Methodological instructions for practical classes in the discipline “commodity science, examination in customs affairs (food and non-food products). · determination of sample size
Many issues related to money circulation are often intertwined with trade relations both within the country and abroad. It follows from this that the predominant method of replenishing the budget is trade. Consequently, if trade relations are of a foreign policy nature, then this is done by the customs services, directly to control and ensure trade turnover. It follows from this that the tasks of commodity science are quite firmly linked to the main tasks of the Russian customs service - the implementation of effective control over the import and export of goods from the country. Wide variety of goods and quantities moved across borders Russian Federation, poses tasks for customs services not only to protect economic security country, but also to protect the interests of consumers of goods. IN Lately The role of customs authorities has increased in addressing such state, political and social programs as environmental protection, consumer protection - ensuring the safety of life and health. The importance of merchandising is very great and when carrying out customs examinations. the main objective customs examination - checking the compliance of information about the goods declared in the state customs declaration(CCD), the real characteristics of the goods presented for customs clearance for more accurate and reasonable collection of customs taxes and fees. In accordance with Article 71 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, customs regulation is the responsibility of federal government bodies, which means that legislation in the customs area is limited to the federal level. This provision of the Constitution allows us to combine rules that are common to all foreign economic activity, uniform procedure and conditions for the movement of goods and Vehicle across the customs border of the Russian Federation, unity of customs procedures. Constitutional provisions customs regulation are regulated in the Customs Code of the Customs Union. According to the Customs Code of the Customs Union, one of the components of customs affairs in the Russian Federation is the procedure and conditions for moving goods and vehicles across the customs border of the Russian Federation, customs control. In accordance with one of the basic principles of the movement of goods and vehicles across the customs border of the Russian Federation, all goods and vehicles moved across the customs border are subject to customs clearance and customs control in the manner and under the conditions provided for by the Customs Code of the Customs Union. The requirements of this principle are mandatory and apply to all persons moving goods and vehicles.
This principle is associated with such a function of customs authorities as carrying out customs examinations and examining goods. This control function manifests itself constantly, regardless of the categories and quantity of goods being moved, as well as the persons moving them, and the types of vehicles.
A variety of goods pass through the customs border of the Russian Federation, from light industry goods, household appliances, cars, resources, to heavy industry. According to the Customs Code of the Customs Union, the practical activities of customs authorities provide for the following concept: “goods - any movable property, including currency, currency valuables, electrical, thermal, other types of energy and vehicles.”
Customs authorities carry out numerous operations with goods placed under customs procedures. Common operations include inspection, measurement, and movement within customs warehouses. More complex operations include batch crushing, forming, sorting, packaging, repackaging, labeling, improvement operations appearance. To carry out such operations, permission from the customs authority is required. All actions with goods must not change the characteristics of the goods.
Goods that may cause harm to other goods, are subject to customs procedures, or require special conditions storage, sent to customs warehouses. There are two types of warehouses, open and closed. Open warehouses include those customs warehouses to which there is access to persons with authority in relation to goods. Closed warehouses are those to which only the warehouse owner is allowed access.
The goods that can be transported across the customs border of the Russian Federation include all products intended for commercial use for the purpose of making a profit:
· different kinds energy;
· vehicles for any purpose;
· any movable property, for example, furniture, refrigerators, shoes, carpets, etc.;
· securities, gems and metals;
· objects of foreign trade activities of purchase and sale or exchange (barter supplies);
· intellectual property.
The concept of “goods” in customs practice does not include vehicles used for international transport passengers and goods, including containers and transport equipment.
In the Customs Code of the Customs Union, all goods passing through the customs border of the Russian Federation were divided into:
· “Russian goods” - goods originating from the Russian Federation, or goods released for free circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation, that is, goods that can be disposed of without permission from customs authorities;
· " export goods" - goods exported outside the customs territory of the Russian Federation without the obligation to import them into this territory. Leaving the borders state territory Russia, these goods are taken into account by customs statistics foreign trade as exported.
· entirely produced in the territories of member states of the customs union;
· imported to customs territory of the customs union and acquired the status of goods of the customs union in accordance with the Customs Union Labor Code and (or) international treaties of the member states of the customs union;
· manufactured in the territories of the member states of the Customs Union from the goods indicated above and (or) foreign goods, and acquired the status of goods of the customs union in accordance with the Labor Code of the Customs Union and (or) international treaties of the member states of the customs union.
