How a slave was pacified in ancient Rome. Slaves - who are they? Legal status of slaves in Ancient Rome and Egypt

Slavery Recently, in the center of Moscow, opposite the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, a monument to Emperor Alexander II was erected, on which the following words are inscribed: “He abolished serfdom in Russia in 1861 and freed millions of peasants from centuries-old slavery.”

2.1 General information.

“Servi res sunt” (“Slaves are things”), said the Roman lawyer Ulpian. This phrase can already explain the legal status of the ancient Roman slave. “The main division in the law of persons is that all people are either free or slaves,” wrote the Roman lawyer Gaius. The state of freedom (liberti) in Roman law was the determining condition for acquiring legal capacity. In relation to it, Roman law distinguished 2 categories: free (liberi) and slaves (servi). (Based on materials from lecture notes on the subject “Roman Law”).

“The increased exploitation of slave labor, dictated by the interests of simple commodity production, led to a deterioration in the social and legal position of slaves. The remnants of human rights, some moral restrictions on the exploitation of slaves that existed under patriarchal slavery, in the new conditions begin to constrain the slave owner; now he is interested in ensuring that the worker is placed at his complete and uncontrolled disposal and can be subjected to any, even the most excessive, exploitation. A slave is equated to a thing, to an animal; he was at the absolute disposal of the master, who could kill him with impunity, throw him to be devoured by predatory fish or wild animals.” (History of Ancient Rome / Edited by A.G. Bokshchanin and V.I. Kuzishchin. - M.: Higher School, 1971. - p. 129).

“... The Aquilian law (end of the 3rd century BC) states ...: “If someone unlawfully kills another man’s slave or slave, or quadruped, or cattle, then let him be sentenced to give the owner as much copper as was the highest value this in a given year” (D.9.2.2.). By the middle of the 2nd century. BC. the slave finally turns into a means of production, which the owner could treat as a thing. “Masters have the right of life and death over slaves...” (Gaius. Institutions. I. 52).” (Roman private law: Course of lectures / Khutyz M.Kh. M.: Bylina, 1994. – p. 45).

However, it should be noted that “Poor treatment of a slave was not typical, a slave in Rome was the property of a citizen, so he was usually treated with care, just as a thing was treated, which was in the interests of the master (A. Vallon).” (Roman private law: Course of lectures / Khutyz M.Kh. M.: Bylina, 1994. – p. 46)

2.2. Sources of slavery and the slave trade.

“The slave was the main producer, and further development of production required new masses of slaves. The need for slaves in Roman society was constant, and it was satisfied from various sources (the sources of replenishment of the slave ranks were already mentioned above. - Author). The war provided a large number of slaves. In the event of successful military operations, masses of captured soldiers and civilians fell into the hands of the victors, and the property of the latter passed to them. Many wars of Rome II - I centuries. BC. were successful and the Romans threw a huge number of prisoners onto the market. Captured prisoners were sold at auction by the quaestor (in Ancient Rome, an official in charge of financial and judicial affairs. - Note from the author of the work. Definition obtained from the source “Dictionary of Foreign Words. - 15th ed., revised. - M.: Russian Language. , 1988. – p. 224"); they were usually bought in large quantities by slave traders following the Roman army.

Debt slavery for Roman citizens was abolished as early as 326 BC. However, for the population of Italy and the provinces that did not have the rights of Roman citizenship, debt slavery remained in force. Taking advantage of the connivance of the Roman administration, Roman tax collectors in the provinces lent money to residents at huge loan interest rates (up to 48%), and when the debtors were unable to pay the debt, they were enslaved, causing devastation, as in military operations. Thus, debt slavery in the provinces served as one of the sources of slavery in the 2nd – 1st centuries. BC.

The internal reproduction of slave power was also of some importance, i.e. education of slaves born of slaves, which was encouraged by some slave owners. Raised as slaves from an early age, they were trained, obedient and highly valued. But raising such a slave was more expensive than buying an adult, and in the era of victorious wars of the 2nd - 1st centuries. BC. was less profitable than purchasing slaves on the market. The internal reproduction of the labor force was also hampered by the fact that slaves lived in semi-barracks conditions and were deprived of family.

Sea pirates also replenished the slave market. They roamed the seas, robbed ships and coastal villages, kidnapped and sold their victims into slavery. At the end of the 2nd - first half of the 1st century. BC. piracy became widespread and pirates supplied large contingents of slaves to the market. However, piracy, as well as other sources of slavery, for example, self-selling, selling one's children, thief, deserter, arsonist, etc. into slavery. were not of great economic importance.

By the middle of the 2nd century. BC. A vibrant slave trade developed in Mediterranean countries. The slave trade cannot be considered a special source of slavery. Slaves were sold at the market, who turned out to be slaves either due to captivity or for debt. Under source slavery should be understood as one or another way of turning a free person into a slave, while slave trade only moves a slave from one owner to another, without changing his social status (the words were italicized by the author of this work).” (History of Ancient Rome / Edited by A.G. Bokshchanin and V.I. Kuzishchin. - M.: Higher School, 1971. - pp. 130-131)

“In ancient times, the main options for the emergence of a slave state were the capture of soldiers of an enemy state, the enslavement of foreigners located on the territory of Rome, and the birth of a slave. The latter option was a consequence of the fact that only children born in a legal marriage acquired the legal status of a father. Marrying a slave was excluded. At first, the determining factor was the status of the mother at the time of childbirth, then, in the post-classical era, any period of time during which the mother was free during pregnancy. It was possible for a freeborn Roman to become a slave. For example, on the initiative of the victim, a thief caught in the act of a crime, or a family member sold into slavery by its head could become a slave. Free-born Romans could not be slaves (until the period of the empire) on the territory of their state; they were sold abroad - trans Tiberim. The ratio of sources of slavery to the beginning of the classical period changes. It is prohibited to enslave fellow citizens, and debt bondage is reduced. The emergence of slavery is associated with certain punishments for crimes. Those sentenced to death and hard labor were forced into slavery. The same fate befell a free woman who was caught having an intimate relationship with a slave and continued it despite a warning. A freedman who was ungrateful to his former master could be returned to a servile state.” (Roman private law: Course of lectures / Khutyz M.Kh. M.: Bylina, 1994. – pp. 44 – 45).

“Slave markets existed in every city where any citizen could buy or sell a slave. In addition to such local markets, there were larger markets on the island. Delos (Aegean Sea), in the city of Aquileia (Italy), Tanais (mouth of the Don River). Slaves were brought to Delos from all over the Eastern Mediterranean, and once up to 10 thousand slaves were sold in a day. Slave caravans from beyond the Alps, from Gaul, and the Rhine and Danube regions converged in the city of Aquileia. Tanais was the center of the slave trade with the Sarmatians and other Black Sea tribes. From Tanais, Aquileia, Delos, slaves went to regional, and from here to local markets. The slave was sold like any other product: in order to sell it at a higher price, the owner dressed him in new clothes and curled his hair. As signs of sale, slaves had their feet smeared with chalk and wreaths were placed on their heads. The seller informed the buyer in detail about all the advantages and disadvantages of the slave.

