The concept of method and methodology of scientific research. Methodology and methodology of scientific research
The method of scientific research is a way of understanding objective reality. A method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, and operations.
Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.
Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.
Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels are distinguished.
To methods empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.
TO theoretical level methods include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.
Methods at the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists attribute the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among general logical methods.
Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:
a) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;
b) general scientific ones, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;
c) private - for related sciences;
d) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge.
The concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished from the concept of method under consideration.
Research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and research procedure is a certain sequence of actions, a way of organizing research.
Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.
Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:
a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);
the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge.
Each science has its own methodology.
There are the following levels of methodology:
1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.
2. Private methodology scientific research, for example, for a group of related legal sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, of state legal phenomena.
3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.
Among universal (philosophical) methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. Thus, the dialectical method in K. Marx was combined with materialism, and in G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism.
Russian legal scholars use the dialectical method to study state and legal phenomena, because the laws of dialectics have universal significance and are inherent in the development of nature, society and thinking.
When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:
1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:
a) unity and struggle of opposites,
b) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones,
c) negation of negation.
2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes being studied, based on philosophical categories: general, special and individual; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; causes and consequences.
3. Treat the object of research as an objective reality.
4. Consider the objects and phenomena being studied:
Comprehensively,
in universal connection and interdependence,
in continuous change, development,
specifically historically.
5. Test the acquired knowledge in practice.
All general scientific methods For analysis, it is advisable to divide them into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.
By general logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.
Analysis– this is the dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies the analytical research method. Types of analysis are classification and periodization.
Synthesis– this is the connection of individual sides, parts of the object of study into a single whole.
Induction- this is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to the general situation. Inductive inferences “suggest” an idea, a general idea.
Deduction – this is the derivation of an individual, particular from any general position, the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “derived” from other thoughts.
Analogy- this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena on the basis of the fact that they have similarities with others, reasoning in which, from the similarity of the objects being studied in some characteristics, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other characteristics.
To methods theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.
Axiomatic method – a method of research that consists in the fact that some statements are accepted without evidence and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is deduced from them.
Hypothetical method – a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.
A variation of this method is the hypothetico-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived.
The structure of the hypothetico-deductive method includes:
a) making conjectures (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of the phenomena and objects being studied,
b) selection from a variety of guesses the most probable, plausible,
c) deducing a consequence (conclusion) from a selected assumption (premise) using deduction,
d) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.
Formalization– display of a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of any artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and the study of this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of artificial formalized language in scientific research allows us to eliminate such shortcomings of natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.
When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of research, they operate with signs (formulas). By operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas and prove the truth of any proposition.
Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.
Abstraction– mental abstraction from some properties and relationships of the subject being studied and highlighting the properties and relationships that interest the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and connections of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and connections.
Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. highlighting the common properties and relationships of the objects being studied, establishing what is identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class; isolation, i.e. highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of research. The theory also distinguishes other types of abstraction: potential feasibility, actual infinity.
Generalization– establishment general properties and relationships between objects and phenomena; definition of a general concept that reflects the essential, basic characteristics of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in highlighting not essential, but any characteristics of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of the general, the particular and the individual.
Historical method is to identify historical facts and on this basis in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves studying the emergence and development of research objects in chronological order.
Ascent from abstract to concrete as a method of scientific knowledge is that the researcher first finds the main connection of the subject (phenomenon) being studied, then, tracing how it changes under different conditions, discovers new connections and in this way reflects its essence in its entirety.
System method consists in the study of a system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with external environment. At the same time, it turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent in its constituent objects.
TO empirical methods include: observation, description, counting, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling.
Observation is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena using the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.
Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the object of study, simple and participant observation are distinguished. The first consists of observation from the outside, when the researcher is an outsider in relation to the object who is not a participant in the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher openly or incognito is included in the group, its activities as a participant.
If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the environmental conditions and the situation were specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on film and in other ways.
Description– this is the recording of signs of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description happens:
direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the characteristics of the object;
indirect, when the researcher notes the signs of an object that were perceived by other persons.
Check– this is the determination of quantitative relationships between objects of study or parameters characterizing their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in statistics.
Measurement- this is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. In forensics, measurement is used to determine: the distance between objects; speed of movement of vehicles, people or other objects; the duration of certain phenomena and processes, temperature, size, weight, etc.
Comparison- this is a comparison of features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding commonality in them.
In scientific research, this method is used, for example, to compare state legal institutions of different states. This method is based on the study, comparison of similar objects, identifying similarities and differences in them, advantages and disadvantages.
Experiment– this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.
Experiments can be classified on various grounds:
by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;
according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - conventional (experimental tools directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the research object). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).
The above classification is not exhaustive.
Modeling- this is gaining knowledge about the object of research with the help of its substitutes - an analogue, a model. A model is understood as a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object.
Based on the similarity between the model and the simulated object, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.
