Everyday culture of the Great Russian village and medieval city. The city as a center of medieval culture

During the Middle Ages, there was a special influence of the Christian Church on the formation of the mentality and worldview of Europeans. Instead of a meager and difficult life, religion offered people a system of knowledge about the world and the laws operating in it. That is why medieval culture was completely imbued with Christian ideas and ideals, which considered human earthly life as a preparatory stage for the upcoming immortality, but in a different dimension. People identified the world with a kind of arena in which heavenly and hellish forces, good and evil, confronted each other.

Medieval culture reflects the history of the struggle between the state and the church, their interaction and the implementation of divine goals.

Architecture

In the 10th-12th centuries in Western European countries, which is rightfully considered the first canon of medieval architecture, prevailed.

Secular buildings are massive, characterized by narrow window openings and high towers. Typical features of Romanesque architectural structures are domed structures and semicircular arches. Bulky buildings symbolized the power of the Christian god.

During this period, special attention was paid to monastery buildings, as they combined the monks’ home, chapel, prayer room, workshops and library. The main element of the composition is a high tower. Massive reliefs decorating facade walls and portals were the main element of temple decor.

Medieval culture is characterized by the emergence of another style in architecture. It is called Gothic. This style shifts the cultural center from secluded monasteries to crowded city neighborhoods. At the same time, the cathedral is considered the main spiritual building. The first temple buildings are distinguished by slender columns that soar upward, elongated windows, painted stained glass windows and “roses” above the entrance. Inside and out, they were decorated with reliefs, statues, and paintings, emphasizing the main feature of the style - upward direction.

Sculpture

Metal processing is used primarily for manufacturing

Federal Agency for Education

Penza State Technological Academy

Examination on the discipline

"Culturology" on the topic:

"Culture of a medieval city"

Completed by a student

groups 06PE1z

Sagareva Marina Evgenievna

I checked the KIN,

associate professor of the department

“Philosophies” by Kolchugin S.V.

440034 Penza, st. Metallistov 1-18

Tel. 32-49-67

Penza 2006

Introduction No. 1.

Society is the interaction of people endowed with will and consciousness. On their basis, people enter into social relations. The system of social relations represents a unity:

They are all interconnected and interdependent.

Labor is at the heart of human and social development.

Work is a purposeful human activity aimed at creating material and spiritual values. There are such concepts as “work culture” and “work is culture”. In other words, “labor and culture” are at the center of the development of society. Now let’s say what culture is.

Culture(from Latin - means cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration) - a historically determined level of development of society, creative powers and abilities of a person. The level expressed in the types and forms of organization of people’s lives and activities, and the material and spiritual values they create.

The concept of culture is used to characterize certain historical eras of specific societies, nationalities and nations, as well as specific spheres of activity or life (culture of work, life, artistic culture). In a narrower sense - sphere of people's spiritual life.

In my work I will focus on the culture of “Rus” in the Middle Ages (9-15 centuries), in the center of which was the city. The culture of “Rus”, like the culture of other peoples, has absorbed both the universal and its own special, centuries-old, temporary. Here Kievan Rus (9-12th centuries) and the formation and rise of the Moscow State (13-15th centuries) merged together. Here we see the world civilization and identity. But in the center stood, stands, and will stand the originality of “Rus” and “Russia”.

Introduction No. 2.

Topic: “Factors of the originality of Russian history”

There are a lot of points of view on the problem of the originality of Russian history in general and culture in particular.

1. K. Marx– began to study “Rus” from the books of A. Bakunin (about anarchism).

2. V.I.Lenin- “You can’t scold a Russian peasant forty times, beat him up thirty times, or do a single thing properly. But if you start doing it, you won’t be able to stop it.”

3. I.P. Pavlov- “The brain of a Russian person is designed in such a way that he believes only the word, and doesn’t care about the rest.” This quote is still relevant today.

4. F.I.Tyutchev– “You can’t understand Russia with your mind,

A common arshin cannot be measured,

She's going to be special

You can only believe in Russia.”

4. I.A.Ilyin- “The history of Russia is a history of torment and struggle: from the Pechenegs and Khazars to the great war of the twentieth century.”

5. V.O.Klyuchevsky“The history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized.”

There are many more, but they can be summarized in three main ones:

· The first is the unilinearity of world history.

· The second is the multi-linearity of historical development (Russia is a Slavic civilization).

· The third one tries to reconcile the first two.

So, representatives of the three approaches interpret the problem of the peculiarities of Russian history differently. But they all point to some powerful factors under the influence of which the history of Russia differs significantly from the history of Western societies. There are four factors:

1. Natural and climatic factor. Of the many elements, we will point to only one. Our agricultural work took only 125-130 working days a year (from mid-April to mid-September). In the West, in a number of countries, agricultural work was interrupted in December-January. In the Southern countries, agricultural work was carried out all year round.

2. Geopolitical factor. Geopolitical conditions that influenced the specifics of Russian history:

· Vast and sparsely populated territory;

· Border not protected by natural barriers;

· Isolation for a long time from the seas and maritime trade;

· The river network is the only benefit;

· Intermediate position between Europe and Asia.

3. Religious factor.

All of the above factors formed:

· Body of Russia

· Temperament

Habits

· The West went through Rome - “Catholicism”, Russia - through Byzantium - “Orthodoxy”. But in general, this is Christianity that has educated the soul.

In Europe, the salvation of man lies in active economic force, in civil society.

In Russia there is a political path of salvation: the Tsar, the Secretary General and the CPSU, the President and United Russia.

4. Factor of social organization.

Specific elements of social organization in Russia:

· Community, artel, partnership, etc.;

· The state, society, and individual are not separated, but interpenetrated, integral, conciliar.

If you connect general And particular, then it should be said that the baptism of Rus', as many historians and cultural experts believe, was the beginning of the history of Russian culture. Before this, there was paganism with its many deities, which naturally prevented the strengthening of Kievan Rus. And the Kiev prince Vladimir 1 (his wife Anna, the sister of the Byzantine emperor) converted to Orthodoxy and in 988 baptized the people of Kiev in the Dnieper.

It should be noted the historical significance of the adoption of Orthodoxy by “Rus”:

· Orthodoxy is the spiritual basis of Russian culture;

· Formation of Christian morality of the Russian people;

· The emergence of monasteries - centers of education and culture;

· The emergence of Russian icon painting;

· Dawn of church architecture;

· The emergence of chronicle writing and the spread of religious literature.

