to all phenomena of life. In terms of the depth of aesthetic and poetic penetration into the life of nature, Chinese culture has no equal.
The culture of Ancient China existed from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. and until 220 AD, when the Han Empire collapsed. Its immediate predecessor was culture Yangshao (3rd millennium BC) is a late Neolithic culture. Already at this stage, the Chinese tamed animals, cultivated fields, built dwellings buried in the ground, mastered many crafts, and mastered pictographic writing. They revered the cults of the Sun, Moon, mountains and other natural phenomena; they developed a cult of ancestors. Pottery reached a high level during this period. Ceramic vessels - dishes, bowls, amphorae, jugs - are decorated with complex geometric (zigzags, rhombuses, triangles, circles) and zoomorphic patterns.
In the 2nd millennium BC, along with the emergence of civilization, Chinese culture underwent profound changes. During this period, the collapse of primitive society and the formation of the first early class states took place. One of them was the city-state of Shan, which stood at the head of a large association. The remains of this city, discovered near Anyang, indicate that the cities were distinguished by a clear layout, surrounded by an adobe wall up to 6 m thick. The palace of the ruler (“wang”) of the “great Shang family” rose on an adobe platform, and its roof rested on rows of wooden columns, the bases of which were bronze disks. Stone sculptures of people and animals (bull, tiger), and wall paintings in bright red, black and white colors were also found in this palace.
IN Shang era The Chinese invent bronze casting techniques and create a system of hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by the most ancient written monuments - inscriptions on stones, bones of sacrificial animals, and turtle shields. Religious and mythological ideas about the world are becoming significantly more complicated. In particular, the belief in the afterlife and the importance of ancestor cults are increasing. Burials become more complex. The tomb of Ruler Shang consists of two underground chambers located one above the other, guarded by totem guards in the form of half-beasts and half-humans. The chambers contained utensils made of bronze, ceramics and jade, there were swords and axes, chariots and many other items necessary in the afterlife so that it would be no different from earthly life.
Widespread during the Shang era bronze products also indicate the complexity of the religious and mythological ideas of the ancient Chinese. In particular, massive and heavy bronze vessels intended for sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors and the spirits of nature are decorated with geometric patterns that form only a background against which stand out patterns close to bas-relief depicting a bull, a ram, a snake, a bird, a dragon and a mask of a fantastic beast taote . The handles, lids and corners of such vessels were made in the form of bull heads and dragon bodies, and the vessels themselves were depicted with barbed teeth, fins and scales, which increased their magical meaning. Of all the totemic animals, the main patrons of humans are the tiger, ram and dragon.
In the 1st millennium BC. In all areas of life in Ancient China, the most significant shifts and changes took place. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the Shang kingdom was conquered by the Western Zhous, as a result of which a large but fragile state formation arose Western Zhou, the rulers of which adopted the title “van” from the Shans.
At this time, the development of the religious doctrine about the divine origin of “royalty” and the sacred right to power of the Zhou Wangs, which was based on mythological ideas and proceeded from the Zhou cult of heaven as the supreme deity, was completed. Thus, for the first time, a unified and harmonious mythological history of China was created, which included the cult of the first ancestors and told about the golden age of the wise rulers of antiquity. The Zhou Wang was proclaimed the Son of Heaven and his only earthly incarnation. He was endowed with the magical power of de, which made him a mediator between heaven and people, as well as the ruler of the Celestial Empire. Later, in the 8th century. BC, Western Zhou came under the rule of Eastern Zhou, however, this new entity, and many other states, recognized the sacred priority of the Zhou ruler as the Son of Heaven. By the end of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. On the territory of the Middle Kingdoms, the Huaxia ethnic group is formed and the idea of its superiority over the peoples of the rest of the periphery - “barbarians of the four countries of the world” arises. The resulting cultural ethnocentrism further intensifies.
In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. China is experiencing rapid socio-economic growth. New trade centers are emerging, and the population of many cities is approaching half a million. Iron smelting and the use of iron tools reach a high level. Crafts are successfully developing and hydraulic structures are being built. Irrigation systems are widely used in agriculture.