In modeling theory there are:
1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, notes, signs, mathematical interpretation;
2) material (natural, real- physical) models, for example, models, dummies, analogue objects for experiments during examinations, reconstruction of a person’s external appearance using the method of M.M. Gerasimova.
The methodology and methods of scientific research are aimed at understanding objective reality. Moreover, they represent a specific sequence of operations, techniques, and actions. They differ depending on what the objects being studied contain. It is worth considering that in this case, methodology is nothing more than the application of general theories, principles aimed at solving the problems of a particular science, research tasks.
Currently, science has enough a large number of methods of scientific research. Classification of scientific research methods is made on various grounds.
Methodology and classified by scientific fields: biological, mathematical, socio-economic, medical, legal, etc.
In accordance with the level of knowledge, methods of theoretical, empirical, and metatheoretical levels are differentiated.
There are methods of quantitative and qualitative processing of the obtained data, for example, factorial, correlation, or presentation in the form of graphs, tables, diagrams, histograms, etc.
The classification of scientific research methods according to the nature of the researcher’s actions contains four groups:
1) empirical, including introspection and observation; experimental and psychodiagnostic, containing questionnaires, testing, conversation, interviewing and sociometry; praximetric methods - cyclography, chronometry, professional description and evaluation of work; biographical, based on the analysis of facts, evidence, events, dates of a person’s life and modeling method;
2) organizational methods: comprehensive, longitudinal, comparative;
3) interpretive methods, in particular, structural and genetic methods;
4) methods of qualitative and quantitative analysis.
However, the methodology and methods of scientific research are traditionally carried out based on the level of scientific knowledge - empirical or theoretical. At the same time, research methods are distinguished accordingly.
Methodology and directly depend on the degree of generality and scope of application. In accordance with these, methods are distinguished:
1) philosophical (universal), which operate at any stage of knowledge and in all sciences;
2) general scientific ones, used in the natural, humanities and technical sciences;
3) private ones, used for research of related sciences;
4) special, applicable to a specific area of scientific knowledge.
What are the methods of scientific research in psychology in particular? The main methods include experiment and observation, and the auxiliary methods include analysis of performance results and communication. How to determine which methods of scientific research in psychology are rational to apply? The decision in each specific case is made individually. It all depends on the object and objectives of the research. It is worth noting that, as a rule, not one specific method is used, but several methods in combination. Moreover, each of the methods mutually controls and complements each other.
Observation means a method consisting of a purposeful, systematic and deliberate perception and recording of manifestations of behavior in order to obtain conclusions about the mental, subjective phenomena of the observed.
An experiment differs from observation in that it is carried out within a specially created research situation with active intervention in it with systematic manipulation of variable factors and registration of the resulting changes in the behavior of the subject.
A questionnaire interview is associated with the collection of verbal testimony from subjects and their subsequent analysis.
Scientific research is purposeful knowledge, the results of which appear in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. When characterizing scientific research, they usually point to the following distinctive features:
This is necessarily a purposeful process, the achievement of a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks;
This is a process aimed at finding something new, at creativity, at discovering the unknown, at putting forward original ideas, for new coverage of the issues under consideration;
It is characterized by systematicity: here both the research process itself and its results are ordered and brought into a system;
It is characterized by strict evidence, consistent substantiation of the generalizations and conclusions made.
The object of scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their totality.
The goal, the immediate tasks of scientific and theoretical research are to find what a number of individual phenomena have in common, to reveal the laws according to which such phenomena arise, function, and develop, i.e., to penetrate into their deep essence.
Basic means of scientific and theoretical research:
A set of scientific methods, comprehensively substantiated and combined into a single system;
A set of concepts, strictly defined terms, interconnected and forming the characteristic language of science.
The results of scientific research are embodied in scientific works (articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.) and only then, after a comprehensive assessment, are used in practice, taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and, in a distilled, generalized form, included in governing documents.
Human activity in any form (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how it happens this process, what methods, techniques, means are used. These are the problems of the method.
Method (Greek - way of cognition) - in the broadest sense of the word - “the path to something”, the method of activity of the subject in any of its forms.
The concept of “methodology” has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (in science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action.
History and current state knowledge and practice convincingly show that not every method, not every system of principles and other means of activity provides a successful solution to theoretical and practical problems. Not only the result of the research, but also the path leading to it must be true.
The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of a particular object. Therefore, the method (in one form or another) comes down to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of cognition and action.
It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that should guide the solution of a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a particular field of activity.
It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if correct) to save energy and time, and move towards the goal in the shortest way. The true method serves as a kind of compass along which the subject of cognition and action makes his way and allows him to avoid mistakes.
F. Bacon compared the method to a lamp that illuminates a road in the dark, and believed that one cannot count on success in studying any issue by following the wrong path.
He considered induction to be such a method, which requires science to proceed from empirical analysis, observation and experiment in order to understand the causes and laws on this basis.