But Kievan Rus was fragmented. By the end of the 13th century. there were dozens of appanage principalities that were at enmity with each other. The most fierce struggle was between the princes of Tver and Moscow. The unification was completed under Ivan 3 (1462-1505). Moscow became the center. “Moscow is the third Rome” - a union of government and church.

1. Introduction No. 1

2. Introduction No. 2 on the topic: “Factors of the originality of Russian history”

3. Main part “Culture of a medieval city”

4. Conclusion

5. References

Culture of a medieval city.

In any state, in any century, if there was a city, then there was a village. They were closely connected economically, politically, socially and spiritually.

Before talking about the culture of a medieval city, we will briefly say what a city is and what a village is.

City, a settlement that has reached a certain population (the criteria for which are different, usually at least 2-5 thousand inhabitants) and embodies primarily industrial, transport, trade, cultural and administrative-political functions.

Village, a populated area that embraces, first of all, natural geographic features, and hence the features of production and culture.

So, the culture of a medieval city.

By the time of the adoption of Christianity, Rus' was already a country with a distinctive culture. Crafts and wood construction techniques have reached a high level. In the era of transition from pre-class society and feudalism, like other European peoples, an epic took shape (epic is from the Greek “word”, “tradition”. This is a fairy tale, historical epic, song, folk legends, etc.). Its plots were preserved mainly in epics written down many centuries later.

By the 9th-10th centuries. refers to the appearance of such epics as “Mikhailo Potok”, “Danube”, “Volga and Mikula”. The end of the 10th century, the era of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, turned out to be especially fruitful. His reign became the “epic time” of Russian epics, and the prince himself became a generalized image of Rus'. The heroes of these epics were Dobrynya Nikitich (his prototype was Vladimir Svyatoslavovich’s maternal uncle Dobrynya, who was the prince’s governor and adviser in his youth) and Ilya Muromets.

No later than the end of the 9th, beginning of the 10th centuries. Slavic alphabet - Cyrillic and Glagolitic - are spreading in Rus'. Created in the second half of the 9th century by the brothers Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius and initially spreading in the West Slavic state - Great Moravia, they soon penetrated into Bulgaria and Rus'. The first Russian monument of Slavic writing is the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911. With the adoption of Christianity in Rus', this will become the language of church services and as a literary language understandable to the entire population.

The appearance of literature in the Slavic language in Rus', on the one hand, led to the complication of social life with the development of feudal relations and the formation of a state structure, on the other hand, it contributed to the spread of literacy. A clear indication of this are birch bark letters - letters on birch bark with various contents. They were found in dozens of ancient Russian cities, mostly coming from Novgorod. The earliest of the charters date back to the 11th century.

At the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. A large number of translated (mainly from Greek) works of both religious and secular content are distributed in Rus'. The latter include, in particular, historical works, among which we can highlight the translation of the Byzantine “Chronicle of George Amartol”.

The earliest of the works of ancient Russian literature that have reached us is the “Sermon on Law and Grace.” It was written in the mid-11th century by Metropolitan Hilarion, the first Russian-born head of the Russian church, built by Yaroslav the Wise in 1051 without the sanction of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The main idea of the “Sermon on Law and Grace” is the entry of Rus' into the family of Christian nations after the adoption of Christianity.

In the X-XI centuries. In Western Europe, old cities begin to grow and new ones emerge. A new way of life, a new vision of the world, a new type of people was emerging in the cities. Based on the emergence of the city, new social strata of medieval society were formed - townspeople, guild artisans and merchants. They unite in guilds and workshops that protect the interests of their members. With the emergence of cities, the craft itself becomes more complex; it requires special training. New social relations are being formed in the cities - the artisan is personally free, protected from arbitrariness by the workshop. Gradually, large cities, as a rule, managed to overthrow the power of the lord, and urban self-government arose in such cities. Cities were centers of trade, including foreign trade, which contributed to greater awareness among citizens and broadening their horizons. The city dweller, independent of any authority other than the magistrate, saw the world differently from the peasant. Striving for success, he became a new type of personality.

The formation of new social strata of society had a huge impact on the further development of medieval culture, the nation, and the formation of the education system.

The freedom-loving orientation of urban culture and its connections with folk art are most clearly reflected in urban literature. Although at the early stage of the development of urban culture there was a demand for clerical literature - lives of saints, stories of miracles, etc. - was still great, these works themselves changed: psychologism increased, artistic elements intensified.

In urban freedom-loving, anti-church literature, an independent layer is being formed, parodying the main points of church cult and doctrine (both in Latin and in folk languages). Numerous parodic liturgies have been preserved (for example, the “Liturgy of Drunkards”), parodies of prayers, psalms, and church hymns.

In parodic literature in folk languages, the main place is occupied by secular parodies that ridicule knightly heroics (for example, a comic double of Roland appears). Parody romances of chivalry and parody epics of the Middle Ages are created - animal, picaresque, stupid. So, in the 13th century. Numerous stories about animals - the cunning fox Renan, the stupid wolf Isengrin and the simple lion Noble, in whose behavior human traits were easily discernible, were brought together and translated into poetry. This is how the extensive epic poem “The Romance of the Fox” appeared.

One of the most popular genres of French urban medieval literature of the 12th - 14th centuries. were fabliau (from the French - fable - fable). Fabliaux are short funny stories in verse, comic everyday stories. The anonymous authors of this genre of urban literature were townspeople and traveling singers and musicians. The hero of these short stories was most often a commoner. Fabliaux are closely connected with folk culture (folk figures of speech, an abundance of folklore motifs, comedy and speed of action). Fabliaux entertained, taught, praised townspeople and peasants, and condemned the vices of the rich and priests. Often the plot of fabliaux was love stories. Fabliaux reflected the love of life of the townspeople, their faith in the triumph of justice.

Thematically related to fabliaux is schwank (from German - joke) - a genre of German urban medieval literature. Schwank, like the fabliau, is a short humorous story in verse, later in prose. Originating in the 13th century, Schwank was very loved by German burghers not only in the Middle Ages, but also in the Renaissance. The plot of Schwank was often based on folklore, and later on the short story of the early Renaissance. Schwank had an anti-clerical character, ridiculing the vices of the Catholic Church. Anonymous authors of fabliaux and schwanks contrasted their works with elite knightly literature. Cheerfulness, rudeness, and satirical ridicule of the knights were a kind of response to the spiritual elite and its sophisticated culture.

