Objectivity and universality of management principles. Management development trends: main stages, scientific schools and management concepts
Fayol viewed the enterprise as closed system management. He paid main attention to internal opportunities (conditions) for increasing the efficiency of an enterprise by improving the management process. Fayol formulated principles that, in his opinion, apply to any administrative activity. At the same time, Fayol noted that principles do not always require strict execution. They are flexible and flexible, and their application depends on changing circumstances, the composition of workers, etc.
Fayol formulated 14 principles of management:
1.) Division of labor. Its goal is to increase the quantity and quality of production while expending the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and action must be directed. The division of labor is directly related to specialization.
This principle can be applied to both production and managerial work. The division of labor is effective up to a certain extent, beyond which it does not bring the desired results.
2.) Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to manage the resources of the enterprise, as well as the right to direct the efforts of employees to complete assigned tasks. Responsibility is the obligation to carry out tasks and ensure their satisfactory completion.
Authority is an instrument of power. Authority meant the right to give orders. Power is directly related to responsibility. Where there is authority, there is responsibility.
3.) Discipline. Discipline involves achieving compliance with agreements concluded between the enterprise and its employees, including obedience. In case of violation of discipline, sanctions may be applied to employees.
4.) Unity of command (unity of management). The employee must receive orders and instructions from his immediate supervisor. In addition, he must respect the authority of the leader.
5.) Unity of direction (directorate). One manager and one program for a set of operations pursuing the same goal. Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader.
6.) Subordination of personal (individual) interests to the general ones. The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of the organization and should be aimed at fulfilling the interests of the entire enterprise.
7.) Staff remuneration, i.e. price of services provided. It must be fair and, as far as possible, satisfy both the staff and the organization, and both the employer and the employee.
8.) Centralization. The enterprise must achieve a certain correspondence between centralization and decentralization, which depends on its size and specific operating conditions. The problem of centralization and decentralization is resolved by finding the measure that gives the best overall performance.
9.) Scalar chain (hierarchy). The scalar chain is a series of leadership positions, starting with the highest and ending with the lowest. The scalar chain determines the subordination of workers. A hierarchical management system is necessary, but if it is detrimental to the interests of the enterprise, then it needs to be improved.
10.) Order. Each employee must have his own workplace, provided with everything necessary. To do this, the manager must know his subordinates and their needs well. “A place for everything, everything in its place.”
11.) Justice. Justice is a combination of kindness and justice. An employee who feels fairly treated feels loyalty to the company and tries to work with full dedication.
12.) Job stability for staff. For an enterprise, the most preferable are employees who hold on to their jobs. High staff turnover is both a cause and a consequence of poor performance. In a prosperous company, the management staff is stable.
13.) Initiative. Initiative is the development of a plan and its successful implementation. The implementation of this principle often requires the administration to “act on personal vanity.”
14.) Corporate spirit. The strength of an enterprise is in the harmony (“unity”) of all employees of the enterprise. Fayol pointed out the inadmissibility of using the “divide and conquer” principle in management. On the contrary, he believed, leaders should encourage collectivism in all its forms and manifestations.
The classification of management principles proposed by Fayol contributed to streamlining the management process. Fayol emphasized the universality of management principles, without limiting their application only to the sphere of production. Fayol believed that the system of principles he proposed could not be finally formulated. It must remain open to additions and changes based on new experience, its analysis and generalization. Fayol noted that the application of principles in practice is “a difficult art, requiring thoughtfulness, experience, determination and a sense of proportion.” Many of the above signs have not lost their relevance today, despite the changes that have occurred over the past decades.
Objectivity and universality of management principles
Management science is based on a system of basic principles, principles that are unique to it, and at the same time relies on laws studied by other sciences related to management. It is obvious that before we begin to study the socio-psychological aspects of management and the art of influencing the individual and the team, it is necessary to consider the fundamental foundations of management - its principles. They start building a house not from the roof, but from its foundation.