Slave prices fluctuated. During particularly successful wars, a slave was sometimes sold for 4 denarii. (The definition of this monetary unit is given below - Author), but the usual cost of a slave was 400-500 denarii. Highly skilled slaves cost several times more” (History of Ancient Rome /Ed. A.G. Bokshchanin and V.I. Kuzishchin. - M.: Higher School, 1971. - pp. 130 - 131).

« DENARIUS, DENARIUS[lat. denarius] – a silver coin in Ancient Rome, equal to 10 Assam. … ACC[lat. as (assis)] – an ancient Roman copper coin, originally equal to the Roman weight pound(327.45 g)." (Dictionary of foreign words. - 15th ed., revised - M.: Russian language., 1988. - pp. 165, 56).

2.3 Basic duties of slaves.

“Slaves...were divided into certain categories: 1) state slaves (served under magistrates, military leaders, temples, were scribes, jailers, executioners; there were, however, relatively few of them); 2) slaves of private individuals: a) the privileged part - the city family (domestic servants, readers, speakers, philosophers, grammarians, architects, secretaries, librarians, stenographers, comedians, actors, etc.); b) slaves engaged in productive labor (artisans); c) rural surname (they worked in agriculture and were subjected to heavy exploitation); d) category of condemned slaves (worked in mines, quarries, in chains in the fields, were in gladiator schools).” (Valentin Leskov. Spartak. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 1997. – pp. 47-48).

“... Slaves were in the kitchen, in the bathhouse, in the stable, and in the bakery. During the feasts, the hosts and guests were also entertained by slaves: dancers, musicians and acrobats... Special slaves were in charge of arranging feasts, storing food, and purchasing everything necessary for the household. Even the treasurer, who kept the keys to the owner’s cash register, was a slave” (General history of state and law: Textbook for universities. Edited by Prof. K.I. Batyr. – 2000. – pp. 92 – 93).

"Aquarius"– water carrier; arcarius– treasurer; argentarius– silversmith; ab argento- slave in charge of silver; atriensis– economy; aurifex– goldsmith; calciator– shoemaker; capsarius– folding clothes; colorator- furniture polisher; cubicularius– room servant; supra cubicularius- overseer of servants; delicium– child for fun; dispensator- server; faber– artisan; insularius- custodian of residential premises; lanipedus– weighing wool; lecturer– reader; libraria– clerk; a manu- secretary; margaritaris– manufacturer of pearl settings; medicus- doctor; supra medicos– supervising doctors; surveyor- inspector; nutrix- nanny; opsonator– caterer; obsterix– midwife; ab ornamentis- servant in charge of ceremonial clothing ; ornatrix– dressing; ostiarius– gatekeeper; paedagogus– companion of small children; a pedibus- overseer of livery footmen ; pedisequus And pedisequua– serving men and serving women; pictor– artist-painter; pistor- baker; ad possessions– financial administrator; a purpuris- servant in charge of purple robes; rogator– invitation maker (?); a sacratio– servant, head of the temple; sarcinatrix- mending clothes; a sede– looking after the chairs (?); strator-saddler; constructor- builder; ab supplectile– servant, head of furniture; tabularius– archive keeper ; unctrix– massage therapist; ad unguenta– servant in charge of fragrant oils; ad valentudinem– an orderly in the sick room; a veste- servant, head of the wardrobe" (James P. Roman civilization / Translated from English by M. Zvonarev. - M.: FAIR-PRESS, 2000. - p. 187).

Further, the author does not consider it necessary to describe in detail the poor living conditions of supposedly all slaves without exception, because, as already mentioned, the slave was often treated with care, and the duties of many of them and the working conditions were not so bad and difficult.

“A senior man was placed over every ten slaves, who in turn was subordinate to the procurator (the manager and overseer of all slaves, also a slave)” (General History of State and Law: Textbook for Universities. Edited by Prof. K.I. Batyr. – 2000. – p. 92). Marcus Porcius Cato, (234-149 BC, prominent statesman, orator, historian), in his treatise “On Agriculture,” describes the duties of a foreman (manager of a Roman estate), and also confirms a careful attitude towards slaves. It is clear that it is not profitable for the owner for the slave to get sick and die, because then he will have to buy a new slave and train him. “These are the duties of a fork. He must establish good order and observe holidays; do not take someone else's hands into your hands; guard yours carefully. He settles slave disputes; if someone is guilty of anything, he punishes the culprit thoroughly, judging by the offense.

Slaves should not feel bad: they should not freeze and starve(underlined by the author of this work). Vilik always has them at work: this way he can more easily keep them from doing bad things and stealing. If the vilik does not want the slaves to behave badly, they will not behave badly. If he tolerates this, the owner should not leave it unpunished. He thanks for the merit, so that others would like to behave correctly. Vilik should not loiter idle; he is always sober and never goes out for lunch. He has slaves at work; he makes sure that what the owner ordered succeeds. Let him not consider himself smarter than the owner. He considers the owner's friends to be his friends; obeys the one ordered...

...He will be the first to get out of bed and the last to go to bed. First, he will see if the estate is locked, if everyone is in his place and if food has been given to the animals...” (Anthology on the history of the ancient world: A manual for teachers / Compiled by E.A. Cherkasova. - M.: Prosveshchenie, 1991. - p. 228 -229). Information about the biography of Marcus Porcius Cato is also taken from the named source.

It is also necessary to say about gladiators. " GLADIATORS[lat. gladiators< gladius меч] – в Др. Риме – рабы, осужденные преступники и другие лица, специально обученные для вооруженной борьбы между собой или с дикими зверями на арене цирка» (Словарь иностранных слов. – 15-е изд., испр. – М.: Русский язык., 1988. – стр. 133). Как известно, после боя зрители решали, насколько хорошо дрался побежденный. Если они считали, что он дрался недостаточно мужественно, они показывали опущенный книзу большой палец руки и если таких зрителей было большинство, победитель убивал побежденного. Если же большинство зрителей считало, что побежденный дрался мужественно и стоял до последнего (в этом случае показывался поднятый кверху большой палец руки), ему оставляли жизнь. Перевод рабов в гладиаторы являлся тяжким наказанием. Как следует из данного выше определения, в гладиаторы переводили и преступников. О гладиаторах также будет сказано в следующей главе, в разделе, посвященном восстанию Спартака.

2.4 The property sphere of life of slaves. Peculium.

“Since ancient times, the lack of rights of slaves in the property sphere has come into conflict with the needs of economic life. Although the slave was equated with instruments of production, animals, etc., he differed from them in his conscious will and intellect, which could be used in the interests of his masters. In this capacity, the slave acted as a “talking instrument” - instrumentum vocale (according to Varro, the instruments of agricultural production were divided into three categories: “The speaking, half-speaking and dumb instruments; the speaking instruments are slaves; the half-talking instruments are bulls; the dumb ones are carts.” . – “On Agriculture”, I, 17, 1). A slave's ability to perform legal acts (but only in favor of the owner) was derived from the legal capacity of the latter, i.e. as if such actions were performed by the slave owner himself. Meanwhile, the master did not bear any responsibility for the obligations of the slaves, which, of course, contradicted the principles of civil turnover. “Our situation becomes better with the help of slaves, but cannot become worse (D. 50.17.133).