Urban literature XIV - XV centuries. reflected the growth of social self-awareness of the townspeople, who increasingly became the subject of spiritual life. German poets appeared in urban poetry - singers from the craft-guild environment - Meistersinger (literally - master singer). They learned in their singing schools the canonical manner of performing the songs of the Minnesingers, whom they replaced. Religious and didactic motives were not completely alien to the poetry of the Mastersingers, although their work was mainly of a secular nature. The most famous Mastersingers were G. Sachs, H. Folz, G. Vogel and others.

During the same period, a new genre of urban literature appeared - a prose short story, in which the townspeople appear as independent, shrewd, success-seeking, and life-loving people.

By the 13th century. refers to the emergence of the city theater.

Medieval folk theater has its roots in the liturgical drama of the Catholic Church. As already noted, by the time of the late Middle Ages, entertainment and spectacle began to prevail in it, and the church was forced to move dramatic performances to the city square, which further strengthened the secular element in them.

Around the same period, secular farces spread - humorous scenes in which the life of townspeople was realistically depicted. Later, farce began to be called an independent form of medieval performance - satirical, often frivolous content, the characters of which represented certain social types. Farce became the main folk genre of medieval theater. At this time, folk plays and pastorals appeared, mostly by anonymous authors.

From the 13th century A special genre of drama in verse - morality - an allegorical play with a moralizing character is becoming widespread. The characters in the morality play personified Christian virtues and vices. By the 15th century morality plays have undergone great changes. Although their plots remained based on Christian themes, they became allegorical dramas performed by professional actors. The straightforwardness and edifying morality were preserved, but the strengthening of the comic element and the introduction of music into the performance created a form of folk drama.

XIV-XV centuries - the heyday of urban civil architecture. Rich townspeople build big, beautiful houses. Feudal castles are gradually turning into country houses, losing their function as military fortresses. The production of luxury goods is growing, and the clothing of noble citizens is becoming richer and more colorful. As the importance of capital grows, class differences between aristocrats and burghers begin to gradually disappear. At the same time, the social position of the third estate was also undergoing changes. The medieval social structure of society is increasingly destroyed. All this reflects the deep crisis of the Middle Ages. The decline of medieval culture is gradually coming

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Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

ABSTRACT

in the discipline: "Culturology"

on the topic: "Culture of a medieval city"

Magnitogorsk, 2001

Introduction

1. Composition of the urban population

2. Spiritual culture of the city

3. Architecture. Art culture

4. The role of cities in the political and economic life of society

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The 11th century is a decisive point in the transition of European countries from early feudal society to the established system of feudal relations. It was at this time that cities emerged and reached their peak as centers of crafts and trade, commodity production. They had a huge impact on the social, political and, of course, cultural development of medieval society.

The modern world is already predominantly urban. In Western countries, the bulk of people live in cities and suburbs, the vast majority are involved in urban activities and practically people are subject to the dictates and conditions of urban culture. And in developing countries, where rural life and work on the land form the basis of life for a significant and even majority of citizens, and there the city not only dominates politically and socially, but widely, everywhere scatters the patterns of its life, manner of behavior and scale of values.

In the reasonings of the great Hellenes, scholars of medieval Byzantium, Italian humanist writers, French encyclopedists, Russian “Westernizers” and “Slavophiles” or poets of the Silver Age, and in the works of many modern writers, artists and psychologists, the city appears as a special cultural landscape with all constructs of public and private life, their mentality and ways of personal self-expression.

In this work we will consider education, as well as the cultural features of medieval cities.

1. Composition of the urban population

In the XI - XII centuries. In connection with the rapid growth of cities, a new stratum of feudal society is growing, which has a special legal status - the urban population. Initially, the legal status of townspeople was not much different from the rest of the feudal-dependent people. But from the 12th century. In France, a broad movement begins for the liberation of cities from the power of individual lords and for self-government. The royal power, which did not allow the independence of the townspeople in their domain (for example, in 1137 the urban movement in Orleans was brutally suppressed), willingly supported cities that advocated liberation from seigneurial power. Ultimately, the cities, through armed struggle or other means (ransoms, etc.), sought to provide them with special liberties charters (1, p. 49).

The legal status of townspeople did not act as a universal one, but was associated with a specific city association. Therefore, in principle, nobles, priests, and serfs could not receive it. But the servant, by virtue of his permanent residence in the city, acquired personal freedom. Even if the city remained under the direct jurisdiction of the king or an individual feudal lord, the responsibilities of the townspeople in relation to the lord were limited and strictly fixed. Forced labor and banalities were abolished. The exact amounts of court fees, fines, etc. were established. However, the population of the cities remained integrated into the feudal system. system. City life early began to acquire an estate-corporate character, promoting the formation of workshops and guilds.

The growth of cities and commodity production entailed not only an increase in the size and political activity of the urban population. It caused a restructuring of the traditional feudal economy and forms of exploitation of the peasantry. Under the influence of commodity-money relations, significant changes occurred in the legal status of peasants. By the 14th century In most of France, servage is disappearing. The bulk of the peasantry are personally free censors, obligated to pay the lord a cash rent (qualification), the amount of which increased.

In the XIV - XV centuries. formation and "third estate" ended , The urban population was replenished due to the rapidly growing urban population and the increasing number of peasant censitors. This class was very diverse in its composition and practically united the working population and the emerging bourgeoisie. Members of this class were considered “ignoble” and did not have any special personal or property rights. They were not protected from arbitrariness on the part of the royal administration and even individual feudal lords. The third estate was the only taxable estate in France, and the entire burden of paying state taxes fell on it (1, p. 187).

The organization of the third estate itself was of a feudal-corporate nature. It acted, first of all, as a set of city associations. At this time, the idea of equality and universality of interests of the members of the third estate had not yet arisen; it did not recognize itself as a single national force.

The land on which medieval cities arose usually belonged to feudal lords, so the cities had to obey the feudal lord. All power in the city was initially concentrated in his hands. He was interested in the emergence of a city on his land, since crafts and trade brought him additional income. The feudal lords' desire to extract as much income as possible inevitably led to a clash with the city. The political structure that the city received and the degree of its independence depended on the outcome of this struggle.

Peasants who settled in cities brought with them the skills of communal organization. The structure of the community-brand, changed in accordance with the conditions of urban development, played a very important role in the organization of city self-government.