The so-called era deserves special mention "Warring Kingdoms"- “Zhangguo” (V-III centuries BC), when there was a struggle for hegemony between several strong states. In this struggle played a special role kingdom of qin: By the name of this kingdom, all ancient Chinese are called “Qin”. It also served as the basis for the name of China in European languages: Latin Sine, French Shin, German Hin, English China.
The era of the “Warring States” is considered classic in the cultural history of Ancient China. It is also called the era of the "Hundred Schools Rivalry". The country is truly experiencing an unprecedented spiritual and intellectual upsurge. Accelerates development of scientific knowledge. In astronomy, the duration of the solar year is clarified, a lunisolar calendar is created, a star catalog is compiled, lunar eclipses are calculated, and the concept of the movement of celestial bodies - “Tao” - is developed.
Mathematics and other sciences are developing successfully. In particular, the “Treatise on Mountains and Seas” is published. The growth of scientific knowledge leads to a weakening of religious and mythological thinking and even causes some religious skepticism. This is evidenced by the treatise “Questions to Heaven,” where mythological ideas are criticized.
The era of Zhanguo became , During this period, all the main philosophical movements took shape - Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism.
The founder - Kong Tzu (551-479 BC) - chose the theme of his reflections not the problem of being or knowledge, but the relationship between people. Observing around him the endless struggle of everyone against everyone, he saw the path to establishing peace, order, and social harmony in the revival of age-old traditions, customs and rituals. He believed that the main task of educating a person is to master strict norms and rules of relations between equals and unequals, elders and youngers, higher and lower, father and children.
He was a resolute opponent of any innovations and reforms. In his opinion, it is the past, the forgotten ancient wisdom, that holds the keys to solving the problems of the present. Mastering the experience of the past and traditions should help a person to correctly understand his place in life and understand the simple truth: “A ruler must be a ruler, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.” Confucius viewed the society-state as a large family, where the main bearer of norms and rules of behavior is the humane ruler.
The teaching created by Confucius and his followers goes beyond philosophy and religion and forms the basis of the entire way of life. In it you can find the answer to the question of the meaning of life and how to behave in a specific situation. Confucianism played a decisive role in the creation of the ancient Chinese education system, where clear preference was given to the humanities. Thanks to this system, a fairly broad class of educated officials was formed in Chinese society, constituting a privileged elite and reminiscent in its social role of the priestly caste in India. Confucianism contributed to the strengthening of Chinese cultural ethnocentrism.
Approximately simultaneously with Confucianism, another influential religious and philosophical movement arose in China - Taoism, the founder of which is considered to be the legendary Lao Tzu. The teaching focuses on the laws operating in nature. Taoism is based on the idea of the Tao way, or the doctrine of the "way of nature"", about the eternal variability of the world. Jlao Tzu formulates his credo as follows: “Man follows the laws of Heaven. Heaven follows the laws of Tao. and Tao follows itself.”
Like Confucianism, Taoism is not limited to philosophy and religion, but constitutes a special way of life. He borrowed a lot from Buddhism and yoga, in particular the system of physical and breathing exercises. In this regard, the ultimate goal for its adherents is to achieve immortality. Taoism develops theory of passivity and inaction, encourages the refusal of active participation in life, to escape from the bustle of everyday life, to contemplation. The principle of non-action also applies to the ruler: “The best ruler is the one about whom the people only know that he exists.”
The interests of Taoism included not only natural science, but also the so-called occult sciences, in particular alchemy. The experiments of Chinese alchemists eventually led to invention of gunpowder. Also occupied a special place geomancy - the science of the connection between space and the earth's topography. Here, the knowledge and recommendations of Chinese magicians were not only of great importance for farmers and architects, but also led to invention of the compass. Astrology also played an important role, especially in drawing up horoscopes for all occasions.
Many principles of Taoism created the philosophical basis of famous Chinese martial arts. including woo-shu. It was Taoism that played a key role in the aestheticization and poeticization of nature, which became one of the main principles of man’s relationship with nature in Chinese culture.