The movement towards establishing civil liability in appropriate cases began with the recognition of certain elements of the legal capacity of slaves. Since ancient times, the master was responsible for the damage caused by a slave, who either compensated for the damage or handed the slave over to the victim. In the latter case, as with the alienation of a slave, the burden of responsibility passed to the new master (this rule also applied when causing harm to animals). It was interpreted by jurists to mean that if a slave was freed, not only the master, but also the freed man was liable in a civil action. Further. For obligations from contracts concluded by a slave, a civil claim was impossible, but a natural obligation of the slave (or freed) was established, according to which what was voluntarily paid could not be claimed (D. 44.7.14).

Since the 1st century. lawyers developed rules regulating the economic activities of slaves on behalf of the master, recognizing in some cases the ability for them to act on their own behalf. Reflecting the needs of economic development and protecting the interests of the slaves' counterparties, they, despite their lack of legal capacity, developed the concept of natural obligation and sanctioned the contracts they concluded and the obligations arising from them.

Another, no less important novelty was the recognition of the responsibility of slave owners for the obligations of slaves arising in the process of carrying out economic activities on behalf of their masters. In appropriate situations, praetorial claims were in effect, differentiated depending on the type of activity: from an agreement concluded by a slave-captain of a ship belonging to the master (actio exerci); from a contract concluded by a slave managing the master’s enterprise (actio institoria); from a contract concluded by a slave by order of the master, expressed in any form (actio quod jussi). In the listed cases, the slave acted on behalf of the master, and not on his own initiative, therefore the master was fully responsible for all claims. The following claim is typical for operations performed by a slave on his own initiative, but in the interests of the owner (actio in rem verso). In this case, the master was liable within the limits of the amounts received into his property on the basis of an agreement concluded by the slave.

Wider economic and legal opportunities were required by the relations that arose on the basis peculia- separate property allocated to a slave by the master for independent management, with the latter paying a certain part of the income. The subject of peculium (from pecus - livestock: the etymology of the word suggests that the original subject of peculium was the number of livestock) could be both movable and immovable property and even slaves (servi vicarii). Peculium slave is an ancient institution that arose before the laws of the XII tables. In addition to the XII tables, the first mention of peculium is contained in the comedies of Plautus, from which it follows that at the end of the 3rd century. BC. there was a significant group of slaves who owned the peculium. From the time of the XII tables until the 1st century. BC. The peculium of the slave existed outside clear legal forms. And only praetorial law gave it the appropriate form. Praetor's Edict of Peculium, issued in the first half of the 1st century. BC, the formation of its legal regime began. Praetorial law freed the economic activity of the slave from restraining barriers and recognized his freedom of action in relation to the peculium. “The peculium is that which the master himself separated from his property, keeping a separate account for his slave” (D.15.1.5). Slaves who had peculium often owned slaves themselves and were independent people. Wealth allowed them to gain freedom. Since the economic activity was carried out by the slave on his own initiative and in his own interests, and the peculium legally belonged to the master, he was responsible for the obligations of the slave within the limits of the peculium. This liability was ensured by the action - actio de peculo. “... If the slave himself owes something, then under this name the penalty is addressed to his peculium, and if there was some benefit to the master from this, then the penalty is addressed to the master” (D. 15.1.41).

... the institution of peculium contributed to the property and legal elevation of the most capable slaves. In essence, it testified to the crisis of the social system into which privileged slaves were integrated" (Roman private law: Course of lectures / Khutyz M.Kh. M.: Bylina, 1994. - pp. 47 - 50).

Slavery in Rome became most widespread compared to other ancient states, but often this met the interests of the society of that time, serving as its important development

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Subtitles

General characteristics of slavery in Ancient Rome

Sources of slaves

The main source of slaves was capture. It was captive foreigners who made up the overwhelming majority of slaves in Ancient Rome, as evidenced by the analysis of numerous written sources, in particular, tombstone inscriptions. For example, as the famous French historian S. Nicolet points out, the majority of slaves in Sicily at the end of the 2nd century. BC e. (when slavery on the island reached its greatest extent) were natives of Asia Minor, Syria, Greece, who had previously been captured by Rome

In the understanding of the Romans, the historian writes, a slave was associated with a foreigner. Just as the ancient Greeks considered all barbarians to be an inferior race whose natural state was slavery, the same views were shared by the Romans. For example, Cicero wrote about the popular belief that certain races were destined for slavery.

Another source of slaves was sea robbery, which reached its climax during the era of the first triumvirate (mid-1st century BC), which in certain periods of Roman history also significantly contributed to the increase in the number of slaves.

The third source of slaves was the right of a creditor to enslave his debtor. In particular, such a right was legalized by the laws of the twelve tables (5th century BC). Upon expiration of the loan term, the debtor was provided with one month of benefits; if the debt was not paid, the court handed the debtor over to the creditor (jure addicitur) and the latter kept him in chains at home for 60 days. The law determined for such cases the amount of bread that the prisoner received (at least 1 pound per day) and the weight of the shackles (no more than 15 pounds). During the conclusion, the creditor could bring his debtor to the market three times and announce the amount of the debt. If no one expressed a desire to ransom him, he turned into a slave (servus), whom the creditor could sell, but only outside Roman territory. The same laws of the twelve tables gave the father the right to sell his children into slavery.

At the same time, in the 4th century. BC e. In Rome, the Petelian Law was adopted, which prohibited the enslavement of Roman citizens - from now on only foreigners could be slaves, and only in exceptional cases (for example, the commission of a serious crime) could citizens of Rome become slaves. According to this law, a Roman who publicly announced his insolvency (bankruptcy) was deprived of all his property, which was taken away to pay debts, but retained personal freedom. S. Nicole writes in this regard about the “abolition of debt slavery” in Rome in 326 BC. e. Although there are references to the fact that this law was subsequently circumvented, historians believe that this is not about debt slavery, but about some forms of working off the debt, without formal slavery.

During the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. Debt slavery again became an important source of replenishment of slaves - but at the expense of the inhabitants of the conquered countries. There are many known cases of mass enslavement in territories conquered by Rome for failure to pay high Roman taxes (see below).

There were also cases when the state subjected a citizen to maxima capitis diminutio, that is, turned him into a slave, for the crimes he committed. Criminals condemned to execution were classified as slaves (servi poenae), because in Rome only a slave could be handed over to the executioner. Later, for some crimes, the punishment was commuted, and the “punishment slaves” were sent to the mines or quarries.

If, finally, a free woman entered into a relationship with a slave and did not stop it, despite the master’s threefold protest, she became the slave of the one who owned the slave.