Depending on the conditions of historical development, the struggle between lords and townspeople, during which city self-government arose and took shape, proceeded differently in different European countries. For example, in Italy, where cities early achieved significant economic prosperity, townspeople achieved great independence already in the 11th - 12th centuries. Cities such as Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Milan subjugated large areas around the city and became city-states. These were city republics. In Germany, the so-called imperial cities, starting from the 12th and especially in the 13th century, formally subordinate to the emperor, were in fact independent city republics. Their right included independently declaring war, making peace, minting their own coins, etc. Such cities were Hamburg and Lübeck , Nuremberg, Bremen, Frankfurt am Main, etc. (4, p. 349)

Amiens, Saint-Quentin, Beauvais, Laon - cities of Northern France - as a result of a stubborn struggle with their feudal lords, also achieved the right of self-government. They could elect city council and officials from among themselves, starting with the head of the city council. In France and England, the head of the city council was called the mayor, and in Germany - the burgomaster. Self-governing cities had their own courts, military militia, finances and the right of self-taxation. They were freed from corvee and quitrent - ordinary duties. Their duties towards the feudal lord included the annual payment of a certain monetary annuity and sending a small military detachment to help the lord in the event of war.

With the development of cities in the 11th century. in Rus' the importance of veche meetings increased. Here, as in Western Europe, the townspeople fought for liberties. The political system in Novgorod the Great was a feudal republic, but the commercial and industrial population there had great political power.

The degree of independence achieved by cities in management depended on specific historical conditions. Thus, the cities of Southern France, Italy, etc. received the rights of self-government by paying the lord a large sum of money. Often large cities, especially cities located on royal land, did not receive self-government rights, but enjoyed a number of privileges and liberties, including the right to have elected city government bodies, which acted, however, together with an official appointed by the king or another representative of the lord. Paris, Orleans, Bourges, Loris, Chartres had such incomplete rights of self-government in France, and Oxford, Lincoln, Cambridge, Gloucester in England. Cities that did not have sufficiently developed crafts and trade and did not have the necessary funds and forces remained entirely under the rule of the lord. But in one thing all the efforts of the townspeople of different states coincided - they managed to achieve personal liberation from serfdom. If a serf peasant who fled to a city lived in it for a certain period of time (usually one year and one day), he also became free, and no one could return him to a serfdom. “City air makes you free,” said a medieval proverb (1, p. 155). culture medieval city architecture

As a result of the struggle of cities with feudal lords, city government ended up in the hands of the townspeople. But not all citizens received the right to take part in managing city affairs. As a rule, the results of what was achieved were enjoyed by the city elite - rich merchants, city homeowners. This layer of the urban rich represented the hereditary urban aristocracy. In the West, it usually had the name patriciate. All positions and city government were in the hands of the patriciate. In the cities there was a struggle for power between the guilds and the urban patriciate. As a result, the medieval class of burghers was formed. Initially, in the West, the word burgher meant all city dwellers (from the German word " burg" - city). The urban population was not uniform. A layer of merchants and wealthy artisans gradually formed. Apprentices, apprentices, day laborers, ruined artisans and other urban poor made up the mass of the urban plebeians (plebs). The word “burgher” acquired a new meaning; they began to call it not just townspeople, but only rich and prosperous townspeople.

2. Spiritual culture of the city

From the 11th century Cities are becoming centers of cultural life in Western Europe. The anti-church freedom-loving orientation of urban culture, its connections with folk art, were most clearly manifested in the development of urban literature, which from its very inception was created in folk dialects in contrast to the dominant church Latin-language literature. In turn, urban literature contributed to the process of transforming folk dialects into national languages, which developed in the 11th - 13th centuries. in all countries of Western Europe (5, p. 563).

In the XII - XIII centuries. the religiosity of the masses ceased to be predominantly passive. The huge “silent majority” began to transform from an object of church influence into a subject of spiritual life. The defining phenomena in this area were not the theological disputes of the church elite, but the seething, fraught with heresies, popular religiosity. The demand for “mass” literature increased, which at that time included the lives of saints, stories of visions and miracles. Compared to the early Middle Ages, they became more psychologized and their artistic elements intensified. The favorite “people's book” was compiled in the 13th century. “The Golden Legend” of the Bishop of Genoa, Jacob of Voraginsky, to the subjects of which European literature turned until the 20th century.

Poetic short stories, fables, and jokes (fabliaux in France, schwanks in Germany) are becoming popular genres of urban literature. They were distinguished by a satirical spirit, crude humor, and vivid imagery. They ridiculed the greed of the clergy, the sterility of scholastic wisdom, the arrogance and ignorance of feudal lords and many other realities of medieval life that contradicted the sober, practical view of the world that was developing among the townspeople.

Fabliau and the Schwanks put forward a new type of hero - cheerful, roguish, smart, always finding a way out of any difficult situation thanks to his natural intelligence and abilities. Thus, the hero of the well-known collection of Schwanks "Pop Amis", which left a deep mark on German literature, feels confident and easy in the world of city life, in the most incredible circumstances. With all his tricks and resourcefulness, he asserts that life belongs to the townspeople no less than to other classes, and that the place of the townspeople in the world is strong and reliable. Urban literature castigated vices and morals, responded to the topic of the day, and was extremely “modern.” The wisdom of the people was clothed in it in the form of apt proverbs and sayings. The Church persecuted poets from the urban lower classes, in whose work it saw a direct threat. For example, the writings of the Parisian Rutbeuf at the end of the 13th century. were condemned by the pope to be burned (5, p. 565).

Along with short stories, fabliaux and schwanks, an urban satirical epic took shape. It was based on fairy tales that originated in the early Middle Ages. One of the most beloved among the townspeople was “The Roman of the Fox,” which was formed in France, but translated into German, English, Italian and other languages. The resourceful and daring Fox Renard, in whose image a wealthy, intelligent and enterprising townsman is depicted, invariably defeats the stupid and bloodthirsty Wolf Isengrin, the strong and stupid Bren Bear - they were easily seen as a knight and a large feudal lord. He also fooled Leo Noble (the king) and constantly mocked the stupidity of Donkey Baudouin (the priest).