Another influential philosophical movement was Legalism, which initially acted as an opponent of Confucianism, but later almost completely dissolved in it. Unlike Confucianism legalism in building a strong state, he relied not on morality and tradition, but on strict and harsh laws, believing that politics is incompatible with morality.
For legalists, the main methods of managing a person, society and the state were coercion, strict discipline, diligence and obedience, cruel punishments, personal responsibility and merit. The legalists developed the concept of a despotic state, which, with Confucian amendments, was implemented in Ancient China and, with minor changes, existed until the beginning of the 20th century.
Artistic culture of Ancient China
The era of the “Warring States” is also characterized by significant events in the field artistic culture. IN This period significantly expands the range of topics covered by art. The first treatise on architecture"Zhouli." which sets out strict principles for a clear city layout, indicating the size and location of buildings, the width of main streets and roads.
Achieves great success literature. By this time, the creation of the famous monument of Chinese literature - the Book of Songs - Shijing (X1-VI centuries BC), which included more than 300 poems, the selection and editing of which is attributed to Confucius, was completed.
During this period, the great Chinese poet Qu Yuan (340-278 BC), who was both a lyricist and a tragedian, worked. The sources of his work were folk poetry and myths. His works are distinguished by their exquisite form and deep content. Finding himself in exile, Qu Yuan created the ode “The Sorrow of an Exile,” which became a poetic confession of the elder. The second great poet was Sup Yu (290-222 BC), whose works are filled with hope and cheerfulness. He became the first singer of female beauty and love.
The culture of Ancient China reached its highest rise at its final stage - from the 111th century. BC. up to 111 v. AD This was facilitated by profound changes in other areas of life.
The minister of the Qin kingdom, Shang Yang, based on the ideas of legalism, initiated broad reforms, as a result of which uniform legislation and legal proceedings were established; hereditary titles and privileges were abolished; the place of chariots and bronze weapons in the army was taken by cavalry and iron weapons, etc. The reforms were carried out using the methods of the most severe violence and coercion, but thanks to them, the kingdom of Qin, relying on the strongest army, was able to subjugate all the other “fighting kingdoms”, becoming a powerful and centralized power. In 221 BC. The Qin ruler adopted a new title “Huangdi” - “Emperor Qin”. In 206 BC. Qin dynasty gives way to new Han dynasty, which remains in power until the end of the existence of Ancient China - until 220 AD.
During the Han era The Chinese empire becomes one of the strongest in the world. Its population reached 60 million inhabitants, which was 1/5 of the world population. Modern Chinese call themselves Han Chinese.
During this period, China experienced real socio-economic prosperity. The country is covered by a network of roads that connect provincial centers with the capital. Numerous canals were built as cheap transport arteries, which stimulated trade exchanges.
Agriculture uses the most advanced cultivation technologies using fertilizers and crop rotations. Crafts reach a high level. Deserves special mention silk production, where China had an absolute monopoly. Neighboring countries tried in vain to uncover the secrets of silk technology. By the 1st century BC. Silk production volumes reach enormous proportions. It is becoming the main Chinese export product.
Much the same can be said about varnish production. The varnish created by the Chinese had no equal. It was used to cover weapons and military equipment, wood and fabrics, increasing their shelf life and giving them a wonderful aesthetic appearance. Lacquer products were in great demand both within the country and abroad.
The greatest achievement of ancient China was invention of paper(II-I centuries BC), which caused a real revolution in the entire culture. Equally important was the perfection of hieroglyphic writing, adopted in Korea, Vietnam and Japan.
In the artistic crafts of this period, the features of mature and high perfection were established, which became the main stylistic properties of subsequent eras. In particular, bronze vessels have more streamlined and simpler shapes; they lose their magical meaning. Ornament gives way to inlay with multi-colored metals.
During the Qin-Han era, China established broad and intensive ties with other states. Played a special role in this The Great Silk Road with a length of 7 thousand km, along which trade caravans traveled to Central Asia, India, Iran and the Mediterranean countries. In addition to silk, China supplied iron, nickel, precious metals, lacquer, bronze, ceramics and other products to the international market.
