The settlement of primitive people on the planet. The rapid spread of humans around the world was explained by mistrust

Until 1871, when Charles Darwin’s work “The Origin of Species” was published, there was even a debate about “who are you and where are you from?” Not only was it not supposed to, but it was also very dangerous. Subsequently, many other hypotheses about the origin of people appeared, but interest in this problem especially increased at the end of the last century, when the inconsistency of Charles Darwin’s theory specifically in relation to the origin and evolution of man became obvious. Being a highly educated scientist, Charles Darwin, pointing out in his work that each species must have been preceded by an almost identical parent species, at the same time noted: “If it can be proven that at least one complex organ did not arise as a result of numerous successive minor changes , then my theory will fail completely.” Darwin's assumption turned out to be prophetic: modern research confirms that most species replaced each other unexpectedly abruptly, hardly changing during their existence and just as unexpectedly disappearing. One such example is the Neanderthals, who, according to scientists, did not progress at all as they developed, but, on the contrary, degraded.

Thus, the question of the origin of man still remains open, but, from the point of view of the totality of existing hypotheses, it comes down to either the earthly or cosmic origin of man. In any case, there is a connection with the latter, because the Earth is an integral part of the Universe, which was formed about 15 billion years ago and, in addition, blue-green algae, which are widely represented on our planet, were found in meteorites.

In the totality of hypotheses of the “earthly” origin of man, there are almost no discrepancies in two aspects: man “came out” of Africa; The first intelligent people appeared on the planet about 40 thousand years ago. The African trace also does not have a continuous chain of stages of human evolution, but, unlike other continents, the most ancient remains of creatures have been found that could, under certain conditions, become the ancestors of man. Of greatest interest from this point of view are the finds of English father and son archaeologists Louis Leakey and Richard Leakey, made by them in the 1960s-1970s in the eastern regions of Africa. The age of the oldest of these remains of ancient people that they found was about 4 million years old, and Louis Leakey called the creatures to which these remains belonged Homo habilis (handy man), since primitive artificial tools made made of stone.

The African trace in the origin of people is also supported by the American scientist A. Wilson, specialists from the Vatican and a number of others, and most often they determine the time period of its evolution to be approximately 200 thousand years. Along with this, American geneticists, based on the extreme complexity of genes in people of all races, claim that all of humanity descended from one woman.

The most likely area of ​​initial settlement of Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) is considered to be a vast area adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea. From here he began to quickly settle in various directions, which subsequently became the main reason for the emergence of races. It has been fully proven that one of the ways for the first people to get to America about 30 thousand years ago was the Bering Isthmus, which existed at that time. The main evidence of this is the great similarity of the culture and life of people during this period of time in the northeastern regions of Eurasia and northwestern North America. The first settlements in the southern regions of Latin America appeared about 10 thousand years ago. Thus, it took man approximately 20 thousand years to cross the American continents from north to south. Along with the above, many experts do not reject the possibility of people getting to America, before its official discovery by Christopher Columbus in 1498, also by water. However, there are no specific documents for this yet.

Man came to Australia by water about 20 thousand years ago and, thus, this became the final date from which human society began to explore all parts of the world, with the exception of Antarctica.

Along with supporters of the existence of a single vast area of ​​origin of Homo sapiens, who are called “monocentrists,” there is a group of scientists who are of the opinion that there is a possibility of the existence of several similar areas separated from each other. Representatives of this trend, called “polycentrists,” most often proceed from the presence of four such areas. They are based on the existence on Earth of four species of apes, although Charles Darwin already proved the impossibility of the origin of Homo sapiens from them. The weakest link of polycentrism is the biological similarity of people of different racial groups, as a result of which, when mixed, they have offspring with new racial characteristics that are capable of reproducing themselves. This is precisely the main proof of the unity of origin of Homo sapiens.