But sometimes Renard plotted against chickens, hares, snails, and began to persecute the weak and humiliated. And then the common people destroyed his plans. Even sculptures were created based on the plots of “The Romance of the Fox” in the cathedrals of Autun, Bourges, etc. (11)

Another work of urban literature became widespread - “The Romance of the Rose”, written successively by two authors - Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun. The hero of this philosophical and allegorical poem, a young poet, strives for the ideal embodied in the symbolic image of the Rose. In "The Romance of the Rose" the ideas of free thought are glorified. Nature and Reason, equality of people.

The carriers of the spirit of protest and free-thinking were wandering schoolchildren and students - vagantas. Among the vagants there were strong oppositional sentiments against the church and the existing order, which were also characteristic of the urban lower classes in general. The Vagantes created a kind of poetry in Latin. The witty, flagellating vices of society and glorifying the joy of life poems and songs of the Vagants were known and sung by all of Europe from Toledo to Prague, from Palermo to London. These songs especially hit the church and its ministers.

Development of urban literature in the XIV - XV centuries. reflected the further growth of the social self-awareness of the burghers. In urban poetry, drama and the new genre of urban literature that emerged during that period - the prose short story - the townspeople are endowed with such traits as worldly wisdom, practical acumen, and love of life. The burghers are opposed to the nobility and clergy as the support of the state. These ideas permeated the work of two major French poets of that time, Eustache Duchesne and Alain Chartier.

In the XIV - XV centuries. in German literature, Meistersang (the poetry of representatives of the craft and guild environment) is gradually replacing the knightly minnesang. Creative competitions of Mastersingers, held in many cities in Germany, are becoming very popular.

A remarkable phenomenon of medieval poetry was the work of Francois Villon. He lived a short but stormy life, full of adventures and wanderings. He is sometimes called the "last vagante", although he wrote his poems not in Latin, but in his native French. These poems, created in the middle of the 15th century, amaze with their surprisingly sincere human intonation, exuberant sense of freedom, and tragic search for oneself, which allows us to see in their author one of the predecessors of the Renaissance and new romantic poetry (7ya, p. 197).

By the 13th century. refers to the emergence of urban theatrical art. Church mysteries, which were known much earlier, under the influence of new trends associated with the development of cities, become more vibrant and carnival-like. Urban "games", i.e. theatrical performances, from the very beginning, were of a secular nature, their plots were borrowed from life, and their means of expression were from folklore, the work of wandering actors - jugglers, who were also dancers, singers, musicians, acrobats, and magicians.

In the XIV - XV centuries. Farces became widespread - humorous scenes in which the life of townspeople was realistically depicted. The closeness of the compilers of farces to the poor is evidenced by their frequent condemnation of the callousness, dishonesty and greed of the rich. The organization of large theatrical performances - mysteries - moves from the clergy to craft guilds and trading corporations. Mysteries are played out in city squares and, despite the biblical stories, are topical in nature, including comedic and everyday elements.

3. Architecture. Art culture

The Middle Ages created its own forms of artistic expression that corresponded to the worldview of that era. Art was a way of reflecting the highest, “invisible” beauty that resides beyond the boundaries of earthly existence in the supernatural world. Art, like philosophy, was one of the ways to comprehend the absolute idea, divine truth. This is where its symbolism and allegorical nature flowed. The plots of the Old Testament, for example, were interpreted as prototypes of New Testament events. Fragments of ancient mythology were assimilated as allegorical allegories.

Since in the minds of medieval people the ideal often prevailed over the material, the corporeal, changeable and perishable lost their artistic and aesthetic value. The sensual is sacrificed to the idea. Artistic technique no longer requires imitation of nature and even, on the contrary, leads away from it to maximum generalization, in which the image first of all becomes a sign of the hidden. Canonical rules and traditional techniques begin to dominate individual creativity. The point is not that the medieval master did not know anatomy or the laws of perspective; he fundamentally did not need them. They seemed to fall out of the canons of symbolic art, which strived for universalism (7, p. 201).

From the moment of its inception, medieval urban culture gravitated towards encyclopedicism, a holistic embrace of everything that exists. In philosophy, science, and literature, this was expressed in the creation of comprehensive encyclopedias, the so-called sums. Medieval cathedrals were also unique stone encyclopedias of universal knowledge, “bibles of the laity.” The masters who built the cathedrals tried to show the world in its diversity and complete harmonious unity. And if in general the cathedral stood as a symbol of the universe, striving for a higher idea, then inside and outside it was richly decorated with a wide variety of sculptures and images, which were sometimes so similar to the prototypes that, according to contemporaries, “it seemed as if they were caught in freely, in the forest, on the roads." Outside one could see figures of Grammar, Arithmetic, Music, Philosophy, personifying the sciences studied in medieval schools, not to mention the fact that any cathedral was replete with “stone illustrations” of the Bible. Everything that worried people of that time was reflected here in one way or another. And for many people of the Middle Ages, especially the “simple”, these “stone books” were one of the main sources of knowledge.

In the 10th century The Romanesque style emerged, which dominated the next two centuries. It is most clearly represented in France, Italy, and Germany. Romanesque cathedrals, made of stone with a vaulted ceiling, are simple and austere. They have powerful walls; they are essentially fortress temples. At first glance, the Romanesque cathedral is rude and squat, only gradually the harmony of the plan and the nobility of its simplicity are revealed, aimed at revealing the unity and harmony of the world, glorifying the divine principle. Its portal symbolized the heavenly gates, above which the triumphant God and the highest judge seemed to rise.

XIV - XV centuries - the heyday of medieval civil architecture. Large, beautiful houses are being built for rich townspeople. The castles of feudal lords are also becoming more comfortable, gradually losing their significance as military fortresses and turning into country residences. The interiors of castles are transformed, they are decorated with carpets, objects of applied art, and exquisite utensils. Jewelry art and the production of luxury goods are developing. The clothing of not only the nobility, but also wealthy townspeople became more diverse, richer and brighter (1, p. 129).

Romanesque sculpture decorating churches, for all its “naivety and ineptitude,” embodies not only idealized ideas, but the intense faces of real life and real people of the Middle Ages. The artistic ideal, putting on flesh and blood, was “grounded.” Sculptors in the Middle Ages were simple and often illiterate people. They introduced a religious feeling into their creations, but this was not the spirituality of the scribes, but popular religiosity, which interpreted orthodox dogma in a very unique way. Their creations convey the pathos of not only the heavenly, but also the earthly.

The pinnacles of the Romanesque style in France are the cathedrals in Cluny and Autun. The Romanesque citadel of Carcassonne, a complex of secular castle buildings, is striking with its inaccessibility and monumentality.