During the Han period, favorable conditions developed for development of science. Chinese scientists seem to be summing up the results, systematizing the already accumulated knowledge about the world and boldly moving on. IN mathematics The treatise “Mathematics in Nine Books” is created, where for the first time in the history of mathematical science negative numbers are discussed and rules for operations on them are given.
IN astrology The map of the starry sky is refined and expanded, on which 28 constellations are marked, a record is made of the observation of sunspots, and the first celestial globe is invented. IN medicine a catalog of medical books is being compiled, which lists 36 treatises. containing information on various diseases, the first Chinese treatise on pharmacology was written. To this should be added the invention of the world's first seismograph.
They are developing no less successfully humanitarian sciences. In particular, philology and poetics emerged, and the first dictionaries were compiled. Sima Qian (145-86 BC) - the “father” of Chinese history - creates a fundamental work “Historical Notes” (130 volumes), which not only sets out almost the entire ancient Chinese history, but also provides information on the history of neighboring countries and peoples
Artistic culture is experiencing an unprecedented rise. In the Qin-Han era, the classical forms of traditional Chinese architecture, which persist to this day. Urban planning is reaching a high level. The main centers of the empire - Luoyang and Chang-an - are distinguished by their clear layout and beautiful streets. Chinese architects successfully built houses of two or three floors or more, with a multi-tiered roof made of colored tiles. The most famous architectural monument of ancient China was The great Wall of China. Its most famous section (750 km) is located near Beijing, where it is 5-8 m wide and up to 10 m high. The entire length of the wall with all its branches is more than 6 thousand km.
An equally amazing monument is the burial complex of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. It amazes not only with its grandiose scale, but also with the contents of a gigantic underground palace. The premises of this palace are filled with rows of life-size figures of ceramic warriors, horses and chariots standing shoulder to shoulder. This entire clay army numbers three thousand infantry and horsemen.
Reaches a significant level sculptural relief. The most interesting are the reliefs from Shandong, discovered in the funerary temple of the noble Wu family, as well as stone reliefs of their burial crypts in Sichuan. The first depict scenes on religious and mythological themes, scenes of battles, hunting, receiving guests, etc. On the second there are scenes from folk life - harvesting, hunting, hard work in salt mines.
Appears in the Han period easel painting, as evidenced by the found part of a painting depicting a girl, a phoenix and a dragon on silk. The invention of the hair brush and ink was of great importance for the development of painting and fine arts.
The Han era was a heyday of literature, and its last decades (196-220 AD) are considered the golden age of Chinese poetry. Many emperors encouraged the development of literature and art. brought the best poets, writers and scientists closer to the court. This is exactly what Emperor Wudi did. who created a large library and a music chamber at his court, where folk songs were collected and processed, and new musical works were created.
The most outstanding poet of the Han era was Sima Xiangru (179-118 BC). He sang the vast expanses and beauty of the Empire, its power, as well as the “great man” himself - Emperor Wudi. The most famous works are the ode “Beauty” and the song “Fishing Rod”, created in imitation of folk lyrical songs. Lu Jia and Jia Yi were also brilliant poets. Along with poetry, the first major works of fiction, legends, fairy tales, books of miracles and fantasy were created in the Han period.
Chinese culture would reach its highest rise and prosperity later, in the middle of the century, but all the necessary foundations and prerequisites were already laid in ancient Chinese civilization and culture. The Zhanguo-Qin-Han era had about the same significance for China and all of East Asia as Greco-Roman culture did for Western Europe.
The Chinese lived in houses without ceilings. There was almost no furniture in the houses (they sat, ate and slept on mats). The courtyard resembled a small fortress. It was forbidden to enter someone else's yard without permission - the owner could kick away an uninvited guest, even a “mandarin”.