2. Make a classification of goods using the hierarchical classification method.
The role and importance of merchandising in customs affairs.
In the context of the globalization of the world economy, the solution of the problem of Russia’s accession to the WTO, the recognition of Russia as a country with market economy the role and importance of customs regulation as an element of government regulation foreign trade activities.Foreign trade activitiesthis is the activity of carrying out transactions in the field of foreign trade in goods, services, information and intellectual property. It is regulated by Federal Law“On the fundamentals of state regulation of foreign trade activities.” The main principle of state regulation of foreign economic activity is the state’s protection of the rights and legitimate interests of participants in foreign economic activity, as well as the rights and legitimate interests of Russian manufacturers and consumers of goods and services.
Russia's accession to the WTO will lead to even greater growth international trade and expanding the range of imported goods. In this regard, the tasks of protecting the consumer market from the import of dangerous and harmful products and identifying counterfeit and counterfeit goods are relevant. Under these conditions, the role of commodity science in the work of customs services is increasing.
Goods crossing the customs border of the Russian Federation are subject to customs clearance and customs control. During customs control, a customs examination may be assigned in order to establish the country of origin, raw material composition, manufacturing method, cost, etc. A specialist with commodity knowledge can greatly help ensure effective counteraction to violations of customs rules and crimes in the customs sphere. Customs examination, in addition, is one of the barriers to protecting the country’s consumer market from the import of substandard, harmful and dangerous goods.
Only a highly qualified specialist in the field of commodity research can carry out expert activities. It is also important for a practically working customs officer to be able to distinguish goods by completeness, degree of readiness for use, highlight their evaluation indicators, know mandatory requirements these include customs assessment criteria.
The expert must know the requirements for the goods under the contract of sale, transportation, and insurance. At these stages of circulation, materials and products manifest themselves in different ways, and these properties are just as important for the participants in the process as those that will appear in the final product.consumer. In addition, a customs service expert monitors the safety of imported goods.
There is a difference in the definition of the term “goods” in commodity science and customs practice.
In accordance with the Customs Code of the Russian Federation (Article 11) goods any movable property moved across the customs border, including currency, currency values, electrical, thermal, other types of energy, as well as vehicles classified as immovable things moved across the customs border, with the exception of vehicles used in international transport.
That is, goods, by definition in the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, are property. In accordance with Article 128 Civil Code In the Russian Federation, the concept of property includes things (including money and securities) and does not include such objects of civil rights as actions (work and services), information and intangible benefits. These latter objects obviously cannot be considered as goods.
Property can be movable and immovable.
Real estate (immovable things) land, subsoil areas, isolated water bodies and anything that is firmly connected to the ground (for example, buildings, structures and perennial plantings).
Real estate (Article 130 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation) also includes aircraft and sea vessels, inland navigation vessels, and space objects that are the subject of foreign economic activity. The law may classify other property as real estate.
Movable propertythings, including money and securities not related to real estate.
Currency (money) currency unit countries.
Securities a document certifying property rights, the exercise or transfer of which is possible only upon presentation (Article 143 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). Securities include: government bond, bill of exchange, check, deposit and savings certificates, bearer bank book, bill of lading, share, privatization securities, etc.
Currency valuesvalues in respect of which the currency legislation establishes a special limited circulation regime on the territory of the country: foreign currency, securities in foreign currency, precious metals in any form and condition, with the exception of jewelry and other household products, as well as scrap of such products, natural precious stones (diamond, ruby, emerald, sapphire, alexandrite in raw and processed form, pearls), with the exception of jewelry and other household products from these stones and scrap of such products.
Intellectual propertyIntellectual property in customs affairs is considered as a product if it is located on a tangible medium, the code of which is determined according to the HS of Russia. Otherwise, the transfer of rights to an intellectual property item may be considered an export service.