The main objectives of management science are the study and practical use principles of development of the entire set managerial relations and various forms of their manifestation in determining goals, developing plans, creating economic and organizational conditions for the effective activities of work collectives. Studying and mastering these patterns is a necessary condition improving the management of public and private production, improving economic infrastructure and raising National economy countries.
The behavior of one of the main and most complex subjects of management - a person - is also based on certain principles, internal beliefs that determine his attitude to reality, on morality and ethics. Management principles are objective, i.e. do not depend on the will and desires of individuals, although any truth is learned through a complex system of subject-object relations, and this is the main difficulty in managing society and the individual. These principles cannot be considered absolute truth, but only a tool that allows, at least a little, to lift the veil over the super-complex world of the individual and the team and only suggest to the manager how to more intelligently influence the controlled system and what reaction should probably be expected to the control influence. Even the most experienced manager, who is fluent in management theory, is not immune from an unreasonable, emotional reaction to a situation.
The principles of management of production, society and personality are based on the dialectical law of development, which generalizes the experience of human civilization.
Management principles are universal, i.e. applicable to influence the individual and for optimal management of any society - official (industrial, official, civil, public) or unofficial (family, friendly, everyday). It is difficult to say where the role of these principles is especially relevant and important; undoubtedly, only that social facilities management is the most complex and responsible. Although the natural basis of personality is its genetic, biological features(a person is formed approximately 15% depending on hereditary factors and 85% on his environment), yet the determining factors are her social properties: views, needs, abilities, interests, moral and ethical beliefs, etc. Social structure personality is formed in the sphere of production, social activities, as well as in the sphere of family and everyday life.
A particularly complex management object is the collective, i.e. a group of people united on the basis of common tasks, joint actions, and constant contacts. The intellectual, cultural and moral potential of team members is so different that it is difficult to predict the reaction of each individual to the control influence. How to maintain friendly, cordial relationships in the family, how to establish and maintain mutual understanding with your colleague, how to influence the team in order to achieve assigned tasks without conflicts and stress? The principles of management as the foundation of the most complex of arts - the art of management - do not pretend to be a panacea for all occasions, but in all cases they will not leave a person without well-founded, thoughtful recommendations from professional specialists.
So, management principles determine the patterns of formation of a managed system: its structures, methods of influencing the team, form the motivation for the behavior of its members, take into account the features of technology and technical equipment managerial work. The art of management cannot rely only on intuition and the talent of a leader. This art is based on a solid theoretical basis accumulated over thousands of years by human civilization - on the principles and laws of management. Let's look at the most important of these principles.
In management, the problem of the goal is central, it determines and regulates actions and is the basic law, a complex algorithm of behavior that subordinates all aspects of the control influence. In cybernetics, a goal is understood as the action of feedback, in which information about the difference between the required and the fact stimulates the system to approach the optimal state. The functioning of any system, including human activity, will be effective if the cause-and-effect relationship between the elements of its structure includes a well-founded, clearly formulated goal that corresponds to the conditions and capabilities as the most important link.
Production, and even more so public management, along with strategic goals, must solve a significant complex of interrelated organizational, scientific, social and technical problems. Simultaneously with traditional, predetermined tasks, emergency situations constantly arise that require urgent operational decisions; often, the success of the team’s activities depends on the skillful solution of numerous and unexpectedly emerging acute problems. The art of determining the most important tactical goals, determining the order and methods of solving them is the basis of the art of management and is often based on foresight and intuition. However, the list of key, central tasks and, therefore, the expected effect from their solution can and should be determined in advance for each of the main management subsystems.
1: At the microeconomic level the question is resolved:
-: what and how much to produce
-: how to get rid of inflation
-: how to achieve full employment
-: how to stimulate economic growth
2.: Market economy is defined
-: isolation, limitation within the framework of the economy
-: universality and universality of commodity relations
-: economic orientation, regulated by the full will of the state
-: the presence of farms based on collective ownership
3.: Public goods differ from private ones in that they are ###.