From all this data on anthropology, archeology and DNA it now follows that about 150 thousand years ago there lived a “mitochondrial Eve”, who was the “mother” of all living people. This woman lived in Northeast Africa in a small tribe of ancient people. It further appears that 80-100 thousand years ago there was a first migration of people from Africa to the Middle East, and after that a second, more extensive migration from Africa, which led to the formation of all the human races we have today. This migration is shown in Fig. 7.4, and most likely began somewhere 50-60 thousand years ago. The date of about 50 thousand years ago is important because at this time, it seems, in places busy people, there was an explosion of creative activity. Instead of just primitive stone tools, archaeologists are beginning to find cave paintings, beads, sculptures, and signs of animistic or shamanic beliefs.

Let us now trace in Fig. 7.4 for human migrations around the world. But before we begin, there are two things to note.

1) Based on the results of DNA studies of thousands of people in different groups population throughout the world, it has been irrefutably shown that all humanity belongs to one species, Homo sapiens . Neanderthals and other species Homo belong to other species. These discoveries are consistent with what the Bible says about the unity of the human race: “Of one blood He made the whole race of man to dwell upon all the face of the earth” (Acts 17:26). The Greek word ἁίμα (blood) implies a single relationship.

2) DNA data is not the only basis for drawing migration patterns. The DNA evidence is also supported by archeology and linguistics. For example, the age of human remains found by archaeologists in Northern Australia is determined to be approximately 30-40 thousand years, which generally coincides with the dating of the beginning of migrations from Africa - about 50-60 thousand years ago. The settlement of people was also traced using linguistic data. For example, linguists, based on studies of various Indian languages, have hypothesized three separate waves of migration to America. These three waves, distinguished on linguistic grounds, are now confirmed by DNA research. However, archaeological and linguistic data, by their very nature, can only hint at the past, while DNA genetics is far superior in its importance as a method of tracing human migrations in the past.

Let us now turn to the map of human settlement in Fig. 7.4. As Brian Sykes, author of The Seven Daughters of Eve, writes, the chain of DNA development leads to the African Kung people (San Bushmen), some of whose ancestors are thought to have left Northeast Africa about 50 thousand years ago. The Kung people no longer live in this northeastern region of Africa because, during the expansion of the agricultural Bantu peoples from 1000 BC. to 1000 AD they were pushed into drier areas of South Africa. However, the DNA trace indicates that genetically the Kung are the ancestors of all other human populations. The Kung people use click sounds in their language, and some linguists have suggested that such click speech may be a remnant of very ancient language, which was spoken by the first people.

It is believed that the peoples who left Northeast Africa about 50 thousand years ago crossed the Red Sea and, during the last ice age, when sea levels are known to be much lower than today, moved along the coasts of Arabia, India and Indonesia . Then generations of these nomadic peoples about 40 thousand years ago moved to Australia and New Guinea, and about 30 thousand years ago - to Tasmania. This correlates with the fact that Australian aborigines, the inhabitants of New Guinea and some groups of the Indian population are more similar in appearance and DNA to Africans than to other groups of people. But even at this early stage, migration to Australia appears to have taken place partly by boat (rafts, canoes?) because coastline then, despite more low level seas, did not fully connect Indonesia with Australia.

At approximately the same time (about 30-45 thousand years ago), Negroid tribes migrated from the “cradle” in Northeast Africa to the south and west of Africa (Fig. 7.4). The vast Sahara Desert prevented most Negroes from moving north, and the area was later occupied by other groups of people.

The “second wave” of people settled in the Middle East about 45 thousand years ago, and from there part of it moved west and northwest into Europe, where it reached approximately 35-40 thousand years ago. It is believed that the Basque people of Spain and France may belong to this first group of ancient people because they are genetically and linguistically different from the surrounding population. The Basque language is not related to any other languages ​​of Europe or any other.

Another part of the people migrated from the Middle East to China and Mongolia, reaching there approximately 35-40 thousand years ago. In more late time(about 12 thousand years ago) part of this population moved to Japan (the Ainu), and then, much later, a larger group of people came to Japan from Korea, displacing the ancient Ainu people to the northernmost island. From the northeast of Siberia, nomadic Mongolian tribes (such as the modern Chukchi, moving after the migrations of reindeer) about 18-20 thousand years ago crossed the Bering Strait to North America. These peoples of the “New World” spread across North and South America, reaching the Amazon about 10 thousand years ago, and the extremities South America about 8 thousand years ago. This migration across the Bering Strait 20,000 years ago occurred during the “Last Glacial Maximum,” when sea levels were very low. This first wave of immigrants to America is called by the name of the language group Amerindian migration, and most tribal groups of North American Indians, as well as all South American Indians, are descended from this group.