To all the listed sources of slavery, it is necessary to add some natural increase in the unfree population due to the birth of children from slaves. Due to the slowness of this growth and demand, the slave trade was established. Slaves were imported to Rome partly from Africa, Spain and Gaul, but mainly from Bithynia, Galatia, Cappadocia and Syria. This trade brought great income to the treasury, since the import, export and sale of slaves were subject to duties: 1/8 of the value was charged from the eunuch, 1/4 from the rest, and 2-4% were charged on sales. The slave trade was one of the most profitable activities; it was practiced by the most notable Romans, for example. Cato the Elder, who recommended buying and training slaves for resale for greater profitability. The first place in the slave trade belonged to the Greeks, who had the advantage of experience. Numerous measures were taken to protect the interests of buyers. The prices of slaves fluctuated constantly depending on supply and demand. The average cost of a slave under the Antonines was 175-210 rubles. [ ] ; but in some cases, such as for beautiful young slaves, up to 9,000 rubles were paid. [ ] In the late empire (IV-V centuries), the price of healthy adult slaves averaged 18-20 gold solidi (for comparison: for 1 solidi in the 5th century you could buy 40 modius = 360 liters of grain). But the price of slaves was much lower on the borders of the empire, where captive barbarians came from. Child slaves were also worth much less, typically only a few solidi.

Functions of slaves

The Dutch scientist Pomp (“Titi Pompae Phrysii de operis servorum liber”, 1672) counted 146 functions performed by slaves in the house of a rich Roman. Currently, after new research, this figure has to be increased significantly.

The entire composition of slaves was divided into two categories: familia rustica and familia urbana. In each estate, at the head of the familia rustica there was a manager (lat. villicus)), who monitored the performance of the slaves’ duties, sorted out their quarrels, satisfied their legitimate needs, encouraged the hardworking and punished the guilty. Managers often used these rights very widely, especially where the masters either did not interfere in the matter at all or were not interested in the fate of their slaves. The manager had an assistant with a staff of overseers and foremen. Below were numerous groups of workers in the fields, vineyards, shepherds and cattlemen, spinners, weavers and weavers, fullers, tailors, carpenters, joiners, etc. On large estates, each such group was divided, in turn, into decuria, at the head of which stood the decurion. Sometimes the familia urbana was no less numerous, divided into management personnel (lat. ordinarii), who enjoyed the trust of the master, and personnel for serving the master and madam both in the house and outside it (lat. vulgares, mediastini, quales-quales). Among the first were the housekeeper, cashier, accountant, managers of rental houses, buyers of supplies, etc.; the second group included the gatekeeper, who replaced the watchdog and sat on a chain, watchmen, doorkeepers, furniture keepers, silver keepers, cloakroom attendants, slaves who brought in visitors, slaves who lifted the curtains for them, etc. A crowd of cooks and bakers crowded into the kitchen bread, pies, pates. One service at the table of a wealthy Roman required a considerable number of slaves: the duty of some was to set the table, others to serve food, others to taste, and others to pour wine; there were those on whose hair the gentlemen wiped their hands; a crowd of beautiful boys, dancers, dwarfs and jesters entertained the guests while eating. For personal services, valets, bathers, house surgeons, and barbers were assigned to the gentleman; in rich houses there were readers, secretaries, librarians, scribes, parchment makers, teachers, writers, philosophers, painters, sculptors, accountants, commercial agents, etc. Among the shopkeepers, peddlers, bankers, money changers, moneylenders there were many slaves who were engaged in this or that business for the benefit of their master. When a master appeared somewhere in a public place, a crowd of slaves (lat. anteambulanes) always walked in front of him; another crowd brought up the rear of the procession (Latin pedisequi); the nomenclator told him the names of those he met who were to be greeted; distributores and tesserarii distributed handouts; there were also porters, couriers, messengers, handsome young men who made up the mistress’s honor guard, etc. The mistress had her own guards, eunuchs, a midwife, a nurse, cradles, spinners, weavers, and seamstresses. Betticher wrote a whole book (“Sabina”) specifically about the state of slaves under the mistress. Slaves were mainly actors, acrobats, and gladiators. Large sums were spent on training educated slaves (lat. litterati) (for example, Crassus, Atticus). Many masters specially trained their slaves for this or that task and then placed them at the disposal of those who wanted them for a fee. Only poor houses used the services of hired slaves; The rich tried to have all the specialists at home.

In addition to slaves owned by private individuals (lat. servi privati), there were public slaves (lat. servi publici), owned either by the state or a separate city. They built streets and water pipelines, worked in quarries and mines, cleaned sewers, served in slaughterhouses and in various public workshops (military weapons, ropes, gear for ships, etc.); They also occupied lower positions under the magistrates - messengers, messengers, servants in courts, prisons and temples; they were state cashiers and scribes. They also formed a retinue that accompanied each provincial official or commander to his place of office.

Position of slaves

Ancient historians have left us many descriptions of the terrible situation in which Roman slaves found themselves. Their food was extremely meager in quantity and unsuitable in quality: just enough was given out so as not to die of hunger. Meanwhile, the work was exhausting and lasted from morning to evening. The situation of slaves was especially difficult in mills and bakeries, where a millstone or a board with a hole in the middle was often tied to the slaves’ necks to prevent them from eating flour or dough, and in mines, where the sick and mutilated worked under the whip until they fell from exhaustion . If a slave fell ill, he was taken to the abandoned “island of Aesculapius,” where he was given complete “freedom to die.” Cato the Elder advises selling “old oxen, sick cattle, sick sheep, old carts, scrap iron, an old slave, a sick slave, and in general everything unnecessary.” Cruel treatment of slaves was sanctified by legends, customs, and laws. Only during Saturnalia could slaves feel somewhat free; they put on the cap of freedmen and sat down at the table of their masters, and the latter sometimes even showed them honors. The rest of the time, the arbitrariness of their masters and managers weighed heavily on them. The chain, shackles, stick, and whip were in great use. It often happened that the master ordered the slave to be thrown into a well or oven or placed on a pitchfork. The upstart freedman Vedius Pollio ordered a slave to be thrown into a tank with moray eels for a broken vase. Augustus ordered the slave who killed and ate his quail to be hanged from the mast. The slave was seen as a rude and insensitive creature, and therefore punishments for him were invented as more terrible and painful as possible. They ground him in millstones, covered his head with resin and tore the skin from his skull, cut off his nose, lips, ears, arms, legs, or hung him naked on iron chains, leaving him to be devoured by birds of prey; he was finally crucified on the cross. “I know,” says the slave in the comedy of Plautus, “that my last home will be the cross: my father, grandfather, great-grandfather and all my ancestors rest on it.” If the master was killed by a slave, all slaves who lived with the master under the same roof were subject to death. Only the position of slaves who served outside the master's house - on ships, in shops, as heads of workshops - was somewhat easier. The worse the life of the slaves was, the harder the work, the harsher the punishments, the more painful the executions, the more the slaves hated the master. Aware of the feelings the slaves had for them, the masters, as well as the state authorities, cared a lot about preventing danger from the slaves. They tried to maintain disagreements between slaves and to separate slaves of the same nationality.