G. Descartes called the method “precise and simple rules", the observance of which contributes to the growth of knowledge, makes it possible to distinguish the false from the true. He said that it is better not to think about finding any truths than to do it without any method, especially without a deductive-rationalistic one.
Problems of method and methodologists are interested important place in modern Western philosophy - especially in such directions and trends as philosophy of science, positivism and post-positivism, structuralism and post-structuralism, analytical philosophy, hermeneutics, phenomenology and others.
Each method will turn out to be ineffective and even useless if it is used not as a “guiding thread” in scientific or other forms of activity, but as a ready-made template for reshaping facts.
The main purpose of any method is, on the basis of relevant principles (requirements, instructions, etc.), to ensure the successful solution of certain cognitive and practical problems, the increase in knowledge, the optimal functioning and development of certain objects.
It should be borne in mind that questions of method and methodology cannot be limited only to philosophical or internal scientific frameworks, but must be posed in a broad sociocultural context.
This means that it is necessary to take into account the connection between science and production at this stage of social development, the interaction of science with other forms of social consciousness, the relationship between methodological and value aspects, the “personal characteristics” of the subject of activity and many other social factors.
The use of methods can be spontaneous and conscious. It is clear that only the conscious application of methods, based on an understanding of their capabilities and limits, makes people’s activities, other things being equal, more rational and effective.
Methodology as a general theory of method was formed in connection with the need to generalize and develop those methods, tools and techniques that were discovered in philosophy, science and other forms of human activity. Historically, the problems of methodology were initially developed within the framework of philosophy: the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of F. Bacon, the rationalistic method of G. Descartes, the dialectical method of G. Hegel and K. Marx, the phenomenological method of E. Husserl. Therefore, methodology is closely connected with philosophy - especially with such sections as epistemology (theory of knowledge) and dialectics.
Methodology in a certain sense is “broader” than dialectics, since it studies not only the general, but also other levels of methodological knowledge, as well as their relationships, modifications, etc.
The close connection between methodology and dialectics does not mean that these concepts are identical and that materialist dialectics acts as a philosophical methodology of science. Materialistic dialectics is one of the forms of dialectics, and the latter is one of the elements of philosophical methodology, along with metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, etc.
The methodology, in a certain sense, is “narrower” than the theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of the forms and methods of knowledge, but studies the problems of the nature of knowledge, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the subject and object of knowledge, the possibilities and boundaries of knowledge, the criteria of its truth, etc. On the other hand, methodology is “broader” than epistemology, since it is interested not only in methods of cognition, but also in all other forms human activity.
The logical study of science is the means of modern formal logic, which are used to analyze scientific language, identify the logical structure scientific theories and their components (definitions, classifications, concepts, laws, etc.), studying the possibilities and completeness of formalization of scientific knowledge.
Traditional logical means were used mainly to analyze the structure of scientific knowledge, then the center of methodological interests shifted to the problems of growth, change and development of knowledge.
This change in methodological interests can be viewed from the following two perspectives.
The task of the logic of time is to build artificial (formalized) languages that can make reasoning about objects and phenomena that exist in time clearer and more accurate, and therefore more fruitful.
The task of the logic of change is the construction of artificial (formalized) languages capable of making clearer and more accurate reasoning about the change of an object - its transition from one state to another, about the formation of an object, its formation.
At the same time, it should be said that the truly great achievements of formal logic have given rise to the illusion that only its methods can solve all methodological problems of science without exception. This illusion was supported especially for a long time by logical positivism, the collapse of which showed the limitations and one-sidedness of such an approach - despite its importance “within its competence.”
Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which thereby serves as its necessary prerequisite.
The effectiveness and strength of a particular method is determined by the content, depth, and fundamental nature of the theory, which is “compressed into a method.”
In turn, “the method expands into the system,” that is, it is used for the further development of science, deepening and expanding theoretical knowledge as a system, its materialization, objectification in practice.
Thus, theory and method are simultaneously identical and different. their similarity lies in the fact that they are interconnected and in their unity reflect reality.
Being united in their interaction, theory and method are not strictly separated from each other and at the same time are not directly the same thing.
They mutually transfer, mutually transform: theory, reflecting reality, is transformed, transformed into a method through the development, formulation of principles, rules, techniques arising from it, which return to theory (and through it - to practice), because the subject applies them as regulators, prescriptions, in the course of cognition and change of the surrounding world according to its own laws.
Therefore, the statement that the method is a theory addressed to the practice of scientific research is not accurate, because the method is also addressed to practice itself as a sensory-objective, socially transformative activity.
The development of theory and the improvement of methods of research and transformation of reality are essentially the same process with these two inextricably linked aspects. Not only is theory summarized in methods, but also methods are developed into theory and have a significant impact on its formation and on the course of practice.