The Chinese wore simple, monotonous clothes - trousers and a jacket belted with a belt. They always wrapped their jackets to the right to distinguish themselves from the “barbarians.” They put shoes on their bare feet with wooden or leather soles. When entering a room, they took off their shoes, but going outside barefoot was considered indecent. Men never went without a headdress. The fashion for clothing changed, and the imperial palace was the trendsetter.
| Chinese courtyard. From a Chinese drawing |
The aristocratic environment was tyrannized by fashion. Thus, women with thin legs, like those of 6-8 year old girls, were considered beauties, so fashionistas disfigured themselves by bandaging their legs. Aristocrats, in order to distinguish themselves from people of physical labor, had very long nails on their fingers, on which they put silver cases.
Without thin lily legs, it was difficult to find a good groom in China. The woman could barely stand on such legs; sometimes the maid carried her on her back. To have such legs, I had to wrap my feet tightly with a bandage since childhood. The Chinese women bravely withstood these tortures. “A pair of bandaged feet is worth a bath of tears,” they consoled themselves.
For most Chinese, food has always been difficult. We didn’t go through a lot of foods; we consumed almost everything. Ordinary Chinese washed down their food with water, while the wealthy washed it down with millet or rice wine. In the III-IV centuries. The Chinese learned about tea and literally fell in love with this healing drink. Poets sang tea, scientific works were written about it. Until the 14th century. the tea was boiled like soup, not brewed. Material from the site
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| Chinese at work. From medieval drawings |
China loved holidays. The biggest holiday was New Year. On the days of seeing off the old year and welcoming the new year, the mummers begged for gifts to the deafening sounds of drums and gongs. On New Year's Eve they told fortunes (the Chinese loved to tell fortunes). They also celebrated the “feast of lanterns” - the whole city was hung with beautiful lanterns. On this holiday they did everything the other way around - men dressed up as women, women as men, and rode on the ground in boats placed on wheels. It was a folk carnival. The big spring holiday was the days of “cold food” and “pure light”. Then they turned off all the lights and ate cold dishes, then they lit new fires. The harvest festival was solemnly celebrated.
The most popular sport in China was the team ball game. The teams consisted of more than ten players. This game is the progenitor of modern football. The Chinese also loved polo.
Children in China were treated like young adults, but they came up with their own children's games. These little mischief makers often made trouble in class (European students did not have this opportunity if they did not want to try “birch porridge”).
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- life and everyday life of a medieval Chinese woman
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Houses in ancient Chinese agricultural settlements of the early period (before about 500 BC) were built partly below ground level. Their wooden walls were covered with clay. The roof was made of reeds, and smoke from the fire came out through a hole in the roof.
In the settlement there was a house where all the inhabitants of the ancient Chinese village gathered. Among the houses there was a pen for pigs. Millet was stored in holes dug in the ground. A ditch around the perimeter of the village protected residents from wild animals.
Cities of the Han Dynasty
During the Shang Dynasty
Since the reign of the Shang Dynasty in Ancient China, certain funeral rituals have been observed. Material from the site
When the king died, he was buried in a large grave filled with precious things - a burial pit. People and animals were sacrificed and placed in the grave with him. Horses were put to sleep, servants were slaughtered so that they could serve the king in the afterlife. The royal chariot and horses were placed behind the king's body. Bronze cauldrons and carved jade decorations were placed nearby.
At the end of the burial ceremony, the servants covered the grave with earth.
During the Han Dynasty
In the tombs of the Han Dynasty, they left everything that a dead person might need in the afterlife: clothes, food, medicine, bowls and goblets. One king's son and his wife were buried wearing clothes made of jade (a heavy green stone). It was believed that this would protect the bodies from decomposition. More than 2 thousand plates of polished jade, connected together with gold wire, were used for the funeral costume of Princess Tu Van.
Section - I - SHORT DESCRIPTION
Section - II -CHINA IN THE III CENTURY BC - II CENTURY AD
Section - III - Culture of Ancient China
Section - IV -The Art of Ancient China in Brief
Section - V -Religion of Ancient China in Brief
Ancient China is one of the most majestic civilizations of the Ancient World. The origins of ancient China are similar to those of Sumer, Ancient India, and Ancient Egypt. The majestic Yellow River constantly brings particles of fertile soil - loess - from the mountains.
