The heritage of ancient culture and its value for modern society. Cultural discoveries of the ancient world When did the concept of the ancient world appear?
It is difficult to imagine what modern Western civilization would be like if it had not had its origins in the majestic world of antiquity. The word “antique” translated from Latin means “ancient”, but it refers only to two cultures of the distant past - ancient Greek and ancient Roman. In their unity and interaction, these cultures largely determined the spirit and face of Europe.
The history of the ancient world spans thirteen centuries - from the 8th century. BC. according to the 5th century n. e. During this time, one of the most highly developed civilizations of antiquity was created on its territory, glorifying itself with many great discoveries in the field of state building, jurisprudence, military affairs, science, art, and literature. The names of the great creators of ancient culture - philosophers, mathematicians, historians, artists, poets - are imprinted in the memory of mankind in golden letters. For many centuries, the works of ancient scientists were revered as the most authoritative sources of knowledge, and monuments of ancient architecture, sculpture and literature served as the highest role models.
In particular, the ancient sculptural works “Nike of Samothrace”, which conveys with amazing expression the swift flight of the goddess of victory, “Venus de Milo”, personifying the perfect harmony of physical and spiritual female beauty, as well as the Pergamon Altar of Zeus, are considered unsurpassed masterpieces of world plastic art. is a grandiose monumental structure depicting the fierce struggle of the Olympian gods and titans. The best works of ancient literature - Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, Ovid's Metamorphoses, the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, the love lyrics of Sappho and Anacreon - were included in the golden fund of world literary classics, and the heroes of the great ancient Greeks cultural tragedies have gained immortality on the world stage.
Among the remarkable achievements of Hellas is the largest scientific and cultural center in the ancient world, Museion, created in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy. Its name, which gave birth to the modern word “museum,” translated means “temple of the muses” (the muses in Ancient Greece were considered the patroness of the sciences and arts). Indeed, the Alexandria Museyon was built as a “temple” for intellectuals - with spacious lecture halls, a refectory, courtyards for walking and a luxurious library, which housed an extensive collection of ancient, often rare or even unique manuscripts. To work at the Museion, Ptolemy invited the best scientists, among whom were specialists who selected, processed, commented and interpreted texts. They became the predecessors of modern philologists. Material from the site
It is noteworthy that it was the ancient Greeks who invented the word “philology” (from the Greek. phileo- love and logos - thought, word), which over time became the general name of the “sciences of words” - literary criticism and linguistics. True, the Greeks themselves by philology meant a love of all kinds of scientific pursuits, including those that had nothing to do with literature. But there were actually philological (corresponding to modern understanding) studies in Ancient Greece. The author of one of the literary treatises, called “Poetics,” was the outstanding scientist of antiquity, Aristotle. In this work, which, unfortunately, has survived only partially, an attempt was made for the first time to understand the laws of literary creativity and develop literary terminology. An important discovery of “Poetics” was the doctrine of the division of literary genera and genres, on which modern science largely relies.
Europeans inherited from the ancient Greeks and Romans scientific and art terminology, the main types and genres of literature, architectural styles, the basics of theatrical art, and the principles of depicting a person in painting and sculpture. But the main thing is that the European tradition has absorbed the ideal of man developed by antiquity, based on the harmonious combination of the development of his physical and spiritual powers, the balance between his inner freedom and the laws of the surrounding life, between his individual will and public duty. Based on the ancient ideas that “man is the measure of all things,” humanism was formed, which became a key concept of European culture.
Ancient Rome and Greece
The period of antiquity is known for its achievements and discoveries that forever changed the life of mankind. These include significant contributions to science, technology, literature, sculpture, architecture, art and theater. It was Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome that gave impetus to development, without which our world would be different today. There is no doubt that the most important and significant are the achievements in science, which is the basis of progress.
The first scientific theories (atomism) began to form in the era of Antiquity: Theophrastus’s botany, Ptolemy’s astronomy, Aristotle’s physics, Euclid’s geometry. Despite the significant merits of the Ancient East in science, the birthplace of science is Ancient Greece, where theoretical science first appeared, which developed scientific ideas about the world around us.
Archimedes of Syracuse
Everything was confirmed by facts and iron logic. The scientific method was not limited to various practical recipes; it had a rationale. Unlike the Egyptian and Babylonian scribes, who formulated the rules but did not explain them, the Greek scientist always argued the correctness of his reasoning with indisputable evidence.
Mathematics originated in the school of Pythagoras. Archimedes of Syracuse, the greatest mathematician of all time, invented the well-known digital system. Heron discovered plane, and Hipparchus - spherical trigonometry. We still use theorems and axioms derived in antiquity today. Advances in mathematics were immediately reflected in other natural sciences: astronomy and mathematical geography. Eratosthenes quite accurately determined the circumference of the Earth, which the peripatetic Dicaearchus could not do. Many discoveries have been made in cosmography.
Aristotle
The Pythagoreans also refuted the system of geocentrism and developed the hypothesis of a central focus, but they were never able to prove it. Aristotle later returned to this, but also could not substantiate the correctness of the judgments. Then his student Heraclides discovered the rotation of the Earth around its axis, although he also failed to prove the central focus hypothesis.