The main differences between theory and method are as follows:
a) theory is the result of previous activity, method is the starting point and prerequisite for subsequent activity;
b) the main functions of theory are explanation and prediction (with the aim of searching for truth, laws, causes, etc.), method - regulation and orientation of activity;
c) theory - a system of ideal images reflecting the essence, patterns of an object; method - a system of regulations, rules, instructions that act as a tool for further cognition and changing reality;
d) theory is aimed at solving the problem - what a given subject or method is - at identifying methods and mechanisms for its research and transformation.
Thus, theories, laws, categories and other abstractions do not yet constitute a method. To perform methodological function, they must be appropriately transformed, transformed from explanatory provisions of the theory into orientational-active, regulatory principles (requirements, instructions, settings) of the method.
Any method is determined not only by its predecessors and by other methods, and not only by the theory on which it is based.
Each method is determined primarily by its subject, i.e., what exactly is being studied (individual objects or their classes).
A method as a method of research and other activities cannot remain unchanged, always equal to itself in all respects, but must change in its content along with the subject to which it is directed. This means that not only the final result of knowledge must be true, but also the path leading to it, that is, a method that comprehends and holds precisely the specifics of a given subject.
A method of any level of generality has not only a purely theoretical, but also a practical character: it arises from the real life process and goes into it again.
It should be borne in mind that in modern science the concept of “object of knowledge” is used in two main meanings.
Firstly, as a subject area - aspects, properties, relations of reality that have relative completeness, integrity and oppose the subject in his activity (object of knowledge). For example, a subject area in zoology is a set of animals. Different sciences about the same object have various items knowledge (for example, anatomy studies the structure of organisms, physiology - the functions of its organs, etc.).
Objects of knowledge can be both material and ideal.
Secondly, as a system of laws to which a given object is subject. You cannot separate the subject and the method and see in the latter only an external means in relation to the subject.
The method is not imposed on the subject of cognition or action, but changes in accordance with their specificity. Research involves a thorough knowledge of the facts and other data relevant to its subject. It is carried out as movement in a certain material, the study of its features, connections, relationships.
The way of moving (method) is that the research must become familiar with specific material (factual and conceptual), analyze the various forms of its development, and trace their internal connections.
The variety of types of human activity determines a diverse range of methods that can be classified according to a variety of criteria.
First of all, we should highlight the methods of spiritual, ideal (including scientific) and methods of practical, material activity.
It has now become obvious that a system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond its limits and certainly include it in its orbit and scope of practice. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.
As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for dividing them into groups. Thus, depending on the role and place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can distinguish formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation.
The content of objects studied by science serves as a criterion for distinguishing between the methods of natural science and the methods of social sciences and humanities. In turn, the methods of natural sciences can be divided into methods for studying inanimate nature and methods for studying living nature. There are also high-quality and quantitative methods, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative.
To the number characteristic features scientific method most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristic, necessity, specificity, etc.
In modern science, the multi-level concept of methodological knowledge works quite successfully. In this regard, all methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into the following main groups.
1. Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. Essentially, every philosophical concept has a methodological function and is a unique way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two mentioned. These also include methods such as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.
2. General scientific approaches and research methods that have been widely developed and used in science. They act as a kind of intermediate methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.
General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as information, model, structure, function, system, element, optimality, probability.
On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.
General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.
Recently, such a general scientific discipline as synergetics - the theory of self-organization and development of open integral systems of any nature - natural, social, cognitive - has been developing especially rapidly in recent years.
Among the basic concepts of synergetics are order, chaos, nonlinearity, uncertainty, and instability.
Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as being, development, formation, time, the whole, chance, possibility.
3. Private scientific methods - a set of methods, principles of knowledge, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science corresponding to a given basic form of movement of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences.
4. Disciplinary methods - a system of techniques used in one or another scientific discipline, part of some branch of science or that arose at the intersections of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.
5. Methods of interdisciplinary research - a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods, aimed mainly at the intersections of scientific disciplines. These methods have found wide application in the implementation of complex scientific programs.
Thus, methodology cannot be reduced to any one, even very important method.
Methodology is also not a simple sum of individual methods, their mechanical unity. Methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, scope, focus, heuristic capabilities, contents, structures.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
MOSCOW STATE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY
Krivshenko L.P.,
Weindorf-Sysoeva M.E., Yurkina L.V.
METHODOLOGY AND METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
MOSCOW 2007
Methodology and methods of scientific research
Tutorial
Reviewer: Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Prof. Lyamzin M.A.
annotation
The manual talks about the methodology and methods of organizing scientific research to solve the problems of enhancing the learning of schoolchildren and students of primary and secondary vocational education. Research methods and experiments are most often associated with the technical and natural sciences among an unprepared audience, and in these areas there really are theoretical and guidelines. This manual reveals the specifics of experimental activities in the humanitarian field, paying special attention to psychology and pedagogy - as the main tools of the teacher - the leader of the experiment. The appendix provides methods for personality research. The manual may be of interest to teachers, students and parents.