It is interesting that outwardly slaves were no different from free citizens. They wore the same clothes, and in their free time they went to baths, theaters, and stadiums. In the beginning, slaves had special collars with the owner's name on them, which were quickly abolished. The Senate even made a special provision on this matter, the meaning of which was to ensure that slaves did not stand out among citizens, so that they (slaves) did not see and know how many there were.

From a legal point of view, the slave did not exist as a person; in all respects he was equated to a thing (res mancipi), placed on a par with land, horses, bulls (servi pro nullis habentur - the Romans said). The Law of Aquilius makes no difference between wounding a domestic animal and a slave. At the trial, the slave was interrogated only at the request of one of the parties; the voluntary testimony of a slave had no value. Neither he can owe anyone, nor can anyone owe him. For damage or loss caused by a slave, his master was liable. The union of a slave and a slave did not have the legal character of marriage: it was only cohabitation, which the master could tolerate or terminate at will. An accused slave could not seek protection from the tribunes.

Measures to limit arbitrariness towards slaves

However, over time, life forced the authorities to somewhat soften the arbitrariness of slave owners, partly because the cruel treatment of slaves in many cases led to major slave uprisings, for example, in Sicily, partly out of people's disgust for cruelty, which should not be underestimated.

Since the establishment of imperial power, a number of legal measures have been taken to protect slaves from the arbitrariness and cruelty of their masters. Lex Claudia (47 AD) gives freedom to those slaves who were not cared for by their masters during their illness. Lex Petronia (67) prohibits sending slaves to public fights with animals. Emperor Hadrian prohibits, under pain of criminal punishment, the unauthorized killing of slaves by the master, their imprisonment (ergastula), (and gladiatorial games (121). Antoninus legalized the custom that allowed slaves to seek salvation from the cruelty of their masters in temples and at the statues of emperors. For the murder of a slave, he ordered the master to be punished according to the lex Cornelia de sicariis, and in cases of cruelty to a slave - to sell him into other hands. They also prohibited the sale of children and handing them over as hostages when borrowing money. The Edict of Diocletian forbade a free person to give himself into bondage. The law extorted the unpaid debtor from the hands of the creditor. The slave trade continued, but the often practiced mutilation of boys and young men was punishable by expulsion, exile to the mines, and even death. If the buyer returned the slave to the seller, then he had to return his entire family: the cohabitation of the slave, thus , was recognized as a marriage.

Thus, the Romans during this period turned into a “nation of masters”, which was served by an entire army of slaves - mainly foreigners enslaved during the Roman conquest of Europe and the Mediterranean. And this army was replenished through new robberies and arbitrariness in the conquered territories. In Italy, slaves during this period were used in large numbers not only in the household, but also in agriculture, construction and crafts.

However, outside Italy there were very few slaves even in that era, and they played practically no role in economic and social life. Thus, the famous Russian historian Mikhail Ivanovich Rostovtsev, in his unique work on the social and economic history of the early Roman Empire, points out that in the vast majority of provinces, with the exception of Italy, Sicily and some regions of Spain, there were practically no slaves or they were in small numbers , repeating this conclusion also in relation to specific provinces of the Roman Empire. The French historian A. Grenier came to the same conclusion in his work on Roman Gaul.

In general, if we proceed from existing estimates of the population of the early Roman Empire - 50-70 million people - and from estimates of the number of slaves by leading historians, then the number of slaves even at the very beginning of the imperial period (end of the 1st century BC - mid-1st century . AD) in proportion to the entire population of the empire should have been only about 4-8%. This is at odds with the conclusions of Soviet and Marxist historians, who gave the topic of slavery an exaggerated character and took into account the proportion of slaves in the population of only Italy itself, and not the entire Roman Empire.

The role of slaves in class battles.

Several slave uprisings are known to have occurred in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. in Italy and Sicily. In 196 BC. e. There was a slave uprising in Etruria, and in 185 in Apulia. A more serious rebellion broke out in 133 under the leadership of Eunus in Sicily, where the slaves had especially many reasons for displeasure and where their numbers were very large. According to the ancient author Diodorus, the number of rebels reached 200 thousand. Only with great difficulty did Rutilius manage to suppress the uprising. But in subsequent times, Sicily continued to be a hotbed of uprisings (for example, in 105-102).

The most formidable uprising was the uprising of Spartacus (73-71 BC), whose army consisted of about 120 thousand people. However, according to the testimony of the Roman historians Appian and Sallust, not only slaves, but also free proletarians, of whom there were quite a lot in the “army of slaves,” took part in the Spartacus uprising. In addition, having heard about the successes of Spartacus, the cities of Roman allies in Italy rebelled against the power of Rome, which significantly increased the scope of the uprising. As S. Nikole writes, “Spartacus’s war was also a war against the rule of Rome, and not just a slave uprising.”

In general, slaves did not play a major role in the class battles of Ancient Rome, except in certain areas, notably Sicily, where slaves at one point formed a very significant part of the population. But even in Italy the role of slave social movements was small, with the exception of the period from 135 to 71. BC. (when it was significant), not to mention the other Roman provinces. The uprising of Spartacus, being only partly a movement of slaves, in turn, constituted only a small episode in the civil wars of the 80s-70s. BC e., lasting two decades (when the leaders of the warring parties were Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Pompey). And during subsequent civil wars: 49-30. BC e. (Caesar, Cassius, Brutus, Augustus, Pompey, Anthony), 68-69. n. e. (Galba, Vitellius, Vespasian), 193-197. (Albin, Niger, North), 235-285. (“the century of 30 tyrants”) - it is not at all known about any independent mass movements of slaves.

The above facts refute the claims of Soviet and Marxist historians that slaves in Ancient Rome constituted the main “exploited class,” which played a leading role in the class struggle against the “exploiter class.” Slaves were generally only a small social stratum, playing a rather modest role in class battles, with the exception of the period from 135 to 71. BC. ; .

Disappearance of mass slavery

In subsequent centuries, when the influx of prisoners of war decreased, and the inhabitants of the conquered territories increasingly approached the citizens of Rome in their status, the number of slaves began to decline rapidly. As S. Nikole points out, there are signs of its slight decrease already from the end of the 1st century. BC e., and even more so during the 1st century AD. e. . In the II-III century. n. e. slaves, both in the empire as a whole and in Italy itself, made up a small percentage of the population. As noted by the famous English historian A.H.M. Jones, who specifically studied this issue, the number of slaves in these centuries in proportion was negligible, they were very expensive and were used mainly as domestic servants by rich Romans. According to his data, the average price of a slave by this time compared to the 4th century. BC e. increased 8 times. Therefore, only rich Romans who kept slaves as domestic servants could afford to buy and maintain slaves; the use of slave labor in crafts and agriculture in the 2nd-3rd centuries. n. e. lost all meaning and practically disappeared.