Commodity Expertise is divided depending on the objects that are subject to expert examination, into the examination of food and non-food (domestic and imported) goods, raw materials, semi-finished products, equipment. The source of information is primary documents ( technical task, GOSTs, TU, contracts/agreements, HS of the CIS) for production, transportation, storage, packaging and sale of products. Depending on the purpose of conducting commodity examinations, they are classified: Contractual (based on fulfillment of the terms of the contract/agreement): Contractual (based on fulfillment of the terms of the contract/agreement): checking the quality level of product samples; pre-shipment cargo control; condition of transport and packaging equipment; Customs (for customs purposes): identification of goods; determination of country of origin; Insurance (for insurance companies): Assessment of damage caused to the policyholder in value terms, taking into account the loss
Textile fibers - These are flexible, strong bodies with small transverse dimensions of limited length suitable for manufacturing textile products. Textile fibers are: natural and chemical. By origin natural fibers divided into 3 subclasses: plant, animal, mineral. Chemical fibers are divided into 2 subclasses: artificial, synthetic. Artificial fiber- this is a chemical fiber made from natural high molecular weight substances. Synthetic fiber is a chemical. fiber made from synthetic high molecular weight substances. Fibers can be elementary, that is, non-dividing in the longitudinal direction without destruction (cotton, flax, wool) and complex, that is, the fiber consists of longitudinally bonded fiber elements. Fiber properties affect technological process processing them into yarn. Cotton-
The examination of goods, vehicles or documents containing information about goods and vehicles or about the performance of operations (actions) in relation to them is appointed in cases where, when carrying out customs control, special knowledge is necessary to clarify emerging issues. 2. The examination is carried out by experts from customs laboratories, as well as other relevant organizations or other experts appointed by customs authorities. Any person who has the necessary special knowledge to give an opinion can be appointed as an expert. To carry out the examination, an expert is engaged on a contractual basis. When an examination is appointed on the initiative of the declarant or another interested person, these persons have the right to submit proposals to the customs authorities regarding the candidacy of the expert. 3. On the appointment of an examination
Plastics are widely used in many industries. They are classified by composition, in relation to heating, by the nature of binders, by types of filler and other characteristics. Based on the synthesis method, polymerization plastics and polycondensation plastics are distinguished. Polymerization materials include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate (plexiglass), etc. Polycondensation materials include polyamides (nylon), polyurethane, polyester (lavsan), phenoplasts, aminoplasts, etc. Ornamental materials: bone, horns, mother of pearl, glass, wood, etc. Assortment of haberdashery products made of plastic. Grouped by purpose: Clothing accessories - buttons, buttons, buckles, zippers, etc.; Toilet items - combs, combs, hairpins, clips, curlers, hairbands, etc.; Craft supplies
Commodity expertise is independent research subject of examination (product), carried out by competent specialists (experts) on the basis of objective facts in order to obtain a reliable decision. The objects of commodity examination are domestic and imported goods, raw materials and equipment. Commodity examination is widely used in trade, design, industry, etc. in case of controversial situations. The task of the examination is to protect the consumer from low-quality commodity mass. In the process, the examination determines: 1. compliance of quality indicators with the current state standard. 2. The fact that the quality of goods decreases during production and transportation. Reasons for product defects. Commodity examination is carried out by the chamber of commerce and the technical examination bureau. The need for commodity examination arises during the judicial investigation of criminal cases.
After pre-finishing, dyeing and printing fabrics are not marketable. For the final external design final finishing is required. Types of finishing: 1) sizing – application of a sizing that contains adhesives to the fabric. To add rigidity to the fabric. Depending on the amount of sizing applied, fabrics with soft (muslin), medium and hard finishes are obtained. 2) Widening of the moistened fabric. 3) Calendering. Consumer properties of fabric. 1) geometric (length, width, thickness). The length of the piece ranges from 10-150m. width from 40-250 cm. Thickness from 40-250 cm. Thickness affects heat protection, steam and air tightness. Properties affecting the service life of fabric. 1) strength 2) shrinkage. Hygienic properties. Hygroscopicity of steam and
Quantitative analysis Includes the operation of measuring properties and finding their numerical values, determines the transition from consideration consumer properties to operating with the value of consumer indicators of product quality. To measure consumer properties in order to obtain their numerical values, use various methods. Among them: - measuring, based on use technical means measurements (indicators of the mass of dust removed by a vacuum cleaner from the control area, the uniformity of coffee grinding in a household coffee grinder, the amount of consumption detergents, water in automatic washing machine and so on.); - calculated, based on the use of theoretical and empirical dependencies of quality indicators on its parameters. - sociological, based on identifying and collecting opinions of actual and potential
The customer of the state examination has the right: - to declare the need to conduct a state examination, including repeated and additional; - appoint a state examination, determine the object and subject of the state examination, its subject matter, participants in the expert process, and timing; - raise the issue of selecting, challenging or replacing an expert organization (expert), obtain clarifications and advice from the expert organization (expert) regarding the preparation and conduct of the examination; - receive information about the progress of the state examination at all stages of the expert process, provide the expert organization (expert) with written or oral explanations, comments, recommendations on the conduct of the state examination; - get acquainted with the intermediate and final conclusions of the state examination; - use expert opinion And