-: divisible;
-: are for individual use;
-: divisible and for individual use;
-: indivisible and not in individual use;
-: divisible and not in individual use.
4: Subsistence farming is...:
-: production of natural products for humans
-: a farm where only manual labor is used
-: a farm where everything is created for sale
-: a farm where everything is produced for personal consumption and there is no commodity exchange
5: Economic ### reflect the essence of economic phenomena, their cause-and-effect relationships.
-: organizations
6: Economic laws operating within one socio-economic system are called ###.
-: specific
-: universal
-: private
7: The method of cognition, which involves dividing the whole into individual components is called ###.
-: by deduction
-: by induction
-: analysis
-: synthesis
-: by analogy
8: The term political economy was first introduced by ###.
-: J.M. Keynes
-: A.Marshall
-: A. Montchretien
9: Problems of what, how and for whom to produce are relevant
-: only to centrally planned societies
-: only to a market economy
-: only to third countries
-: to any society.
10:The continuous process of social production is called ###.
-: reproduction
-: economic growth
-: industrialization
-: nationalization
General and functional management
1. The main goal of management as a type of activity is...
- : creation of wealth
- : creation of surplus product
-: creating conditions for the successful achievement of organizational goals
-: generating ideas that bring material benefit, profit
2. The fundamental rules of conduct for managers in carrying out management actions are...
- : managerial functions
- : methods of behavior
- : principles of management
- : management tools
3. The principle of unity of command assumes that...
-: employees of an organization must report only to its leader
-: the employee must have only one immediate supervisor and receive orders only from him
-: a senior manager cannot give orders to employees without going through their immediate superior
-: the organization should have as few managers as possible
4. The principle of universality of management was formulated by...
- : Alexander the Great
- : Socrates
- : Cato the Elder
- : Nicollo Machiavelli
- : Plato
5. He was the first to formulate the principles of rational management...
- : G. Emerson
- : J. Babbage
- : K. Marx
6. Management principles formulated by A. Fayol...
- : simple
- : complex
- : flexible
- : universal
- : obsolete
7. The strategic advantage of any organization can provide...
-: following traditions, observing established rules
- : management aimed at extracting profit from any situation
-: creating conditions for a rapid response to all threats and opportunities
- : application modern technologies production
8. Management practices arose:
- : together with the creation of the “School scientific management»
- : in the twentieth century
-: in connection with the industrial revolution in England in the 18th century
-: together with the unification of the first people into stable groups, for example, into tribes
- : with the emergence of a systems approach
10. Ruler ancient world, who developed and applied in practice a set of laws governing government for regulation is...
- : Socrates
- : Plato
- : Hammurabi
- : Nebuchadnezzar II
- : Diocletian
Appendix 2
List of open questions
Page 5 of 28
Ancient period.
The longest period was the development of management - from the 9th to 7th millennia, approximately until the 18th century. Before selecting control in independent region knowledge, humanity has been accumulating management experience bit by bit for thousands of years.
The first, simplest, rudimentary forms of ordering and organization joint work existed at the stage of the primitive communal system. At this time, management was carried out jointly by all members of the clan, tribe or community. The elders and leaders of clans and tribes personified the guiding principle of all types of activities of that period.
Around the 9th–7th millennia, in a number of places in the Middle East, a transition took place from an appropriative economy (hunting, collecting fruits, etc.) to a fundamentally new form receipt of products - their production (producing economy). The transition to a producing economy became the starting point and origin of management, a milestone in the accumulation by people of certain knowledge in the field of management.
IN Ancient Egypt rich management experience has been accumulated state economy. During this period (3000 - 2800 BC), a state administrative apparatus and its supporting layer (officials-scribes, etc.) were formed, quite developed for that time.