The 4th century for physical geography also turned out to be very fruitful. Numerous travels of the Greeks confirmed the truth of Anaximander’s hypothesis about the circumterrestrial ocean. Other important discoveries were also made in physics, zoology, botany, geology, chemistry and other sciences.
Antiquity (from Latin this word means “antiquity” - antiquus) is the era of two great civilizations - Ancient Greece and Rome.
Periodization of antiquity
When answering the question of what ancient society was, you need to know in what era it existed and into what periods this time was divided.
The following periodization is generally accepted:
1. Early antiquity - the time of the birth of the Greek states.
2. Classical antiquity - the period of unity of Roman and Greek civilization.
3. Late antiquity - the time of the collapse of the Roman Empire.
When considering ancient society, one must take into account the fact that the time frame here cannot be accurately established. Greek civilization appeared before the Roman one, and the Eastern civilization existed for some time after the fall of the Western one. It is believed that the era of antiquity is the time from the 8th century. BC e. to the 6th century n. e., until the beginning of the Middle Ages.
The emergence of the first states
In ancient times, several unsuccessful attempts to create states occurred on the Balkan Peninsula. This was the period of prehistory
2700-1400 BC e. - the time of the Minoan civilization. It existed in Crete and had a high level of development and culture. It was destroyed by a natural disaster (a volcanic eruption that generated a strong tsunami) and by the Achaean Greeks who captured the island.
Around the 16th century BC. The Mycenaean civilization arose in Greece. She dies in 1200-1100 BC. e. after the Dorian invasion. This time is also called the “Dark Greek Ages”.
After the disappearance of the remains of the Mycenaean culture, the first period of antiquity begins. In time, it coincides with the end and formation of early class society.
The ancient Greek state was a primary civilization. It originates in the primitive system, and before it there was no previous experience of statehood. Therefore, ancient society experienced a strong influence of primitiveness. This was manifested, first of all, in the religious worldview. Man during this period was viewed as a person. Hence the main feature of antiquity - an active position in relation to the world.
Life in Ancient Society: Structure and Classes
The first Greek states developed very actively. This was facilitated by the struggle between the peasants and the nobility, when the latter tried to turn the former into debt slavery. Many other ancient civilizations managed to do this, but not the Greek one. Here the demos was not only able to defend its freedom, but also achieved some political rights. Of course, this does not mean that society in the ancient world did not know slavery. Both ancient Greece and subsequently Rome were
What is ancient society and what is its structure? The main state formation of the ancient world was the polis, or city-state. Therefore, a society has developed here that is completely different from other countries. Its core was the community. Everyone occupied their own position in it. It was determined by the presence of civil status. The entire population was divided into three categories: full citizens, incomplete citizens and those without rights. Civil status is the main achievement of ancient society. If in other countries the population lived within strict boundaries of classes, then in Greece and Rome it was more important to have the status of a citizen. He allowed the demos to take part in the management of the policy on an equal basis with the nobility.
Roman society was somewhat different from Greek and had the following structure:
2. Free farmers and artisans. The same category of population included the colones.
3. Merchants.
4. Military.
5. Slave owners. Here the senatorial class was in first place.
Science and culture of ancient society
The first scientific knowledge was obtained in ancient times, in the states of the East. This period is called pre-scientific. These teachings were later developed in Ancient Greece.
The science of ancient society is the emergence of the first scientific theories, basic concepts, treatises and communities. At this time, the formation and emergence of many modern sciences took place.
The science of antiquity has come a long way in its development:
1. Early stage - VII-IV centuries. BC. This is the time of natural science and philosophy. The first philosophical scientists were mainly interested in the problems of nature, as well as in the search for the fundamental principle of all living things.
2. Hellenic stage - it is characterized by the division of a single science into separate areas: logic, mathematics, physics, medicine. This time is considered the highest flowering of ancient science. Euclid, Aristotle, Archimedes, and Democritus created their great works.
3. The Roman stage is the time of the decline of ancient science. Among the most important achievements of this period is the astronomy of Ptolemy.
The main success of science in ancient times lies in the formation of separate directions, the creation of the first terminology and methods of cognition.
The philosophy of ancient society and its famous representatives
It arose in the 7th-5th centuries. BC e. in Greece and is divided into the following stages:
1. Natural philosophy, or early classics. Philosophers of this time were primarily interested in questions of cosmology. Prominent representatives: Thales, Pythagoras, Democritus.
2. Classics is the heyday of the time in which its brightest representatives lived: Socrates, Plato, Euclid, Aristotle. Here, for the first time, questions of natural philosophy were replaced by interest in the problem of good and evil, ethics.
3. Hellenistic philosophy - at this time the active development of philosophical thought began under the influence of ancient Greek scientists. The most famous representatives: Seneca, Lucretius, Cicero, Plutarch. Many trends emerged: Epicureanism, Neoplatonism and Stoicism.
The influence of antiquity on modern culture
Ancient Greece and Rome are poetically called the cradle of modern civilization. Undoubtedly, ancient society had a tremendous influence on the development of other countries and peoples. Science, theater, sports competitions, comedy, drama, sculpture - it’s impossible to list everything that the ancient world gave to modern man. This influence can still be traced in the culture, life and language of many Romanesque peoples and inhabitants of the Mediterranean region.