The range of ceramic products is formed under the influence of scientific and technological progress, socio-demographic factors, and changes in stylistic trends in the decorative and applied arts. The range of fine ceramics products is classified according to the type of ceramics, purpose, type of product, styles, sizes, types and complexity of decoration, and completeness. Based on the type of ceramics, porcelain, fine stone, semi-porcelain, earthenware and majolica products are distinguished. Porcelain products account for 60-65% general production fine ceramics, earthenware -32, majolica 2%. Dishes for enterprises are allocated according to their intended purpose Catering and household products. Dishes for catering establishments are specialized by type of enterprise (restaurants, cafes, kindergartens, etc.); it must be strictly functional, easy to store and wash. Household products are divided into dishes
Leather goods are made from natural and artificial leather, film materials, fabrics, knitwear and other auxiliary materials. Auxiliary materials used for fastening parts and finishing the product: threads, nails, pins, glue, accessories - buckles, locks, buttons. For the production of leather haberdashery, natural leathers are used: from the skins of large cattle- opoek, outgrowth, half-leather, cow, goby; From goat skins - chevro and goat. In the production of haberdashery products, artificial and synthetic materials, film and other auxiliary. Leather and haberdashery products are divided into three subgroups: toilet accessories - bags, gloves, belts, mittens; accessories for storing money, documents, household items; travel accessories - suitcases, suitcases, travel
The legal basis for the appointment of an examination, the participation of experts, the procedure for obtaining information and other issues are defined in the Labor Code. Examinations in customs laboratories, both in connection with customs clearance and customs control, and customs examinations may be appointed in connection with judicial proceedings, examinations (research) in connection with requests from others government agencies, cases, dispute resolution in arbitration courts and in cases of customs violations. At the stage of customs clearance, the main task of the examination is to verify the conformity of the information declared in the customs declaration with the real ones. This is done for various purposes - for reasonable and precise definition the size of the policy in relation to goods moved across the Russian customs border. Customs examination
Raw or pasteurized milk, in which the quantity and ratio components has not artificially changed – Normalized Makes a final decision based on the results of a customs examination – Head of the customs authority Fish product obtained through the process of salting and processing of a smoking room at a certain temperature until a surface color is obtained from light golden to dark golden with a specific taste and smell of smokedness – Smoked fish Tea according to the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity is classified as a commodity item - 1903. Customs examination of goods is the resolution of issues - In customs wholes that require special knowledge. The muscles are developed satisfactorily, the spinous processes of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, the ischial tuberosities, and macles do not stand out sharply; subcutaneous fat covers the carcass from
Glass products, according to their purpose, are divided into three classes: household, architectural and construction and technical. To household glass products include dishes, artistic and decorative items for interior decoration, lamp products, mirrors. Glass is an amorphous body obtained by supercooling the melt, regardless of the composition and temperature range of solidification. With a gradual increase in viscosity, it acquires mechanical properties solid. Glass is classified according to its origin. chemical composition, basic properties and purpose. For the manufacture of household utensils and decorative items they use oxide glasses in which the main glass formers are oxides of silicon, boron, aluminum, etc. Glasses in which the main glass former is silicon oxide - SiO2 - are called silicate glasses, glasses in which the main glass formers are
Qualitative analysis is a logical procedure of mental dismemberment, decomposition of a holistic object - the quality of a product - into its constituent elements - consumer properties, the study of each of them and the construction of a hierarchical diagram of relationships (connections), i.e., the structure of properties. Qualitative analysis includes an operation to study a product and its materials, on the basis of which the entire set of consumer properties of this product that determine its quality is identified and examined, and an operation to construct a hierarchical structure (list) of consumer properties of the analyzed product. The study of a product and its materials is carried out through a thorough study of the features of production and consumption of this product, its analogues and prototypes, existing consumer segments and products, taking into account their requirements and
Arabic numerals in the marking of round timber on the upper end cut indicate: Diameter of the upper end of the trunk Coreless wood species Spruce Maple Letters “N”, “SN” and “T” in the marking household refrigerators mean Climate class The letters “X” and “Y” in the marking of electric stoves mean Fire safety class Bottles in metal frame used for taking samples of petroleum products from oil tankers. Railway and road tanks. Depending on the type of flour, bread can be: Rye, rye-wheat, wheat and wheat-rye. In the marking of petroleum solvents (nephrases), the numbers indicate Boiling limits. The following information must be reflected in the marking of fur products. Trademark of the manufacturer Name of the product, type fur Size Model, variety, group of defects
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Goods crossing the customs border of Russia are subject to customs clearance and control. During customs control, a customs examination may be assigned in order to establish the country of origin, raw material composition, manufacturing methods, cost, etc. A specialist with commodity knowledge can greatly help ensure effective counteraction to violations of customs rules and crimes in the customs sphere. Customs examination, in addition, is one of the barriers to protecting the country’s consumer market from the import of low-quality, harmful, dangerous, falsified counterfeit goods.