Topic 1. Science as a system of knowledge of reality. 4
Topic 2. The concept of scientific research 10
Topic 3. Methodology of scientific research 25
Topic 4. Features of scientific research in psychology and pedagogy 38
Topic 5. Psychology in the system of scientific knowledge 53
Topic 6. Research methods in psychology 59
Topic 7. Pedagogy in the system of scientific knowledge 68
Topic 8. Research methods in pedagogy 75
Topic 1. Science as a system of knowledge of reality.
Scientific principles
Formation of scientific knowledge
System of scientific knowledge
Science as a social institution
To prove something intelligently, intelligence alone is not enough.
F. Chesterfield
Since ancient times, humanity has sought to identify the patterns of functioning of the surrounding reality and, on their basis, reproduce a picture of the world. The demands of society dictated the acquisition of new knowledge and its use for the purpose of correcting reality. To meet these demands, ideas about the world had to meet several requirements : objectivity, generality, reliability and the ability to transfer knowledge. Throughout the entire development of civilization, social institutions were formed that contributed to the receipt and transmission of ideas about the world, but they did not immediately reach scientific level. In various eras, religious institutions, philosophical and medical schools served as social institutions for the production, preservation and transmission of knowledge. At the same time, there was a system of pre-scientific and everyday knowledge, within the framework of which various systems of scientific knowledge of the world began to emerge.
The very first science, back in ancient times, was philosophy, although its understanding then was significantly different from the modern one - philosophy was considered a comprehensive wisdom that united all knowledge about the world known to a particular era. Then, as knowledge expanded, separate scientific systems gradually began to emerge from philosophy.
IN THE 11th-111th centuries. the formation of science began as a social institution - specifically designed to obtain reliable and reliable ideas about the world. During this period, universities, national academies, and scientific periodicals were created, which ensured the open nature of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the occult nature of previous eras.
Where did any science begin - with the fact that some sage saw a problem for research and knowledge. The problem is traditionally considered to be a clash of knowledge and ignorance. If we are talking about a clash of personal knowledge and ignorance, this is an educational problem, i.e. a problem for an individual or group of people, but not for humanity as a whole. And if general knowledge collides with general ignorance, then we can talk about
scientific problem. Diagram 1 demonstrates the level of problems.
However, the very isolation of a problem area from the mass of philosophical knowledge does not yet indicate the emergence of science. If researchers transform a certain layer of phenomena into an object of scientific knowledge, including a description of facts and their possible explanation, this does not yet give the status of science. What gives it? In science there is no place for subjective knowledge, everyday knowledge and more. It is known that a craft, although learning it requires hard work, time, study, and sometimes talent, is not a science, since it represents skills without a theoretical basis. But religion, which has theoretical schemes, is also not a science, since its reasoning has never been tested by practice, much less confirmed by it. What does scientific research include? Oddly enough, science begins at the descriptive stage, but at this stage it is not yet science. At this stage, facts are described, then they are systematized and explained. On this basis, a theoretical basis arises - a system of reliable knowledge about reality (this is where verification by practice appears). The theoretical basis will be imperfect if it does not allow one to derive certain laws - stable, repeating connections between phenomena. The prognostic function is very important for the status of science; without it, science is also untenable. The above can be summarized in Diagram 2.
Scientists define the concept of law and regularity in different ways. We are closer to the idea that law is an unconditional, repeating, stable connection of phenomena and events. Naturally, any law has a certain scope of application within which it operates. Talk about universal laws is quite conventional. In addition, laws are most often talked about in the system of natural, exact sciences, while in the system of humanities it is customary to talk about patterns - repeating, stable, but conditional connections between phenomena and events. This convention is determined, first of all, by the diversity and complexity of the – human – field of study.
Scheme 2.
Today, science is defined as a sphere of human activity, the functions of which are: the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality; usage theoretical developments on practice; the ability to predict the development of research and its results. The possibility of implementing these functions exists due to the multifaceted nature of the scientific phenomenon:
science as a social institution (community of scientists, a set of scientific institutions and auxiliary structures);
science as a result - scientific knowledge, a system of ideas about the world;
science as a process – direct scientific research, the process of obtaining generalized, reliable, objective and broadcast information;
Formation of science as a social institution. The most important goal of science is the acquisition of new knowledge in accordance with both already formulated and only possible future demands of society. To meet these demands, knowledge must have such properties as generality, reliability, communicability, and objectivity.
Throughout the history of human society, social institutions have been formed that provide these properties of knowledge. Social institution - a concept denoting a steadily reproducing system of values, norms, rules (formal and informal), principles; the beginning that organizes members of society into a system of relationships, roles and statuses. Social institutions should be distinguished from specific organizations. However, science as a social institution unites specific organizations, conducting research work are, first of all, higher educational establishments(academies, universities, institutes), industry institutes, institutes for advanced training, etc.
No scientific work is possible without the appropriate infrastructure. These are the so-called bodies and organizations of scientific services: scientific publishing houses, scientific journals, scientific instrument making, etc., which are, as it were, sub-branches of science as a social institution.