One of those who was the first to characterize government as a special sphere of activity was the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates (470–399 BC), who, understanding management as a special sphere human activity, believed that the main thing is management – put the right person in the right place and achieve the tasks assigned to him. Socrates analyzed various shapes management, on the basis of which he proclaimed the principle of universality of management.
Plato (428 or 427 - 348 or 347 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, considered management as the science of general nutrition people and argued that management activities are important element life support systems of society. Plato gave a classification of forms government controlled, made an attempt to differentiate the functions of the governing bodies.
Aristotle (384–322 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, laid the foundations for the doctrine of the household (the prototype of modern political economy), within the framework of which he pointed out the need to develop a “master's science” that teaches slave owners the skills of handling slaves and the art of management them. However, Aristotle notes, this is a rather troublesome matter, and “therefore, for those who have the opportunity to avoid such troubles, the manager takes on this responsibility, while they themselves are engaged in politics or philosophy.”
The issues of organizing production and management received a lot of attention in Ancient Rome, which is well illustrated by the example of the farm management system used there. Cato the Censor (Marcus Porcius, Cato the Elder) (c. 234 BC, Tusculum - 149 BC, Rome), outstanding commander and political figure Ancient Rome, the first Latin prose writer, wrote about the need to plan farm work a whole year in advance. The Canton Censor spoke about mandatory monitoring of the work done, the need to compare the program and results, to find out the reasons for non-fulfillment of the plan, and the rational organization of work.
The principles of any science represent the basic principles on which further reasoning is based, a system of restrictions that must be taken into account in scientific research.
The principles of management arise from the relationships of management processes and the relationships that arise during this process.
Based on the experience of development of management as a science, the following principles can be identified:
The principle of science. This principle suggests that management decisions should not be made intuitively, but based on data scientific research. In this case, the achievements of a wide variety of sciences - natural, social and technical - can be used. Since management involves making decisions directly related to the organization of production and the relationships of people involved in this production, among the sciences priority is given to mathematics, statistics, sociology and psychology. The principle of science does not mean that a manager uses only data and conclusions from many sciences in his activities. Effective management is only possible if management bodies constantly improvise and look for individual approaches to the situation and to people. That is, a certain element of art is assumed interpersonal communication, the ability to find the only correct way out of the most difficult situations.
The principle of development dominance(another name is the principle of the main link). This principle is that before making a management decision the following must be determined:
the main prospects that are expected to be achieved;
the main factor on which the achievement of the goal depends.
Following this principle allows you to minimize the time and financial costs of researching various areas of enterprise development by reducing the number of options under study. In addition, identifying the main factor allows you to concentrate all types of resources (often limited) on the development of the main task. In this case, related problems are solved as they arise and to the extent required to solve the main problem.
The principle of consistency and complexity. This principle requires both comprehensive and systematic approaches to management. Systematicity means the need to use elements of theory large systems, system analysis in every management decision. First of all, it is necessary to convey every management act to the ordinary performer, to use all the properties of large systems.
Complexity in management means the need for comprehensive coverage of the entire managed system, taking into account all sides, all directions, all properties. For example, this may be taking into account all the features of the structure of the managed team: age, ethnic, religious, professional, general cultural, etc.
Thus, systematicity means the need to structure problems and solutions vertically, and complexity means their detailing horizontally. Therefore, systematicity tends more towards vertical, subordination connections, and complexity - towards horizontal, coordination connections.