Only a highly qualified specialist in the field of commodity science can carry out expert description. It is also important for a practically working customs officer to be able to distinguish goods by complexity, degree of readiness for use, highlight their evaluation indicators, know the mandatory requirements for them and the criteria for customs assessment.
A customs inspector monitors the safety of imported goods. In addition, the inspector must know the requirements for the goods under the purchase and sale agreement, transportation, and insurance. At these stages of circulation, materials and products manifest themselves in different ways, and these properties for participants in foreign economic activity are as important as those that will manifest themselves in the end consumer.
In accordance with the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Article 11) goods– any movable property moved across the customs border, including currency, currency valuables, electrical, thermal, other types of energy, as well as transport vehicles used in customs transportation classified as immovable property transferred across the customs border.
Thus, goods, by definition in the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, are property. Property can be movable and immovable.
2. Factors that shape and maintain the quality of goods.
Quality- this is a set of consumer properties of a product that determine its suitability to satisfy current and future needs in accordance with its purpose.
Quality is closely related to requirements. In order to most fully satisfy needs, it is necessary to formulate product requirements at the development stage. Requirements for goods- these are the conditions and features that goods must meet in order to be used for their intended purpose under certain conditions and for a certain time.
But there is a certain disproportion between quality and requirements: the quality of the product does not always meet the requirements. The requirements for goods are constantly changing along with changes in needs according to the same laws, i.e., taking into account the development of scientific and technological progress, engineering and technology, economics and culture.
Commodity science as a scientific and academic discipline arose and was formed in the process of development of commodity production and the exchange of some goods for others.
In the history of the development of commodity science, there are three main stages:
- mid-16th - early 17th century – commodity-descriptive– manuals are created describing the properties and methods of using various products;
- XVIII-early XX century – commodity-technological – the influence of the properties of raw materials, materials and technologies on the quality of goods is studied;
- beginning of the twentieth century - present - commodity-forming– scientific foundations for the formation, assessment and management of use value, quality, and range of goods are being developed
Professor M.Ya. is considered the founder of domestic commodity science. Kittar, who defined the subject and content of the discipline, developed a classification and described the properties of goods. Professor P.P. Petrov and Ya.Ya. Nikitinsky clarified the content of commodity science and showed its connection with production technology, agricultural and economic sciences. Professor F.V. Tserevitinov made a great contribution to the development of food marketing.
Experts also associate the origin of the term “commodity science” with two basic words: “product” and “management”.
Commodity research – the science of the fundamental characteristics of goods that determine their use values and the factors that ensure these characteristics. The subject of merchandising are the use values of goods. Target merchandising– study of the fundamental characteristics of a product that make up its use value, as well as their changes at all stages of product distribution.
Tasks of merchandising.