An ancient civilization arose in the Yellow River Valley (Huang He). The first kingdom appeared in the second millennium BC and was called Yin or Shang.
Modern archaeologists carried out excavations, as a result of which they were able to unearth the capital of this kingdom, the Great City of Shang, and the tombs of some Shang kings - their names were Vans. Van was buried in a fairly deep (up to 10 meters) pit, into which a ladder led. Gold jewelry, jewelry made of jade, jasper were placed in the grave, and huge bronze vessels were also installed. The responsibilities of the bath included the following: governing the state, performing special religious rituals, as well as the supreme court. 
Wang was considered a sacred and inviolable person. In one thousand one hundred and twenty-two BC, a tribe called Zhou, led by Wu-wan, inflicted a great defeat on the Shang, thereby establishing their dominance, and most of the inhabitants of the Shang-Yin state were enslaved. In the eighth century BC, the Zhou state collapsed under the attacks of nomads; Now, one or another kingdom is being promoted to the main role, of which the largest state was a kingdom called Jin (seventh - fifth centuries BC). After the collapse of the Jin state, the difficult period of Zhanguo (translated as “Warring States”) began, when ancient China was divided into two dozen small principalities that were constantly at odds with each other, and also practically did not obey the Zhou Wang.
6-5 centuries BC - the time when the first philosophical teachings began to appear in ancient China. In the sixth century BC, a great sage lived in China, his name was Confucius, he was very revered among the Chinese, both at that time and in all subsequent centuries. Confucius's teachings about respect for elders, about the "noble person", about the importance of education, about modesty, etc. subsequently became an important standard of relationships in China between people - both in the family and in the country itself.
In 221 BC. e. The Qin ruler Ying Zheng began to unite vast territories into a single empire and took the title Qin Shi Huang, which means “First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty.” This 
the ruler rather cruelly destroyed all resistance, using the most terrible types of execution. If a person did not comply with the law, then in this case the entire family of this person was subject to punishment: his family members were simply turned into slaves and forced to work on heavy construction work.
When Qin Shi Huang established his own power in the empire, he began a war with the nomadic Huns, who often attacked his borders from the north. He decided to consolidate his victory forever by building a powerful border wall, which was called the Great Wall of China. After the fall of the Qin Dynasty, Liu Bang comes to power. He reduced taxes and repealed some of the most brutal laws that had been introduced in ancient China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Liu Bang, who was then succeeded by eleven of his descendants, became the founder of the Han Dynasty. During the era of the Han Dynasty, the main features of the Ancient Chinese state took shape. The foundations of Chinese civilization and its culture - art, literature, science - were laid in Ancient China. In the year two hundred and twentieth, the Han dynasty declined, and several states independent from each other were formed throughout its territories. This event is considered the end of the ancient period in Chinese history.
Natural conditions of Ancient China briefly
The ancient Chinese inhabited the North China Plain, located in the extreme east of Asia. From west to east, the plain was crossed by the Yellow River (Yellow River), which carried a lot of fertile silt. As it settled, the silt filled the channel and forced the river to change it. The Yellow River flooded fields, washing away villages. The people called it "China's grief." Through hard work, cutting down forests, draining swamps, strengthening river banks, the ancient Chinese turned their homeland into a country of developed agriculture. The valley of the Yangtze River (Blue River), located south of the Yellow River, was conquered by the Chinese later. The rivers, especially the Yangtze with its many tributaries, served in ancient times as the most important routes of communication.
Occupations of the population.
In the middle of the second millennium BC. uh, the area of the Yellow River and its tributaries was inhabited by numerous tribes of hunters and fishermen. One of these tribes, the Yin tribe, managed to subjugate its neighbors. Recently, archaeological scientists have excavated dozens of Yin settlements. Many thousands of inscriptions on animal bones and turtle scutes have been discovered. This allows you to study the life and occupations of the ancient population of China.