The second wave of Indian migration came from Mongolia to Alaska and Canada about 12 thousand years ago, and from there around 1000 AD. advanced to the western United States (Arizona, New Mexico). These are the peoples on-the-day(Navajo and Apache). The Na-Dene peoples speak a language distinct from the languages ​​of the earlier Amerindian tribes, with the exception of a few common root words that can be traced back to Mongolia. For example, the Hopi, descended from ancient people Anasasi (Amerindian) and Navajo (Na-Dene) people speak different languages, although they often live very close to each other.

The third and most recent wave of immigration to America were the Aleuts and Eskimos (shaded area in Figure 7.4). However, all these three waves of migrations of aboriginal peoples had practically the same

How did man explore the Earth? It was a very difficult and lengthy process. Even now it cannot be said that our planet has been 100% studied. There are still corners of nature that have never been touched by humans.

Studying the development of the earth by man 7th grade secondary secondary school. This knowledge is very important and helps to better understand the history of the development of civilization.

How did man explore the Earth?

The first stage of settlement, during which ancient upright people began to migrate from East Africa to Eurasia and explore new lands, began about 2 million years ago and ended 500,000 years ago. Later, ancient people die out, and with the appearance of Homo sapiens in Africa 200,000 years ago, the second stage began.

The main settlement of people was observed along the mouths of large rivers - the Tigris, Indus, Euphrates, and Nile. It was in these places that the first civilizations, called river civilizations, arose.

Our ancestors chose such areas in order to establish settlements, which would later become centers of states. Their life was subject to a clear natural regime. In the spring, the rivers flooded, and then, when they dried up, fertile, moist soil remained in this place, ideal for sowing.

Dispersal across continents

The vast majority of historians and archaeologists consider Africa and Southwestern Eurasia to be their homeland. Over time, humanity has conquered almost all continents, with the exception of Antarctica. Where it is now located 30 thousand years ago there was land that connected Eurasia and North America. It was along this bridge that people penetrated to more and more new places. Thus, hunters from Eurasia, having passed through North America, ended up in its southern part. A person came to Australia from South-East Asia. Scientists were able to draw such conclusions based on the results of excavations.

Main areas of settlement

When considering the question of how man developed the earth, it will be interesting to know how people chose places to live. Very often, entire settlements left their familiar corner and went into the unknown to search for better conditions. The newly developed lands made it possible to develop livestock breeding and agriculture. The number also increased very quickly. If 15,000 years ago about 3,000,000 people lived on Earth, now this figure exceeds 6 billion. The vast majority of people live in flat areas. It is convenient to lay out fields on them, build factories and factories, and develop populated areas.

There are four areas where human settlement is most dense. These are South and East Asia, eastern North America. There are reasons for this: favorable natural factors, a long history of settlement and a developed economy. For example, in Asia, the population still actively sows and irrigates the soil. The fertile climate allows you to harvest several harvests a year to feed a large family.

In Western Europe and North America, urban settlement predominates. The infrastructure here is very developed, many modern plants and factories have been built, industry predominates over agriculture.

Types of economic activities

Economic activities affect and change the environment. Moreover various industries affect nature in different ways.

So, Agriculture became the root cause of the reduction in areas of the planet where natural conditions. More and more space was required for fields and pastures, forests were cut down, animals lost their home. Due to constant load, the soil partially loses its fertile qualities. Artificial irrigation allows you to get good harvest, but this method also has its disadvantages. Thus, in arid areas, too much watering of the land can lead to salinization and a decrease in yield. Domestic animals trample vegetation and compact the soil cover. Often, in arid climates, pastures turn into desert.

Particularly harmful to environment rapid industrial growth. Solid and liquid substances penetrate into the soil and water, and gaseous substances are released into the air. The rapid growth of cities necessitates the development of ever new territories where vegetation is destroyed. Environmental pollution has an extremely adverse effect on human health.