Throughout this period, land cultivation was carried out by free tenants - colons. Soviet historians argued, in an effort to prove the Marxist thesis about the existence of a “slave system” in antiquity, that the colonat was one of the types of slave relations. However, all the colons were formally free; their dependence on the latifundists had a completely different character than the dependence of a slave on his master. There are many examples in history of the same dependence of peasants on large landowners - Ancient Egypt, Persia in early antiquity, India and China on the eve of colonial conquest, France on the eve of the French Revolution, etc. The position of peasants in these countries was similar to the position of slaves or serfs, but in fact they were neither one nor the other, since their formal freedom was preserved. In any case, the coloni were not slaves, but were free citizens, and were in no way subject to Roman slave laws, which clearly established the legal status of a slave, the rights of a slave owner, etc.

The disappearance of mass slavery in this era is evidenced, in addition to the available facts, by the transformation of the Roman word “slave”. As the German historian Ed Mayer wrote, the Latin word “servus” (slave) changed its meaning by the end of antiquity; it was no longer used to call slaves (of which there were very few), but began to be called serfs.

According to the testimony of Constantine Porphyrogenitus In the language of the Romans, servants are designated slaves, which is why “serviles” are colloquially called the shoes of slaves, and “cervulians” are those wearing cheap, beggarly shoes.

During the 4th century, by decrees of the Roman emperors, a significant part of the population of the Roman Empire was converted into serfs (see below). Accordingly, it is in this meaning (“serf”) that this word (“serf”, “servo”) entered all Western European languages: English, French, Italian, Spanish, which were formed after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. And for slaves a new term was later introduced - slave, sklav. This can also serve to confirm the conclusions of historians about the disappearance of slavery as a mass phenomenon in the 2nd-3rd centuries. n. e.

In Ancient Rome, between the 3rd century. BC e. and II century. n. e. The slave system reached its greatest development. Therefore, the emergence, flourishing and decline of slave society can best be traced by studying the history of Ancient Rome.

Slaves appeared in Rome from time immemorial, when it was a small city, the center of a primitive agricultural people. The Romans then lived in large families - surnames. The family was headed by the “father of the family.” He controlled all the family's property, as well as the labor, fate and very lives of his children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren and the few slaves who belonged to the family. Slaves were not yet very different in status from free members of the family, subordinate to its head. Both of them could not have their own property, they were represented before the law by the “father of the family”, they all participated in the cult of the patrons of the family - the Larov gods. At the altar that existed in every house, Larov the slave sought salvation from the wrath of his master.

The difference between free and unfree members of a family appeared only after the death of its head: the free themselves became the full-fledged “fathers” of their families, and slaves, along with other property, passed to the heirs of the deceased head of the family. At that time, slaves were still recognized to some extent as people. They themselves were responsible for crimes committed against strangers, even if done on the orders of the owner. In a subsistence economy, when each family provided for its own economic needs and rarely bought anything from the outside, there was no need to over-exploit the slaves who worked together with the master and his family. However, gradually the situation changed. Continuous victorious wars for land and spoils turned Rome into the center of a huge power.

The influx of material wealth, exposure to the high culture and more refined lifestyle of ancient Greece and the eastern states over time changed the old peasant Rome. Wars and participation in the exploitation of conquered provinces enriched many Romans. They bought land, built new city houses and rural villas for themselves, acquired works of art and luxury goods, and gave their children a good education.

All this required money. They could make money by selling agricultural and handicraft products. The strength of family members for its growing production was no longer enough, and besides, rich people began to despise physical labor. The free poor people preferred to enlist in the army, work on large construction projects undertaken by the state, or live on state benefits, which were paid to poor citizens from military booty and tribute from the provinces. Therefore, slaves became the main labor force in agriculture and crafts, and their number was increasing. It was in these industries that the bulk of Roman slaves were used.

But slaves were needed not only for the production of goods. The Romans' passion for spectacle, especially gladiator fights, grew, and gladiator schools were replenished with slaves. Rich Romans acquired numerous servants, among whom were not only cooks, pastry chefs, barbers, maids, grooms, gardeners, etc., but also artisans, librarians, doctors, teachers, actors, musicians. Politicians needed sufficiently dexterous and educated trusted agents who were entirely dependent on them. Slaves penetrated into all spheres of life, their numbers grew, and their professions multiplied.

Children of slaves became slaves. Provincials who owed money to Roman businessmen fell into slavery. Slaves were bought in the provinces and brought from abroad. They were supplied to special markets by pirates who captured people on ships and in coastal villages. In slave markets, natives of Greece and Asia Minor, trained in crafts and sometimes sciences, were most valued. They paid for them several tens of thousands of sesterces.

But the main number of slaves in the III-I centuries. BC e. Rome received as a result of wars of conquest and punitive expeditions. Captives captured in battle and residents of rebellious provinces were enslaved. Thus, during the reprisal against the rebel Epirus, 150 thousand people were simultaneously sold into slavery. Italics, Gauls, Thracians and Macedonians worked in agriculture. On average, a simple slave cost 500 sesterces, about the same as the cost of 1/8 hectares of land.

In the 3rd century. BC e. a law was passed equating a slave to a domestic animal. The slave was called a “talking instrument.” From now on, his master was responsible for any actions of the slave. The slave was obliged to obey him blindly, even if the master ordered him to commit murder or robbery. The owner could kill him, put him in chains, imprison him in a home prison (ergastul), turn him into a gladiator, or send him to work in the mines. And, of course, only the owner himself determined how many hours a day a slave should work and how he should be maintained. The situation of rural slaves was especially difficult. Famous figure of the 2nd century. BC e. Cato the Censor, who created a guide to farming, reduced the diet of slaves to the necessary minimum. He believed that a slave should work enough during the day to fall asleep dead in the evening: then unwanted thoughts would not come into his head. The slave was forbidden to go beyond the boundaries of the estate, communicate with strangers, or even participate in religious ceremonies. According to the law, a slave could not have a family; his family ties were not recognized. Only as a special favor could the master allow the slave to start some kind of family and raise his children.

The position of slaves in urban crafts was somewhat different. Skilled craftsmen, whose products met the tastes of the discerning buyer, could not be forced to work only under pressure. They were often given some independence and were given the opportunity to raise money for ransom. Urban slaves interacted with free artisans and the working poor on a daily basis, sometimes joining their professional and religious associations - collegiums.

Educated slaves occupied a special place. They were well maintained, often released, and in the last two centuries of the republic, many figures of Roman culture emerged from their number. Thus, the freed slaves were the first Roman playwright and organizer of the Roman theater of Libya, Andronicus, and the famous comedian Terence. The majority of doctors and teachers of grammar (including literary studies) and oratory were freedmen.

The position of this or that group of slaves also determined its place in the class struggle. Urban slaves usually performed together with the free poor. Rural slaves had no allies, but, as the most oppressed, they were the most active participants in the uprisings of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. In these centuries of rapid development of slavery and especially brutal exploitation of slaves, the class struggle was very acute. Slaves fled beyond the borders of the Roman state, killed their masters, during wars they went over to the side of the opponents of Rome, which they hated, and in the 2nd century. BC e. there were rebellions more than once.