A new stage in the development of medieval art and architecture was marked by the emergence in the middle of the 12th century. Gothic. Unlike the Romanesque, the Gothic cathedral is vast, often asymmetrical, and directed upward. Its walls become openwork, light, with tall narrow windows decorated with colored stained glass. Each portal has a special design.

The cathedrals were built by order of city communes. They symbolized not only the power of the church, but also the strength and freedom of the cities. These grandiose structures were built over tens and often hundreds of years.

Distinguished by great unity, the Gothic style, however, had its own characteristics in different countries. France was a country of classical Gothic. Contemporaries sometimes called Gothic architecture “construction in the French style.” Clarity of design, richness of decor, brightness of stained glass, proportionality and harmony of proportions are the main features of French Gothic (Notre Dame Cathedral, cathedrals in Reims, Amiens, Laon, Sens, etc.).

In the XIV - XV centuries. The Gothic style continued to dominate in the architecture of most European countries. Gothic of this period was called “flaming”. It is characterized by sophistication in designs, excessive sophistication in decoration, and special expression of sculptures.

Gothic sculpture has enormous expressive power. The utmost tension of spiritual forces is reflected in the faces and figures, elongated and broken, as if striving to free themselves from the flesh, to achieve the ultimate secrets of existence. Human suffering, purification and elevation through it is the hidden nerve of Gothic art. There is no peace and tranquility in it, it is permeated with confusion, a high spiritual impulse. The sculptors reach a tragic intensity in depicting the suffering of the crucified Christ, God, suppressed by his creation and grieving for it. The beauty of Gothic sculpture is the triumph of the spirit, quest and struggle over the flesh. But the Gothic masters were also able to create completely realistic images that captured warm human feeling. Softness and lyricism are distinguished by the figures of Mary and Elizabeth, sculpted on the portal of the magnificent Reims Cathedral. The sculptures of the Naumburg Cathedral in Germany are full of character, and the statue of the Margravess Uta is full of living charm.

In Gothic art, sculpture prevailed over painting. The sculptural images of one of the most famous Gothic cathedrals, Notre Dame Cathedral, amaze with their power and imagination.

The builders of Gothic cathedrals were excellent craftsmen. The surviving album of a 13th century architect. Villara de Onecura testifies to high professionalism, extensive practical knowledge, independence of creative aspirations and assessments. The creators of Gothic cathedrals united in construction artels-lodges. Freemasonry, which arose several centuries later, used this form of organization and even borrowed the name itself (freemasons - French for “free masons”).

At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. Burgundy becomes one of the largest European art centers. The court master of Duke Philip the Bold was an outstanding sculptor, a native of the Netherlands, Klaus Sluter. The pinnacle of his work is the “Well of the Prophets” in Dijon. Powerful monumental figures of the prophets are made with amazing courage and expressiveness, making one remember the creations of Michelangelo (5, p. 656).

Painting in Gothic cathedrals was represented mainly by painting of altars. However, the true galleries of tiny paintings are the medieval manuscripts with their colorful and exquisite miniatures. In the XIV century. In France and England, easel portraits appeared and secular monumental painting developed.

In the areas of Spain that remained under Arab rule, magnificent Moorish art continued to develop. In the XIII - XIV centuries. The unique Alhambra ensemble was built in Granada, in which the perfection of architectural forms is combined with the richest decorative decoration.

The development of medieval art followed special paths in other European countries: England, the Netherlands, Spain, and the Baltic states. This also applies to architecture. In the Gothic style of these countries, with the exception of England, the plane of the wall was virtually destroyed, stained glass windows corroded the wall - they were translucent and violated the plane.

In England, in Gothic buildings, the plane of the walls was preserved, but was richly decorated with decor from perpendicular forms, which is why this style was called “Perpendicular Gothic”.

In Spain, the formation of medieval forms occurs under the constant influence of Moorish art, since this country was under the rule of the Moors for a long time. Spanish architecture is characterized by an abundance of decor covering walls, columns, and vaults. An example of Spanish sculpture is the image of King David in the tympanum of the famous cathedral of the monastery of Santiago de Campostella. The greedy sense of the mass of the stone, its weight, comes into conflict with the ornamental folds of clothing and creates a sharp contrast between the abstract and sensual principles, leading to an exaggerated expression of the image.

The medieval style in the Baltics is embodied in forms that are much calmer and more prosaic, closer to the cities of the Hanseatic League and small German towns that arose in the Middle Ages, like Berk in the vicinity of Eisenach, which is more than 1200 years old, with typical city gates, religious and secular buildings. The mention and description of this town dates back to 786 in the Breviary of Lulli, named after the monastic chronicler Lullos.

A more striking and famous example is the city of Quedlinburg, whose history dates back to the 10th century and is associated with the name of the first German king, Henry I, nicknamed the Birdcatcher. Here, the medieval appearance of the city has largely been preserved (now it has been partially restored) with its narrow streets, the center of any such city - the Market Square, churches of the 12th - 13th centuries, the town hall, the castle, the traditions of city festivities (flower festival, etc.).

The city of Tangermünde is known from an engraving dating back more than three hundred years. Judging by this image, much has been preserved here from the Middle Ages - the same signs of the then city.

In the Baltics, the oldest city of Tallinn has preserved its medieval appearance more than others. In the X - XII centuries. it became a trading center on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” It was mentioned in 1154 by the Arab geographer Idrisi. In 1219 the city was captured by the Danes, and in 1227 it submitted to the Order of the Knights of the Sword. It was at this time that a fortress was built on the site of the ancient settlement, and it was rebuilt in 1347, when Estonia came under the rule of the Livonian Order. It was then that the Vyshgorod ensemble, the main attraction of Tallinn, finally took shape. Its fortress wall, stretching for two and a half kilometers, has been preserved by three quarters. The Town Hall is an example of monumental Gothic, rare in Northern Europe (XIV - XV centuries). The beautiful weathervane of the town hall - "Old Toomas" - is also original. Another landmark of the city is the pharmacy from the early 15th century, which is not only preserved, but also operational. The Church of Niguliste (St. Nicholas) dates back to the end of the 12th century. and represents a peculiar version of Gothic with a triangular pediment of the facade. Oleviste Church (1237) is one of the tallest buildings in medieval Europe (124 m).