The main occupation of the ancient Chinese who settled in the Yellow River Valley was agriculture. This was favored by a mild, temperate climate, fertile soil and plenty of moisture.
Millet, wheat, barley, and rice grew in the fields. During the year, two crops were harvested: in the first half of the year, millet was harvested, and in the second, wheat. The land was cultivated with a wooden plow, wooden hoes, and stone sickles.
Cattle breeding, fishing, and hunting acquired auxiliary significance. In addition to cattle and horses, the ancient Chinese raised sheep, goats, and pigs. In ancient times, the Chinese did not use dairy products for food.
Initially, farmers themselves made the simplest agricultural tools, pottery, and fabrics. Over time, craft turns into a special, independent branch of production. The first thing that stood out was the foundry craft, which required special skills and abilities. Bronze foundries melted and forged metal and made weapons and various utensils from it. Potters began to make beautiful and durable dishes using a potter's wheel and oven. Since ancient times, the Chinese have been able to make thin 
silk fabrics. This skill was kept secret.
With the development of agriculture and crafts, trade arises and develops. Trade was carried out not only with immediate neighbors, but also with peoples on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. At first, the role of money was played by precious shells. It was difficult to get them. Therefore, they began to make artificial shells from precious stones and bones. Then they began to cast bronze ingots in the shape of shells and other objects. This is how metal money appeared in China.
The most ancient slave states.
In the second millennium BC. e. Slavery occurs among the Chinese. Its main source is wars with neighbors, especially with northern nomadic tribes. Slaves were also received as tribute from conquered tribes.
Slave labor began to be used on the farm. During this period, slaves were still collectively owned by the community. Slaves were not only forced to work until exhaustion, but also sacrificed to the gods. Archaeologists have excavated burial sites containing hundreds of people who died violent deaths. These were sacrificed slaves.
Along with burials containing rich things, as well as “sacrificed slaves,” graves were excavated in which there were no things. This suggests that rich and poor, slaves and slave owners appeared in society.
To keep slaves and the poor in obedience, the slaveholding nobility creates a state. The ancient Chinese state was headed by a military leader, the wang. His support was the nobility and numerous officials. They collected unaffordable taxes from the population. For his service, Van gave away land and slaves to those close to him. This led to the development of large land ownership.
In the 12th century. BC e. The Zhou tribe, living to the west of the Shan-Yin state, subjugates the Yin. The state of Zhou was formed. In addition, many other slave states appeared in China.
Farmers in these states lived in communities, but each family received a plot of land for use. Tools, livestock, seeds were also privately owned by the department
noah family. The clan and tribal nobility, taking advantage of their position as community leaders, began to seize the best lands. Free community members were exhausted by the lack of land and fell into debt dependence to their rich neighbors - large landowners. 
The discontent of the peasants was reflected in songs condemning the greed and cruelty of the rich. One such song compares large landowners to a horde of rats eating the fruits of human labor:
“Our rats, our rats, Don’t gnaw our millet. We have been living with you for three years, And we don’t see any worries from you... Our rats, our rats, Don’t gnaw the crops. We’ve been living with you for three years, but we don’t see any rewards from you,”
Skilled artisans lived in the cities. They made beautiful dishes from clay and metals. From the middle of the first millennium BC. e. The Chinese knew varnish. Furniture and other wooden products were varnished. The sap of the lacquer tree was poisonous, so artisans who made beautiful, elegant things died early.
In the first half of the first millennium BC. e. Chinese trade relations are expanding. The development of trade was facilitated by the appearance of the first metal coins. Gradually, cities turned into centers of crafts and trade.
The northern borders of China were constantly attacked by nomads who later became known as the Huns. The Chinese states entered into alliances with each other, since it was impossible to fight the nomads with the forces of one state. But these alliances were fragile. Often Chinese states fought with each other. Internecine wars ruined the Chinese economy and led to even greater exploitation of the working masses.