In 138 BC. e. in Sicily, where at that time there were many captive slaves from Syria and Asia Minor, the first great slave war began. The rebels chose Eunus as their king, who took the name Antiochus, usual for Syrian kings. Their second leader was a native of Cilicia, Cleon. The leaders had an elected council. The rebels managed to capture a significant part of Sicily and within six years, until 132 BC. e., successfully repel the onslaught of the Roman legions. Only with great difficulty did the Romans capture the rebel fortresses of Enna and Tauromenium, suppress the uprising and deal with its leaders.

Remains of an ancient Roman mill.

But already in 104 BC. e. A new slave revolt broke out in Sicily. A council and two leaders were again elected - Tryphon and Athenion, who was proclaimed king. They captured a vast territory. Only in 101 BC. e. The rebels were defeated and their capital, Triokalo, was captured. The Sicilian uprisings also caused an echo among the slaves of Italy, who rebelled in several cities.

Agricultural work. Roman mosaic. North Africa. III century n. e.

The struggle of the slaves reached its highest tension in the uprising of Spartacus. In 74 BC. e. 78 gladiators, among whom was the Thracian Spartacus, fled from the gladiator school in Capua; The fugitives managed to capture carts with weapons for the gladiators. They settled on the Vesuvius volcano, where slaves who had fled from the surrounding estates began to flock. Soon their detachment reached 10 thousand people. Spartak, a most talented organizer and commander, was elected leader. When a detachment of three thousand under the command of Clodius marched against the slaves, occupying the approaches to Vesuvius, Spartacus’ warriors wove ropes from vines and unexpectedly descended along them from an impregnable steep slope to Clodius’s rear, from where they dealt him a crushing blow. New victories allowed Spartak to take possession of a large part of southern Italy. In 72 BC. e., already having 200 thousand people, he moved north. Armies under the command of both Roman consuls were sent against the rebels. Spartacus defeated them and reached the city of Mutina in northern Italy.

Interior view of the Roman Colosseum. The service premises for gladiators and cages for wild animals located under the arena are visible.

Some historians believe that Spartacus sought to cross the Alps and lead slaves to lands still free from the Roman yoke. Others believe that he intended, increasing his army even more, to march on Rome. And indeed, although the path to the Alps was open from Mutina, and the Roman government did not yet have the forces to block Spartacus’ path to the north, he turned south again. He planned to go through all of Italy, attracting new rebels, then cross on pirate ships to Sicily and raise numerous slaves there. Meanwhile, the government managed to assemble an army, headed by Crassus, a prominent politician and the richest man in Rome. With cruel punishments, resorting to decimation - the execution of every tenth soldier in units that turned out to be unstable, Crassus restored discipline in his troops. Moving after Spartacus, he pushed the rebels back to the Bruttian Peninsula. They found themselves between the sea and the Roman army. The pirates deceived Spartacus, did not provide ships and thwarted the plan to cross to Sicily. In a heroic outburst, Spartacus managed to break through the fortifications of Crassus into Lucania. Here the last battle with Crassus took place. Spartacus was killed and his army was destroyed. Thousands of rebels were crucified on crosses. Only a few escaped; they continued to fight for several more years and were eventually killed. V.I. Lenin called Spartacus one of the most outstanding heroes of one of the largest slave uprisings. Why couldn't the slaves win? A victorious revolution is possible only when the existing method of production has already become obsolete, when it is replaced by a new, more advanced one. The slave-owning mode of production was then in its prime and was still developing. The slaves did not have any program for the reconstruction of society. Rome was at the height of its military and political power. And although there was a sharp struggle between the Roman poor and the rich nobility (see article “Struggle for land in Ancient Rome”), rural slaves did not find allies among Roman citizens. The uprisings of rural slaves, on whose labor the main branch of the Roman economy was based, frightened not only the rich, but also the poor. Finally, the slaves themselves, placed outside the law, outside the society of citizens, disunited, without any organization, natives of different countries, could not recognize themselves as a single class.

Gladiators. Roman mosaic.

After the death of Spartacus, Rome no longer saw major slave uprisings. But the slaves never stopped their struggle, which took place in different forms. Repression against slaves intensified at the end of the 1st century. BC e., when, after civil wars, the sole ruler of the state in 27 BC. e. became Emperor Augustus. Under him, slaves who escaped during civil wars were executed or returned to their masters; on pain of death, slaves were forbidden to enlist in military units, which was sometimes allowed during civil wars. A law was passed: if a master was killed, all the slaves of the murdered man who were under the same roof or within shouting distance were tortured and executed for not coming to the rescue. “For,” the law said, “a slave must put the life and good of the master above his own.”

The events of the last years of the republic showed that individual masters were no longer powerless to resist the slaves. With the establishment of the empire, the state took upon itself the function of suppressing them. At the same time, fearing the protests of slaves driven to despair, the emperors were forced to increasingly limit the arbitrariness of their masters. Slaves of particularly cruel masters could ask imperial officials to be forcibly sold to more humane owners. The masters were deprived of the right to kill slaves, give them to gladiators and mines, and constantly keep them in ergastuls and shackles. From now on, only the court could impose such punishments.

In the 1st century BC e.-I century n. e. Agriculture and crafts in Italy reached a very high level. However, the heyday of slave production was short-lived. Despite all the efforts of the owners, the productivity of slave labor increased little. Slaves still hated their masters, killed them on occasion, joined bands of robbers, fled beyond the borders of the empire, and went over to its enemies. “Agility and intelligence are in the slave,” wrote the 4th century agronomist. n. e. Palladium, “are always close to disobedience and malicious intent, while stupidity and slowness are always close to good nature and humility.” And another agronomist of the 1st century AD. - Columella, advising not to spare 8,000 sesterces to buy a learned winegrower, notes that such winegrowers, due to their more lively minds and obstinacy, have to be kept in ergastuli at night and driven out to work in stocks. Slaves could not be forced to work with the care dictated by agronomic experience. Agriculture stopped progressing. The same Columella wrote: “The point is not in heavenly wrath, but in our guilt. We hand over agriculture like an executioner to the most worthless of slaves.”

The larger the estate, the more difficult it was to keep track of the slaves, so large farms - latifundia - fell into decline earlier than others. It is not surprising that in the II-III centuries. n. e. Vast expanses of land in the latifundia remained uncultivated and fell into disrepair.

Life forced the slave owners themselves to change the living and working conditions of slaves not only in crafts, but also in agriculture. To interest a slave in the results of his labor, landowners often allocated him his own farm - peculium, which included land, tools of production, and sometimes other slaves. Formally, the master remained the owner of the peculium, but the slave, the owner of the peculium, gave him only part of the product, saving the rest for his family. Even more often, the slave was released free of charge or for a ransom, but with the intention that the freed person would work for the master part of the time. In the II-III centuries. n. e. Most of the land in the latifundia was divided into small plots, leased to slaves, freedmen and freemen. Such tenants were called colones. Large workshops were also split into parts and rented out.