Science as a social institution can function only if there are specially trained, qualified scientific personnel. Training of scientific personnel is carried out through graduate studies or competition at the level scientific degree Ph.D. From among the candidates of sciences, scientific personnel of the highest qualification are trained through doctoral studies or co-search - at the level of the scientific degree of Doctor of Sciences. At the level of the global scientific community, the scientific degree of Candidate of Sciences corresponds to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and the scientific degree of Doctor of Sciences corresponds to Doctor of Engineering or Philosophy, respectively in technical or human sciences.
Along with academic degrees, teachers of higher educational institutions and institutes for advanced training are awarded academic titles as the level of their pedagogical qualifications: associate professor in the department (mainly from among candidates of sciences, with experience of teaching at a university and published scientific works) and professor (mainly from among doctors of sciences with major scientific works - textbooks, monographs, etc.) . In industrial scientific institutes, the title of associate professor in a department corresponds to the title of senior researcher or associate professor in a specialty, and the title of professor in a department corresponds to a professor in a specialty.
Currently, many secondary educational institutions invite scientific and pedagogical personnel from universities or scientific organizations. This trend is extremely promising, as is the training of scientific and pedagogical personnel from among the managers and teachers of educational institutions themselves. The fact that in secondary schools, gymnasiums, and educational institutions of primary and secondary vocational education, more and more candidates and doctors of science are working, indicating that these educational institutions will be increasingly involved in research activities.
Topic 2. The concept of scientific research
idea of scientific research
requirements for scientific research
terminology of scientific research
“Everything that exists has sufficient
the basis for its existence"
G. Leibniz
The specifics of scientific research largely depend on the field of science in which it is carried out. But there are common features that make it possible to understand that this is a scientific study. Scientific research is associated, first of all, with the independent creative search of the researcher. However, this creative search is based on a detailed and thorough study of past scientific experience. As discussed below, it is important to understand the level of challenge of scientific research. If you pose a problem without studying previous scientific achievements, you may end up with learning task, in other words, reinventing the wheel. Continuity in the development of scientific theories, ideas and concepts, methods and means of scientific knowledge is necessary. Each higher stage in the development of science arises on the basis of the previous stage, preserving everything valuable that was accumulated earlier.
However, science develops in different ways; continuity is not a mandatory, indispensable option for development. In the development of science, one can distinguish periods of relatively calm (evolutionary) development and violent (revolutionary) disruption theoretical foundations science, the system of its concepts and ideas. Evolutionary development science is the process of gradual accumulation of new facts, experimental data within the framework of existing theoretical views, in connection with which there is an expansion, clarification and refinement of previously accepted theories, concepts, principles. Revolutions in science occur when a radical disruption and restructuring of previously established views begins, a revision of fundamental provisions, laws and principles as a result of the accumulation of new data, the discovery of new phenomena that do not fit into the framework of previous views. But it is not the content of previous knowledge itself that is broken and discarded, but their incorrect interpretation, for example, incorrect universalization of laws and principles that in reality are only relative, limited in nature.
In addition, knowledge must be true. It is characteristic of scientific knowledge that it is not simply reported about the truth of this or that content, but reasons are given for which this content is true (for example, the results of an experiment, proof of a theorem, logical conclusion, etc.). Therefore, as a sign characterizing the truth of scientific knowledge, they point to the requirement of its sufficient validity. Thus, it is possible to differentiate scientific and religious systems - suggesting that these are two different ways of understanding the world. One - science - is based on proof of truth, and the other - religion - on belief in truth, which does not require proof by definition. Between these poles there is another system of knowledge of the world, primarily the spiritual, sensory world of man - this is art. Art, as we see it, is a kind of junction of evidence and faith in the truth of certain ideas about a person. This can be illustrated with a diagram.
Scheme 3. Methods of obtaining ideas about reality
Naturally, you need to imagine that the components of this scheme are not mutually exclusive - these are different views on the world and man, and it is clear to any person who has encountered research activities that the ability to evaluate the same object through different eyes and from different angles makes the picture more reliable . This scheme only says that science cannot rely on blind faith or admiration for authorities, and for religion this is precisely the norm.
The conditionality of the development of science by the needs of socio-historical practice dictates the main directions of scientific research. This is the main one driving force, or the source of the development of science. At the same time, we emphasize that it is determined not simply by the needs of practice, for example, pedagogical, educational, but specifically by socio-historical practice. Each specific study may not be determined by the specific needs of practice, but may arise from the logic of the development of science itself or, for example, be determined by the personal interests of a scientist. However, there is no need to oversimplify the picture. Scientific research can be designed both for the immediate (applied) and for the long term (fundamental). The question of their primacy is insoluble; each of the areas is necessary. The scientific competence of a scientist largely depends on his ability to see the benefits of research that are not obvious to an untrained viewer. This demonstrates the relative independence of the development of science. Whatever specific tasks practice sets for science, the solution to these problems can be carried out only after science reaches a certain appropriate level, certain stages of development of the process of cognition of reality itself. At the same time, a certain courage is often required from a scientist when his scientific views, his scientific constructions run counter to established traditions and attitudes.