The principle of ensuring compliance with the rights, duties and responsibilities of each link in the management system. Despite the obviousness of this principle, in practice, the manager (or the corresponding structural unit representing the management body) has to constantly fight against negative trends: an unjustified expansion of the rights of the management body on the one hand, and an unjustified increase in the responsibilities of the management subject. If the rights of the governing body are not secured by responsibility for the results of their implementation, a situation is possible in which no one is responsible for the effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) decisions taken. In this case, the management body will be prone to unjustified experiments, the consequences of which can significantly worsen both the financial performance of the enterprise and the moral and psychological climate in the team. This is most often observed in enterprises in which the role of the formal leader is unjustifiably overstated, and employees do not have a real opportunity to express an opinion different from the opinion of management and to ensure that it is taken into account when making decisions. management decisions. This situation is especially typical for the majority of modern Russian small enterprises, headed by people who are not professionals in the relevant industry (or simply incompetent), but have capital. The same threat is fraught with appointment to leadership positions people who do not have sufficient life experience, especially experience working in a team. Thus, an excess of rights compared to responsibilities gives rise to economic arbitrariness.
The described situation also has another side - the lack of rights (in relation to the responsibilities) of workers and middle and lower management of the enterprise. A natural consequence of this state of affairs will be the disinterest of employees in increasing the efficiency of the enterprise as a whole (or more precisely, the priority of minimal personal well-being over risky attempts to change the existing system of relationships). In other words, any business initiative will be paralyzed.
The opposite situation - when a manager experiences a lack of rights in relation to responsibilities - is now relatively rare. This situation is more typical for an administrative economy, in which the rights of workers are protected by an overly socially oriented labor legislation, and the initiative of the enterprise management is seriously constrained by the need to stay within the limits established by the instructions of higher authorities (however, not always rational). At the same time, the manager not only experiences a lack of rights, but is also obliged to be responsible for the consequences of actions that do not directly depend on him. In this situation, the will of the management body to develop and make the most effective management decisions is paralyzed, and of the employees with proper productivity, only those to whom socio-psychological methods of influence are applicable work.
The principle of maximum involvement of performers in the process of preparing decisions with the sole responsibility of the management body for their results. Previously (during the period of a planned economy) this principle was called the principle of unity of command and collegiality. It is easy to see that, in a slightly modified form, this principle has not lost its relevance in the conditions market economy.
In practice, the application of this principle means taking into account the opinions of specialists and performers on various issues related to decision-making. The head of an enterprise or manager must know the specifics of production better than each individual employee, but worse than all the employees combined. This means that each performer has “professional secrets” known only to him. In addition, it is with the direct implementation of previously made decisions that all their pros and cons become apparent. On the other hand, the contractor cannot always adequately assess the role and significance of his contribution to the work of the enterprise, as well as how his individual initiatives can affect the entire technological process.
The maximum possible involvement of performers in the process of preparing decisions allows, to a certain extent, to redistribute rights and responsibilities between the subject of management and the management body. However, here it should be taken into account that the right to make the final decision still belongs to the management body and it is he who must bear the responsibility most responsibility for the results of this decision.
The principle of democratic centralism. This principle is widely and successfully applied in party building. In management, democratic centralism means a rational combination of centralized regulation of the managed subsystem and its self-regulation within certain limits. In principle, a bias is possible both towards excessive centralization (up to autocracy, when any, even the most insignificant issues are regulated by decisions from above), and towards excessive democratization (up to ochlocracy, when any decisions, even the most important ones, are made by simple voting of members labor collective).
Centralism is needed in harsh conditions (conducting military operations, economic crisis), and democracy in management manifests itself the more, the more stable the society and the more creative the work.
In practice, the predominance of democracy or centralism is quite widespread, but in not very pronounced forms. The main reason for this is the lack of professionalism of the management body's employees. The predominance of democracy - to the detriment of the moral and psychological climate and financial indicators activity of the enterprise - perhaps when the manager interprets the concept of “democratization of society” too broadly or tries to radically (diametrically) change existing system decision-making and existing relationships between individual members work collective (including management) or between groups of workers. Unjustified use of centralism, as a rule, occurs in those enterprises that have been operating for quite a long time (at least 15 years), and neither management nor employees are interested in changing the system labor relations, which developed during the period of late stagnation. However, at enterprises created in recent years, a similar situation may also arise. This may be due (as noted above) to the lack of professionalism or incompetence of the manager and, related to this, the management body’s misunderstanding of its role in the production process.