A clear definition of the fundamental characteristics that constitute use value;
Establishment of the principles and methods of commodity science that determine its scientific foundations;
Systematization of many products through the rational application of classification and coding methods;
Studying the properties and indicators of the assortment of goods to analyze the assortment policy of industrial or trade organization;
Determination of the range of consumer properties and indicators of goods;
Assessment of the quality of goods, including imported ones;
Definition quantitative characteristics single copies of goods and consignments;
Ensuring the quality and quantity of goods for different stages their technological cycle by taking into account formative and regulating preserving factors;
Identification of gradations in quality and defects of goods, the reasons for their occurrence and measures to prevent the sale of low-quality goods;
Establishing the types of commodity losses, the reasons for their occurrence and the development of measures to prevent or reduce them;
Information support for product distribution from manufacturer to consumer;
Commodity characteristics of specific goods.
The role of commodity science in customs affairs. The main principle of state regulation of foreign economic activity is the state’s protection of the rights and legitimate interests of participants in foreign economic activity, as well as the rights and legitimate interests of Russian producers and consumers of goods and services.
Russia's accession to the WTO will lead to an even greater increase in international trade and an expansion of the range of imported goods. In this regard, the tasks of protecting the consumer market from the import of dangerous and harmful products and identifying counterfeit and counterfeit goods are relevant. Under these conditions, the role of commodity science in the work of customs services is increasing.
Goods crossing the customs border of the Russian Federation are subject to customs clearance and customs control. During customs control, a customs examination may be assigned in order to establish the country of origin, raw material composition, manufacturing method, cost, etc. A specialist with commodity knowledge can greatly help ensure effective counteraction to violations of customs rules and crimes in the customs sphere. Customs examination, in addition, is one of the barriers to protecting the country’s consumer market from the import of substandard, harmful and dangerous goods.
2. The concept of products and goods. The concept of “goods” in customs affairs.
Currently, there is no unambiguous definition of the above concepts. IN Federal law"On technical regulation" the term "product" means the result of an activity, presented in tangible form and intended for further use for economic and other purposes. In accordance with this definition, only objects in material form can be classified as products. The international standard defines products as the result of a process or activity designed to satisfy real or potential needs. Moreover, products can be tangible (raw materials, processed materials, equipment, etc.) and intangible (services, information, intellectual products - software).
Commodity science studies material products, which have two main features: firstly, they must be produced, and secondly, they must satisfy someone’s needs (i.e., they must be needed by someone).___A product becomes a commodity when it is the object of purchase and sale ( commercial activities). Thus, product – material products intended for purchase and sale. The concepts of “product” and “product” differ in that the product becomes a commodity when offered to the market. Product- any thing that is not limited in circulation, freely alienable and transferred from one person to another under a purchase and sale agreement.
There is a difference in definition the term “goods” - in commodity science and customs practice.___ In accordance with the Customs Code of the Russian Federation (Article 11), goods are any movable property moved across the customs border, including currency, currency valuables, electrical, thermal, and other types of energy, as well as vehicles classified as immovable things moved across the customs border, with the exception of vehicles used in international transport.__That is, goods, by definition in the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, are property. In accordance with Article 128 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the concept of property includes things (including money and securities) and does not include such objects of civil rights as actions (work and services), information and intangible benefits. These latter objects obviously cannot be considered as goods.
3.Principles and methods of commodity science, their use in customs practice.
Principles
commodity science are: safety, efficiency, compatibility, interchangeability, systematization. Safety
– the fundamental principle, which is the inadmissibility of the risk of a product or service causing damage to the life or health of people; property of individuals and legal entities, government or municipal property; environment; life or health of animals and plants. Efficiency
– the principle of achieving the most optimal result in the production, packaging, storage, sale and consumption of goods.
Compatibility – a principle determined by the suitability of goods, processes and services for joint use without causing undesirable interactions. Interchangeability - a principle determined by the suitability of one product to be used instead of another product in order to satisfy the same needs.
Systematization – a principle consisting in establishing a certain sequence of homogeneous, interrelated goods, processes and services. Systematization is the consideration of each object as part of a more complex system. The principle of systematization forms the basis of commodity research methods - such as identification, classification, coding. Methods merchandising are divided into empirical, or experimental and analytical.
Empirical methods Depending on the technical means used, measurements are divided into:
Measuring - physical, physico-chemical, chemical, biological, carried out using technical measuring instruments.
Organoleptic – methods for determining quality indicators using the senses.
Analytical (mental) methods – this is analysis, forecasting, programming, planning, systematization, identification (method of identification, establishing the coincidence of one object with another), classification. For example, identification (of goods