In scientific research, it is necessary to pay attention to the interaction and interconnectedness of all branches of science, as a result of which the subject of one branch of science can and should be studied using the techniques and methods of another science. As a result of this, the necessary conditions for a more complete and profound disclosure of the essence and laws of qualitatively different phenomena.
An indispensable condition for scientific research is freedom of criticism, unhindered discussion of scientific issues, open and free expression of different opinions. Since the dialectically contradictory nature of phenomena and processes in nature, in society and in man is not immediately and directly revealed in science, only individual contradictory aspects of the processes being studied are reflected in the competing opinions and views. As a result of such a struggle, the initial inevitable one-sidedness of different views on the object of research is overcome and a single view is developed, which today is the most adequate reflection of reality itself.
Finally, the novice researcher needs to pay attention to the language of science. Many terms are understood by us at the everyday level differently than in scientific knowledge. Let's look at the main ones.
Fact (synonym: event, result). TO scientific fact include only such events, phenomena, their properties, connections and relationships that are fixed and registered in a certain way. Facts form the foundation of science. Without a certain set of facts, it is impossible to build an effective scientific theory. There is a well-known statement by I.P. Pavlov that facts are the air of a scientist. A fact as a scientific category differs from a phenomenon. Phenomenon - objective reality, a separate event, and a fact is a collection of many phenomena and connections, their generalization. The fact is to a large extent the result of generalizing all similar phenomena, reducing them to a certain class of phenomena;
Position - scientific statement, formulated thought;
P concept - a thought that reflects in a generalized and abstracted form objects, phenomena and connections between them by fixing general and specific features - the properties of objects and phenomena. For example, the concept of “students” includes students of general education schools and vocational education institutions - students, cadets, listeners, etc.
In science they often talk about a developing concept, implying that the content of the concept, as scientific data accumulates and scientific theories develop, acquires more and more new features and properties. So, for example, the concept “ pedagogical process» has recently been supplemented with new content - pedagogical technologies, diagnostics, testing, etc. A concept must be distinguished from a term, which is only a carrier, a way of denoting a concept. For example, the term “pedagogical process”. The concept of “pedagogical process” is everything that is known to pedagogical science about the goals, content, forms, methods and means of teaching and educating students, etc.
The concept, among other forms of organization of scientific knowledge, occupies a special place, since facts, provisions, principles, laws, theories are expressed through words-concepts and connections between them, since highest form human thinking is conceptual, verbal-logical thinking. (A.M. Novikov 2006). As G. Hegel wrote, to understand means to express it in the form of concepts.
Term "proof" can be used in several meanings. Firstly, evidence is understood as facts with the help of which the truth or falsity of a particular judgment is justified.
Secondly, evidence means sources of information
about facts: chronicles, witness stories, memoirs, documents, etc. Thirdly, proof is a process of thinking. In logic, this term is used precisely in this meaning.
So, proof is logical reasoning, during which the truth or falsity of any thought is substantiated with the help of other provisions tested by science and concrete practice.
Proof is related to belief, but is not identical to it: proof must be based on data from science and specific practice. Convictions can be based, for example, on faith, on prejudices, on people’s ignorance of certain issues, on various kinds of logical errors.
Proof as a special logical way of substantiating truth has its own structure. Every proof includes thesis, arguments, demonstration. Each of these elements in the logical structure of the proof performs its own special functions, so none of them can be ignored when constructing a logically correct proof.
Let us give a logical description of each of these elements.
Thesis evidence is the statement whose truth or falsity needs to be proven. If there is no thesis, then there is nothing to prove. Therefore, all evidentiary reasoning is entirely subordinate to the thesis and serves to confirm (or refute) it. In proof: the main goal of all reasoning is the thesis, its confirmation or refutation.
The thesis can be formulated both at the beginning of the proof and at any other moment. A thesis is often expressed in the form of a categorical judgment, for example: “The position that I am proving is as follows,” “Here is my thesis,” “I have the task of proving,” “Here is my position,” “I I am deeply convinced that...”, etc. Often the thesis is formulated in the form of a question.
Proofs can be simple or complex. Their main difference is that in a complex proof there is a main thesis and partial theses.
Main thesis - this is a provision to which the justification of a number of other provisions is subordinated. Particular thesis - this is a position that becomes a thesis only because with its help the main thesis is proven. A particular thesis, having been proven, then itself becomes an argument to substantiate the main thesis.
Arguments (or grounds) of evidence are those judgments that are given to confirm or refute the thesis. To prove a thesis means to present judgments that would be sufficient to substantiate the truth or falsity of the thesis put forward.