The base of the pyramid of statehood of Chinese civilization has always remained family . The number of family members was in the hundreds and thousands. She adhered to the “five constants”:
ü the father had to follow duty and justice;
ü mother - to exude mercy;
ü older brothers - to have a friendly disposition towards the younger ones;
ü younger to older – respect;
State and collective interests were always placed above personal ones. According to Confucian norms, a man was required to honestly and conscientiously fulfill his official duties and obey his superiors and the head of the clan. A woman’s responsibilities are serving her husband, humility and obedience to her father-in-law and mother-in-law, diligence in work and procreation. The ideal of a woman is a submissive wife, ready to follow her husband even to the grave. The richer the house was, the more powerless the woman felt in it. Only the birth of her son made her a participant in the power of the heads of the family; her rights in the role of mother-in-law were unlimited.
Chinese society was connected from top to bottom mutual guarantee: the neighbor was responsible for the neighbor, the father for the son, the patron for the recommended one. The whole family was entirely responsible for any of its members, so often four generations of such a family were executed for the guilt of one person.
The Chinese always focus their thoughts not on the future, but on past. An individual person meant very little; it is no coincidence that in a Chinese name the family sign still precedes the proper name: first the clan, then the person.
Upbringing was also carried out in accordance with the postulates and judgments of Confucius. An ideally educated person should have high moral qualities: nobility, truthfulness, and the pursuit of truth. It was Confucius who came up with the idea of comprehensive, harmonious development of personality, where the priority share belongs not to education, but to the moral and spiritual principle.
The marriageable age for a man was 30 years old, and for a woman - 20 years old. But such rules were often violated; there are cases when emperors got married at 15, 16 years old, and girls got married at 13, 14 years old. Adherents of Confucianism condemned early marriages. The choice of the bride was carried out according to several criteria: appearance, origin, wealth. The aesthetic ideal of a Chinese girl was considered to be one who had a refined, almost weightless figure with a complete absence of any protrusions (that’s why the girls had their chests tightly bandaged), the smallest and most graceful hands and feet, a high rounded forehead, expressive eyes, a small nose and mouth with bright red lips. Various cosmetics were widely used. Many guests were invited to the wedding, and often the groom's parents were forced to borrow money.
China – home to many of the world's greatest inventions and discoveries . Silk, tea and the tea ceremony, gunpowder and compass, porcelain, paper and printing (from boards) appeared here. The lightest aerial bicycles with a frame made of bamboo and paper, on which daredevils flew across the English Channel, were known in Ancient China.
However, in general, the attitude towards technical innovations in China is always was negative: a concept that came from Taoism led the Chinese to the opinion that those who engage in mechanical tricks acquire a mechanical heart, that is, they break the constant connection with the ever-pulsating spiritual ocean of Tao. The Chinese have always thought of themselves as part of nature, included in the rhythm of nature. He did not allow himself to excavate in winter, since it was impossible to awaken the sleeping earth. Man in this cultural system did not strive to subjugate nature, but to live in all its fullness and rational structure.
Thus, the eastern type of civilization - the type of cyclical development - arose in ancient times, but the main features of eastern civilization were formulated and found classical expression primarily in India and China. The culture and religion of the peoples of the East developed, intertwining and enriching each other.
The mentality of the peoples of the eastern type was peculiar. Social consciousness was charismatic in nature: reality was perceived through sensory experience (hearing, feeling, seeing) and through faith in divine powers. Gods and heavenly powers were perceived as part of living nature.
The idea of historical time in the East had no less peculiarities: the past, present and future existed as if simultaneously, together. This was explained by the fact that the soul is immortal, only the form of its existence changes. Hence the special idea of ancestors: the dead exist in the present and influence a person, and unborn descendants also exist, which is why the problem of “fathers and sons” did not arise in the East.
The main value of the existence of the peoples of the East was the comprehension of the highest sacred meaning, and not the implementation of specific goals. Societies were built on the principles of collectivism, the personal element was poorly developed. Changes in societies occurred slowly, and the authority of the older generation was very high.
However, each of the civilizations considered had its own distinctive features, which had a significant impact on the further development of the peoples of these countries.
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