However, France remains the classic country of Gothic, although in its different parts architecture develops differently: in Normandy it is simpler, in the northeast it has the most characteristic features, and in the south, in the interiors of churches, there is an increasing craving for a single space, reminiscent of the influence of antiquity . This influence is also felt in sculpture, which acquires independence, independence from architecture, and monumentality (7, p. 202).

Perhaps the changes observed in the visual arts and architecture to some extent reflect a change in mentality during the period under review.

One of the most famous thinkers of the late 13th century is the English philosopher John Duns Scotus, professor at Oxford and Paris universities. Scotus was an opponent of Thomas Aquinas, in many ways a follower of Augustine and, most importantly, an expert in ancient philosophy, especially Aristotle. Scotus defended “practical ends” and, most importantly, considered individuality and activity of thought essential. Scotus' teachings later found supporters among the Franciscans, and then secular philosophers. Scotus anticipated the subsequent Renaissance with its fundamental idea of the greatness of man, the activity of action.

4. The role of cities in politicaland economic life of society

The role of the leader, the engine, the ferment, which the city now assumed, was primarily established in the economic sphere. Even if at first the city was primarily a place of exchange, a trading hub, a market, its most essential function in this area became production. The city is a workshop. And it is especially important that the division of labor began in this workshop. On the feudal estate of the Early Middle Ages, even if there was some specialization of craft work, all types of production were concentrated - both craft and agricultural. The intermediate stage in the identification of artisans was probably the one that can be observed, for example, in the Slavic countries, Poland and the Czech Republic, where in the X - XIII centuries. large landowners distributed specialist grooms, blacksmiths, potters, and cartmakers to their individual villages, which is still reminiscent of place names like Shevche in Poland, implying boot sewing. As Alexander Geishtor wrote, “we are talking about villages subordinate to the authority of the princely manager and inhabited by artisans, who are still obliged to engage in agriculture in order to provide themselves with food, but they are entrusted with the obligation to supply certain handicraft products” (9, p. 137). In the cities, this specialization was taken to its logical conclusion, and the artisan ceased to be at the same time or primarily a peasant, and the burgher - a landowner.

However, neither the dynamics of development nor the independence of new crafts should be exaggerated. Thanks to many economic levers (raw materials came mainly from feudal estates) and legal (using their rights, in particular to collect duties, the lords limited and fettered production and exchange, despite city liberties), the feudal lords controlled the economic activity of the city. The craft guilds into which new crafts were organized were, first of all, according to Gunnar Mikwitz’s precise definition, “cartels” that did not allow competition and hobbled production. Excessive specialization of crafts (it is enough to open the “Book of Crafts” by Etienne Boileau, which regulated the activities of Parisian workshops at the end of the reign of Saint Louis, between 1260 and 1270, to be amazed, for example, at the number of ironworking crafts: twenty-two out of a total of one hundred and thirty) was if not the reason, then at least a sign of the weakness of the new economy (8, p. 57). It was limited to satisfying primarily local needs. Cities that worked for export were rare. Only textile production in the northwestern part of Europe, especially in Flanders, and in Northern Italy, thanks to the production of expensive fabrics, fine cloth and silk, reached an almost industrial scale and stimulated the development of related industries, especially the production of vegetable dyes, from which from the 13th century. woad was preferred. There is still something to be said about construction, but this is a separate issue. But cities also played the role of trading hubs, which in historical literature, especially after Pirenne, was rightly recognized for them, although its importance was somewhat exaggerated. For a long time, this trade was fueled only by luxury goods (fabrics, woad, spices) and basic necessities (salt). Heavy goods, such as timber and grain, entered the sphere of large-scale trade very slowly. To support this trade, a small number of markets and primitive transactions, especially the exchange of coins, were sufficient to service it. In the XII-XIII centuries. The main place for such exchange was the Champagne fairs. But the cities and ports of Italy and Northern Germany were already entering the arena (8, p. 59). The Italians - Venetians, Genoese, Milanese, Sienese, Amalfi, Asti, and soon the Florentines - acted more or less isolated, within their cities, just like the townspeople of Amiens or Arras; in the north, a large trade confederation arose, which quickly acquired political power and began to dominate vast trading areas - the Hansa. Its appearance can be associated with the conclusion in 1161, under the auspices of Henry the Lion, of peace between the Germans and the inhabitants of Gotland, according to which a community of German merchants trading with Gotland was created. By the end of the 13th century. its influence spread from Flanders and England to Northern Rus'. “The Germans are pushing out their competitors everywhere, especially in the Baltic, but also in the North Sea, going so far as to prohibit the inhabitants of Gotland from passing through the Danish Straits to the west, to the East - to the Frisians, Flemings and English, so that even trade between Norway and England ended up in their hands." This is how the situation that developed by 1300 is described by its researcher Philip Dolliner (10, p. 234).

By creating distant trading posts, it complemented the expansion of the Christian world. In the Mediterranean, the activities of the Genoese and Venetians even went beyond the scope of commercial colonization. The Venetians, who received from the Emperors of Constantinople in 992 and 1082. a number of extraordinary privileges, after the Fourth Crusade (1204) founded a real colonial empire on the shores of the Adriatic, on Crete and on the islands of the Ionian and Aegean seas, in particular in Negropontus, that is, on Euboea. In the XIV - XV centuries. it included the islands of Corfu and Cyprus. The Genoese settled in Asia Minor, in Phocaea, a large producer of alum necessary for textile production, and in the Northern Black Sea region (Cafa), from where they exported food and people, domestic slaves of both sexes, through their fortified points.

In the north, Hanseatic merchants established themselves in Christian lands - in Bruges, London, Stockholm (from 1251), as well as in the Orthodox world (Novgorod) and pagan (Riga, from 1201). The expansion of merchants accelerated the eastward movement of German colonists, townspeople and peasants; sometimes peacefully, sometimes with weapons in their hands, they achieved privileges that, in addition to economic benefits, ensured real ethnic superiority. Thus, in the trade agreement between the Smolensk prince and German merchants in 1229 it is written: “If a Russian buys goods from a German guest on credit and at the same time he is a debtor to some other Russian, then let the German receive the debt first.” If a Russian and a German simultaneously arrived at the place where goods were being transported, then the Russian had to let the German pass first, unless the Russian was from Smolensk, otherwise they cast lots. The trade form of colonization also gave the West the skills of colonialism, which later brought it success, and then, as we know, serious problems (6, p. 375).