Any true thought can be cited as arguments to prove a thesis, as long as it is related to the thesis and substantiates it. The main types of arguments are facts, laws, axioms, definitions, documentary evidence, etc.
Axioms are also used as the basis for proof. Axiom - this is a position that does not require proof. The truth of the axioms underlying the proof is not verified in each individual case because the verification of this truth has been carried out many times before and has been confirmed by practice. Axioms are quite widely used as grounds in jurisprudence. The role of axioms here is played by presumptions.
Presumption - this is a position that is considered established and does not need proof. It is not obvious and is accepted as the truth not because its correctness seems indisputable and follows from the very position that constitutes the content of the presumption. A presumption is a provision that formulates some of the most common, most frequently encountered attitudes.
Demonstration (or form of evidence) is a method of logical connection of a thesis with arguments. The thesis and arguments of the proof are in their logical form judgments. Expressed in grammatical sentences, they are perceived by us directly: the thesis and arguments can be seen if they are written; hear if they are spoken.
Internet directoryMacro level and method identification of social strata based on spending strategy. IN scientificresearch T.P. Pritvorova is developed... . - Almaty: Gylym, 2004. - 216 p. 2. Methodology and methodology scientificresearch. - Almaty: Gylym, 2005. - 353 p. 3. ...
2.1. General scientific methods 5
2.2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. 7
- Bibliography. 12
1. The concept of methodology and method.
Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:
1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);
2) the doctrine of scientific method knowledge.
Methodology (from “method” and “logy”) is the study of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.
A method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical mastery of reality, based on the patterns of behavior of the object being studied.
Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal methods, i.e. universal methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can also be classified according to the ratio empirical knowledge(i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections. The classification of methods of scientific knowledge is presented in Fig. 1.2.
Each industry applies its own specific scientific, special methods, determined by the essence of the object of study. However, often methods characteristic of a particular science are used in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical methods research is used in biology on the basis that objects of biological research include, in one form or another, physical and chemical forms of motion of matter and, therefore, are subject to physical and chemical laws.
There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.
The dialectical method is a method of understanding reality in its inconsistency, integrity and development.
The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering phenomena outside of their mutual connection and development.
Since the mid-19th century, the metaphysical method has been increasingly displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.
2. Methods of scientific knowledge
2.1. General scientific methods
Ratio general scientific methods can also be presented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).
Brief description of these methods.
Analysis is the mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.
Synthesis is the combination of elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.
Generalization is the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment “this metal conducts electricity” to the judgment “all metals conduct electricity”, from the judgment: “the mechanical form of energy turns into thermal” to the judgment “every form of energy is converted into heat.”
Abstraction (idealization) is the mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties and attributes of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point with mass but without any dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.
Induction is the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves making a conclusion about all objects of a set based on knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction based on experimental studies and including theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic in nature. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict setup of the experiment, logical consistency and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.
Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, then the method of deduction will always produce a true conclusion. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific problems.
Analogy is a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some characteristic, based on their established similarity in other characteristics. An analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law natural selection in the animal and plant world.
Modeling is the reproduction of the properties of an object of cognition on a specially designed analogue of it - a model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models, photographs, prosthetics, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract), created by means language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case we have mathematical model. Typically this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system being studied.
The historical method involves reproducing the history of the object under study in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents. The logical method is, in essence, a logical reproduction of the history of the object being studied. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental and unimportant, i.e. it is, as it were, the same historical method, but freed from its historical form.
Classification is the distribution of certain objects into classes (divisions, categories) depending on their common features, which captures the natural connections between classes of objects in a unified system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects and phenomena being studied.
2. 2 Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.
Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically presented in Fig. 3.
Observation.
Observation is a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the original method empirical knowledge, allowing you to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.
Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:
· purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the research problem);
· systematic (observation must be carried out strictly according to a plan drawn up based on the research objective);
· activity (the researcher must actively search and highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon).
Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary for fixation technical properties, the sides of the object being studied that constitute the subject of research. Descriptions of observational results form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the objects under study according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.
According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct or indirect.
During direct observation, certain properties and aspects of an object are reflected and perceived by human senses. Currently, direct visual observation is widely used in space research as an important method of scientific knowledge. Visual observations from a manned orbital station– the simplest and most effective method for studying the parameters of the atmosphere, land surface and ocean from space in the visible range. From the orbit of an artificial Earth satellite, the human eye can confidently determine the boundaries of cloud cover, types of clouds, boundaries of the removal of turbid river waters into the sea, etc.
However, most often observation is indirect, that is, it is carried out using certain technical means. If, for example, until the beginning of the 17th century, astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, then Galileo’s invention of the optical telescope in 1608 raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level.
Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific knowledge. In the process of observations, completely new phenomena can be discovered, allowing one or another scientific hypothesis to be substantiated. From all of the above it follows that observations are very important method empirical knowledge, ensuring the collection of extensive information about the world around us.