By the end of the Roman Empire, slaves did not disappear, but were pushed into the background by the colonists. At the same time, the colons became increasingly dependent on the landowner, and at the beginning of the 4th century. n. e. they were attached to the ground. And regardless of whether the colon (holder of the plot, planted on the land) was a slave or freeborn, he was sold along with his plot.

Colonies now became the main participants in the class struggle. They raised uprisings that lasted from the 3rd to the 5th centuries. n. e. By weakening the empire, these uprisings made it easier for the peoples neighboring the empire to defeat it.

Colonies were already the predecessors of medieval serfs. With the crisis of the slave-owning mode of production, new feudal relations arose (for more information on this, see the article “Europe at the turn of antiquity and the Middle Ages”). Slavery, which initially contributed to the flourishing of agriculture, crafts, political power and culture of Rome, ultimately, due to irreconcilable contradictions between slaves and slave owners, led to the final decline and death of the Roman state.

Slavery of Ancient Rome is one of the dark pages in its history, a controversial cross-section of social life of several centuries BC. But modern “work” is largely derived from the “slavery” of that era, and most professions arose under the slave system. A slave is free labor, a bargaining chip, a sign of the prosperity and power of his masters.

Slavery contributed to the flourishing of its institutions, and inhumane treatment of forced people was perceived as the norm. Cruelty became commonplace in Ancient Rome - this was how motivation, behavior and relationships between masters and slaves were regulated.

Historians are inclined to believe that Many wealthy and influential citizens of Ancient Rome owned slaves that a large percentage of the population of the Ancient Roman Empire were slaves and their descendants. Forced people had positions and responsibilities in all spheres of society of that time - from the dirtiest work in stables and slaughterhouses to guards in prisons, stewards in the chambers of nobles and educators of their children. Educated slaves were clerks, teachers and translators.

Slaves had no citizenship or property, but periodically slave owners generously gifted their slaves and allowed house slaves to have concubines (sex slaves) or families. They could give them money and personal items for faithful service or cases of protection involving the risk of life.

Humane treatment, normal clothing and food, necessary treatment - the unheard-of generosity of the owners.

Sometimes slaves managed to save a significant amount of money in order to pay off and live freely. This is how a special class of former forced laborers or “freedmen” arose - a layer between freemen and slaves, but they still had almost no rights.

The life of a slave was hard, boring and monotonous, directly related to the type of occupation or level of responsibility. The more gifted slaves were given crafts or art, and the physically strong did the hardest work - they were gladiators or squires of warriors.
The death of a slave did not upset anyone - others were taken in their place, it was often more profitable. But the new arrivals had to be kept within strict boundaries and heavy shackles so that they would not pose a threat to their owners.

It was forbidden to kill slaves, but they could be sold or given away, and heavy fines were imposed for mutilation and self-mutilation. Lepers, cripples, infirm and terminally ill slaves were ordered to be taken to the remote island of Aesculapius to “die free.”

Males and female slaves were divided into castes:

• Familia rustica (house servants);
• Familia urbana (for urban work);
• Managers (privileged);
• Servi privati ​​(property of private individuals);
• Servi publici (for public and urban works).

Not all slaves wore shackles, but they became a symbol of slavery for all time. Another sign is a pierced right ear with a round earring. Sometimes they sold themselves into slavery voluntarily, for the sake of food, then in front of witnesses they pierced the slave's or slave's ear with an awl to the door, threading a ring. Such a slave was supposed to be released after 7-10 years at his request, but this was extremely rare.

They sold their children into slavery, beautiful girls and pretty boys were forced into prostitution. But they could set free or drive out a terminally ill slave or an elderly person who had become a burden in the house - such were the customs of Ancient Rome.

Some modern titles and professions originated from those times. For example, calculator (calculator) is a teacher of mathematics, and grammaticus (grammaticus) is a teacher of languages ​​and literate writing. Consonant with ours and bibliothecarius - librarian, cocus - cook, cook.

Sources of slavery - where did the slaves come from?

Captured warriors and trophy slaves during the conquerors' campaigns in neighboring lands are the main source of supply of slaves to slave markets. Therefore, they were predominantly foreigners, moreover, from different strata of society, up to rulers of different ranks.

Ancient historians wrote that captives were brought to the Ancient Roman Empire from all over the Mediterranean, North Africa and the Middle East. Any foreigner was considered racially inferior, but the citizens of Rome had the greatest rights and privileges.

Other sources of slave capture:

• Victims of pirates (robbery on galleys) and shipwrecks;
• Chronic creditors (determined by the court), who were obliged to work off debts for many years along with slaves - debt slavery;
• Maxima capitis diminutio - those convicted of serious crimes (slaves serving prisons, galley rowers, quarry workers);
• Refugees from other lands after famine and natural disasters;
• Children born from concubines and slaves are classic slavery.

Trading slaves was profitable, transactions were taxed, and it was a profitable item for the city treasury. Conquered, specially trained and educated slaves who knew several languages ​​were more expensive. Their prices changed all the time. As we know from the Bible, the Pharisees gave Judas 30 pieces of silver for Jesus (a free preacher), which means that a slave is worth less. But this is within the boundaries of the Roman Empire, and in Rome itself, taking into account delivery, captives became many times more expensive.

In the 4th century. BC. The Romans approved the “Law of Petelius,” which prohibited taking their fellow citizens, the inhabitants of Rome, as slaves. According to another law, a free woman who voluntarily entered into a relationship with a slave she liked became a slave.

Statistical information:

• Only 209 BC. in Rome, 30 thousand inhabitants of Apulia were sold;
• In 167 BC. 150 thousand were brought from Greece and Macedonia;
• 146 BC over 50 thousand inhabitants of Corinth and Carthage were captured;
• Almost 1 million Gauls were captured in campaigns in 58-50. BC.;
• Residents of many cities from Spain ended up in the slave markets of Rome in the 1st century. BC.;
• Dacians (Romanians) under Emperor Trojan added another 50 thousand to the lists of slaves.

Over time, slavery declined, became a brake on the development of society and transformed into feudal relations.

Slave revolts

Wars and slave uprisings were a shock not only to the existing system, but also a threat to the social structure of the late Roman Republic. The largest of them:

• First Sicilian Revolt, 135 BC – 132 BC, leadership of Eunus and Cleon in Sicily;
• Second Sicilian Revolt, 104 BC – 100 BC, under the leadership of Salvius Tryphon and Athenion;
• (74 BC – 71 BC) Italy.

Spartacus (Spartacus or Σπάρτακος) is the most famous figure among the leaders of the rebels who rebelled for social justice and the abolition of slavery. He was a physically strong and educated gladiator slave and former warrior from Thrace. His improvised army managed to inflict a series of crushing blows on the Roman legions of the consular army. Many literary works have been written about the uprising of Spartacus, and several film versions have been shot.

There is a sculpture of Spartak in the Louvre (Paris), in Odessa (modern version) on Italian Boulevard and in front of the Spartak stadium of the same name in Tushino (North-Western district of Moscow).

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