As the engine of territorial expansion, large-scale trade played an equally significant role in the expansion of the money economy, which was another phenomenon associated with the development of cities. As centers of consumption and exchange, cities were increasingly forced to resort to the use of coin to regulate trade transactions. The decisive period here was the 13th century. Florence, Genoa, Venice, Spanish, French, German and English sovereigns, in order to satisfy the need for money, began to mint first high-denomination silver coins, pennies, and then gold (the Florentine florin appeared in 1252, the ecus of Saint Louis in 1263-1265 gg., Venetian ducat in 1284). Roberto Lopez called the 13th century. “the century of return to gold” (6, p. 378).

If the monetary reforms of Charlemagne were carried out with the exception of a small group of his advisers, ignorance and indifference, then the monetary operations of Philip the Fair at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th centuries, which represented the first devaluation of money in the West, aroused the indignation of almost all sectors of society. and in the cities they led to indignation and popular riots. The peasant masses, undoubtedly, had never seen gold coins or even large silver ones, but they used small coins, sou, more and more. She also participated, albeit from afar, in the process by which money entered the everyday life of Western people. The city left an equally deep imprint on its spiritual and artistic life. XI and partly in the XII centuries. monasteries undoubtedly created the most favorable conditions for the development of culture and art. Mystical spiritualism and Romanesque art flourished in the monasteries. Cluny and the great church built by Abbot Hugh (1049-1109) symbolize this priority of monasteries at the dawn of modern times, which was supported - but by different means - by the monastery of Citeaux and its branches (1, p. 73).

The shift in the center of gravity of culture, due to which the primacy moved from monasteries to cities, was clearly manifested in two areas - in education and architecture.

During the 12th century. city schools were decisively ahead of monastery schools. Emerging from Episcopal schools, the new educational centers became independent with their own programs and methods, with their own set of teachers and students. The so-called scholasticism was the daughter of cities. It reigned in new educational institutions - universities, which were corporations of people of intellectual labor. Studying and teaching science became a craft, one of the many activities that were specialized in urban life. The very name "university" - "corporation" - is indicative. Indeed, universities were corporations of teachers and students, differing in that in some, like Bologna, students ran the affairs, and in others, like Paris, teachers. The book has turned from an object of veneration into a tool of knowledge. And like any toolkit, it became the subject of mass production and trade (1, p. 75).

Romanesque art, which was an expressive manifestation of the rise of the Christian world after the thousandth year, throughout the 12th century. began to transform. A new face of Gothic art appeared in the city, and the construction of city cathedrals became its highest achievement. The iconography of these cathedrals expressed the spirit of urban culture: in it active and contemplative life sought balance, when craft corporations decorated them with stained glass windows that embodied scholastic knowledge. Rural churches near cities were not very successful artistically and with much less material resources in reproducing the appearance of the city cathedral that had become an exemplary one or any of its expressive elements: a bell tower, a tower or a tympanum. Created for the new urban population, more numerous, more humane and more realistically thinking, the cathedral did not forget, however, to remind them of the close and fertile rural life.

The city opened a wide gate for Western Europe to the society of modern times.

In medieval Russia, everything turned out differently. The city and commercial and industrial urban activities remained underdeveloped for a long time. The urban class and urban citizenship did not develop here. In medieval documents, the trade and craft population and the adjacent population of cities are called “townspeople”. Like the future "philistines", this is an unprivileged stratum, just one of the statuses of a commoner (10, p. 238). The burgher-patrician elite - the bearer and exponent of the city's self-sufficiency and influence - did not develop in medieval Russia or was unable to manifest itself. The only urban group that, even in that era, managed to somehow secure itself with some privileges was the merchant class. But it also had difficulty making its way through the fences of the dominance and arrogance of the nobility. Society treated the city and its population as something marginal and not even entirely moral. The main thing was the village.

Medieval European cities had a great influence on the political life of society. One of the most important results of urban influence was the participation of citizens in the activities of parliaments from the 14th century. Until this time, parliaments were advisory bodies under the king, consisting of representatives of the feudal elite. Since the 14th century, they have turned into elected class-representative institutions and owe this entirely to the cities.

The kings received money and military assistance from the cities, and the cities received support from the king in maintaining the peace they needed and protection from the brutal tyranny of the feudal lords. Medieval cities and the burgher class became the main component of Western mentality.

Conclusion

Today, thanks to the research of several generations of medievalists, medieval culture appears before us in many of its faces. Extreme asceticism and a life-affirming popular perception of the world, mystical exaltation and logical rationalism, striving for the absolute and passionate love for the concrete, material side of being are intricately and at the same time organically combined in it, obeying the laws of aesthetics, different from those in antiquity and modern times, affirming a system of values inherent specifically in the Middle Ages.

A new face of Gothic art appeared in the city, and the construction of city cathedrals became its highest achievement. The iconography of these cathedrals expressed the spirit of urban culture: in it active and contemplative life sought balance, when craft corporations decorated them with stained glass windows that embodied scholastic knowledge. The city opened a wide gate for Western Europe to the society of modern times. Medieval cities and the burgher class became the main component of Western mentality. Medieval European cities had a great influence on the political life of society.

Bibliography

1. Jacques Le Goff Civilization of the medieval West. - M.: Progress - Academy, 1992.

2. Ivanov K.A. The many faces of the Middle Ages. - M.: Aletheya, 1996.

3. Ivanov K.A. Troubadours, trouvères, minnesingers. - M.: Aletheya, 1997.

4. History of Europe in 8 volumes. T.2. - M.: Nauka, 1992.

5. History of the Middle Ages / Ed. S.P. Karpova. - M.: Infra-M., 2000.

6. Levitsky E.A. City and feudalism in England. - M.: Progress. 1987.

7. World artistic culture / Ed. Prof. B.A. Ehrengross. - M.: Higher School, 2001.

8. Svanidze A. Medieval city - a vertical of progress // Knowledge is power, 1995, No. 3. pp. 54-66.

9. Yastrebitskaya Y.A. The formation of urban culture. - M.: Open Society, 1998.

10. Huizinga J. Autumn of the Middle Ages. - M.: Tandem, 1988.

11. Reader on the history of the Middle Ages. T. II. / Ed. N.P. Gratsiansky, S.D. Skazkina. M., 1950.

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Everyday culture of the Great Russian village and medieval city. The city as a center of medieval culture

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ABSTRACT

in the discipline: "Culturology"

Magnitogorsk, 2001

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