Human development of the Earth: countries of the world

People who live in the same territory have mutual language and one culture form an ethnic group. It may consist of a nation, tribe, people. In the past, great ethnic groups created entire civilizations.

Currently there are more than 200 states on the planet. They all differ from each other. There are states that occupy an entire continent (Australia), and there are very tiny ones, consisting of one city (Vatican City). Countries also differ in population size. There are billionaire states (India, China), and there are also those where no more than a few thousand people live (San Marino).

So, considering the question of how man developed the Earth, we can conclude that this process is not yet completed and we still have a lot of interesting things to learn about our planet.

More than a million years have passed since the human race was born and people began to explore the globe. This process was very long and difficult: even now, when it would seem that our planet has been studied far and wide, there are still places on it where no human has gone before. Let's find out how man developed the Earth.

First steps

During numerous archaeological excavations, scientists have found that East Africa is the cradle of all humanity.

Ancient people tried to build their settlements near large rivers, which provided them with food and water. The first civilizations on Earth arose along the mouths of such large rivers as the Nile, Euphrates, and Tigris, and they were called river civilizations. Gradually, small settlements expanded, strengthened and subsequently became centers of the state.

Rice. 1. Ancient river states.

The settlement in close proximity to the rivers had great importance. In spring, full-flowing rivers overflowed their banks. When the water evaporated, large areas of moist soil were left, which was ideal for farming. Otherwise, in a hot climate, people could not sow cereals.

Dispersal across continents

Having gradually mastered the continent, people began to move in different directions in search of new, more comfortable places of existence. Thus began the conquest of a new continent - Eurasia.

Over time, humanity has successfully conquered all continents, with the exception of one - Antarctica.

• Thousands of years ago, in place of the Bering Strait there was land, and moving from Eurasia to North America was not particularly difficult.
• Having successfully mastered North America, the ancient people moved to its southern part.
• Australia was developed by people who managed to reach the mainland from Southeast Asia.

Rice. 2. Residents of Australia.

Human development of the earth by country of the world

People living together in the same territory are united by general culture and language. This is how an ethnos is formed, which can consist of a small tribe or a large people, a nation.

In the distant past, powerful ethnic groups gave birth to great civilizations. Currently the structure human society looks a little different.

There are more than 200 different states on Earth, large and small, strong and weak. There is a state that occupies an entire continent - this is Australia. And there is a very tiny state, consisting of one single city - this is the Vatican.

Rice. 3. Vatican.

Population density in countries depends on several factors:

• geographical location;
• age of occupancy;
• level of economic development.

Most densely populated countries Western Europe, East and South Asia, eastern North America.

What have we learned?

While studying the topic “How the Earth was explored by man” in the 7th grade geography program, we learned which continent scientists consider the birthplace of human race. We found out how ancient people explored continents and countries.

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Molecular genetics makes it possible to reconstruct the history of formation as individual peoples, and humanity as a whole. Research in recent decades has literally revolutionized our understanding of human origins. The study and comparison of DNA samples isolated from the blood of inhabitants of different continents made it possible to establish the degree of their genetic relationship.

How in comparative linguistics is the number of common words determined? related languages, also in genetics, the pedigree of humanity is built based on the number of common elements in DNA (see “In the World of Science”, No. 7, article by L. Zhivotovsky and E. Khusnutdinova “Genetic History of Humanity”).

It turned out that according to female line all people can be traced back to a single common foremother, which has been dubbed mitochondrial (mitochondrion is the cellular organ in which DNA is located), or African Eve.

The long existence of people in different natural conditions led to the emergence of races. Race() is large groups people who have common, inherited, external characteristics. By external signs all humanity is divided into 4 large geographical races.

It was formed in hot regions of the Earth. Representatives of this race are characterized by dark, almost black skin and coarse, curly or wavy black hair. The eyes are brown. Wide flat nose and thick lips.

The main region of settlement is the region historical formation races: Africa, sub-Saharan. Also to the Negroid population on beginning of XXI century dates back to Substantial part populations of Brazil, the West Indies, the USA and France.

2. Russian Geographical Society ().

4. Tutorial by geography ().

5. Gazetteer ().