The principle of subordinating personal interests to general ones. The obvious principle of the priority of public interests over individual ones in the field of management is the most difficult to implement. The fact is that from a management point of view, achieving common goals is possible only if a certain level of personal interests of employees is satisfied. As the employee moves along the hierarchy of his needs, the problem of the relationship between public and personal interests does not become simpler, but, on the contrary, has a pronounced tendency to become more complicated, since the more diverse and expensive the personal interests of workers are, the more difficult it becomes to find motivation to increase labor efficiency for such workers.
Principle of staff motivation. Personnel motivation involves a skillful combination of material and moral, as well as individual and social incentives to increase the quantity and quality of work. Material incentives in a market economy are the most common. Despite the obvious direct relationship between labor productivity and the amount of payment, at a certain stage the relationship between these indicators becomes not linear, but functional. That is, upon reaching a certain level of wages financial incentives begin to act less and less, as other (non-material) needs of workers come to the fore. Therefore, in any organizational and economic conditions, moral incentives continue to be a significant factor in the intensification of production. Various forms of moral incentives for personnel have been developed and tested in a planned economy. Of course, in market conditions many of them are not applicable, and some must be adapted to new forms of relationships between employees and employers. It should be noted that in Russian practice recent years role moral principles underestimated.
Individual incentives, in principle, correspond to the hierarchy of employee needs. If at the lower levels of needs material incentives are sufficient, then, starting from the third level, a skillful and effective combination of material and moral incentives is necessary.
Social incentives have the least impact on the immediate performance of enterprises and individual workers. Public incentives can be implemented only in the event of significant changes in the economic state of the industry or the state as a whole - a significant increase in national income, a decrease in inflation, a reduction or stabilization of prices for consumer goods, etc. In addition, the use of public incentives presupposes the need government regulation providing appropriate benefits and payments to enterprises and individual employees. Naturally, between the moment when the corresponding macroeconomic indicators improve significantly and the moment when part of the additionally received national income will be (directly or indirectly) distributed among participants production process, a certain period of time will pass. This further reduces the effectiveness of public incentives. However, at a certain level of ideological development (the USSR and the USA can be cited as examples), public incentives can have a certain positive impact on the performance of individual enterprises.
The principle of functional specialization and the principle of universality. These principles can and should only be applied in combination. The principle of functional specialization assumes an individual approach to each group of performers or individual employees. This is due to the specifics production activities groups of performers and individual performers, as well as the specifics of the formation of internal relationships between members of such groups, which is determined by the specifics of the functions performed by the group (for example, in a group of programmers, relationships develop that are fundamentally different from those in a production team - if programmers have competition in the foreground level of qualifications and the ability to apply it in practice, then labor productivity and workplace organization prevail among production workers).
At the same time, the principle of universality suggests that when developing solutions for managing functional groups, a manager should, whenever possible, use universal (uniform or similar in essence) approaches.
The principle of unity of sectoral, territorial management and production management. This principle means that when developing a production management strategy, a manager must take into account the interests of the industry within which this production exists, as well as the interests of the region in which the enterprise is located. In other words, the goals of an individual enterprise should not conflict with the interests of other enterprises (with the exception of healthy competition, of course) and with the interests of state and municipal bodies that determine financial relations between manufacturers and budgets of various levels.
The interests of the industry that must be taken into account when developing production management measures include the following:
the need to develop production;
expansion of the range of products;
reduction of production and distribution costs;
organization of interaction between enterprises representing related cells of the production and sales process.
Among the territorial interests (interests of the region), attention should be paid to the following:
increase in employment;
compliance with environmental requirements;
compliance of the nature of production with the characteristics of the region;
energy factor (rational consumption of energy resources, based on the capabilities of the region);
development of infrastructure (primarily communal and social services).