When it comes to Ancient Greece, most people immediately think of the Olympic Games, Sparta and ancient Greek mythology. But in fact, modern man owes much more to the ancient Greeks. Classic literature, coins, anchors, vending machines - all this and much more comes from Ancient Greece.
1. Urban planning
Although most people consider city planning to be a relatively modern invention, the “father of city planning” is considered by most historians to be the ancient Greek architect and city planner Hippodamus of Miletus. His plans for Greek cities were remarkably orderly, in contrast to the chaotically intertwined streets of cities of that era.
2. Water mill
The earliest evidence of a water mill in historical documents is the mention of the Perachora wheel, which was created in the third century BC in Greece. Historians believe that it was created by the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium, who first mentioned the water wheel in one of his works.
3. Plumbing
As you know, the ancient Greeks highly valued human physical development. This concept was reflected in their approach to physical activity and cleanliness of the body. For example, in Athens there were many aqueducts through which water flowed from the mountains. The city also had a very extensive water supply system, through which water from tanks was distributed to baths, fountains, and also to the houses of rich people.
4. Odometer
This ubiquitous tool today, which measures the distance traveled by a car, was invented in Ancient Greece. It was originally used to measure the distance between cities.
5. Maps
Cartography has played a large role in travel and navigation since ancient times. The invention of maps and cartography is credited to Anaximander of Miletus, one of the most important pre-Socratic philosophers. Despite the fact that maps were used in Egypt, Lydia, the Middle East and Babylon, they depicted exclusively local roads and cities. Anaximander depicted the entire inhabited earth known to the ancient Greeks.
6. Lighthouses
Before the advent of special ports in Ancient Greece, fires were lit at night on the tops of the coastal hills near the cities to which merchant ships sailed. Subsequently, the fire began to be lit on special platforms - the higher the flame burned, the farther it was visible. This practice led to the development of lighthouses. The most famous lighthouse in ancient history is one of the wonders of the world - the Lighthouse of Alexandria, built in 280-247 BC.
7. Coins
The first coins arose during the Iron Age in Anatolia and Ancient Greece around 600-700 BC. Subsequently, coins developed by the Greeks were used to purchase or trade goods by other peoples as well.
8. Central heating
Before the Romans developed a home heating system, it existed among the Greeks, in particular the Minoans. The Greeks laid pipes under the floors of their houses through which warm water flowed, heated by diluted fireplaces.
9. Anchors
The ancient Greeks were the first to use baskets filled with stones, large bags of sand, and hollowed-out wooden logs filled with lead as anchors.
10. Shower
In Hellas, a shower appeared for the first time in the world. The water in public showers, which could be used by both nobles and ordinary citizens, came from existing lead pipes in Greek cities.
11. Automatic doors
Surely, many people think that automatic sliding doors appeared quite recently, this is not so. The Greeks invented automatic sliding doors that operated using compressed air or water. Such doors were used in temples.
12. Alarm clock
One of the most commonly used gadgets in the modern world was first invented by the famous Greek philosopher Plato. In order not to oversleep his lectures, he redesigned the water clock.
13. Vending machine
Vending machines also seem like a modern invention, but in fact they are more than 2 thousand years old. The Greek inventor Heron of Alexandria made a prototype of a vending machine in 215 BC. The machine, which was used to sell blessed water in front of temples, had the following operating principle: a coin was thrown into a special slot, which fell into a container attached to the side of the vessel with water. The increased weight of the container tilted the vessel, from which a portion of water poured out. Then the coin slipped out of the container, and the container returned to its vertical position.
14. Thermometer
The thermometer was first invented by Heron of Alexandria, who was the first to understand how air expands when heated to high temperatures. Subsequently, Philo of Byzantium was the first to use this technique to determine air temperature, and Galileo in 1597 only improved the ancient invention by introducing the concept of “scale” to quantify the process of measuring temperature.
15. Theater
The theater was born in the city-state of Athens. Even the word “theater” itself comes from the Greek word Theatron, which means “place to view.”
Continuing the topic. Amazing things.
Antiquity
Antiquity [ (goes back to lat. antiquitas- antiquity) - in a general sense this word means “ Greco-Roman antiquity“, in other words, the civilization of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in all the diversity of its historical forms.
Also, sometimes Antiquity refers to any very ancient times, using the concept synonymously with the word “ antiquity».
In Antiquity one should look for the origins of many values that later formed European culture.
Since Antiquity accounts for several centuries of human history, it is usually divided into eras and periods.
1 General periodization of Antiquity
2 Periodization of Antiquity and Proto-Antiquity
2.1 Crete-Mycenaean period - prehistory of Antiquity
2.1.1 Minoan civilization (Crete)
2.1.2 Mycenaean civilization (Balkan Greece)
2.2 Policy period
2.2.1 Homeric (prepolis) period, “dark ages” (XI-IX centuries BC)
2.2.2 Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC)
2.2.3 Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC)
2.3 Hellenistic period
2.3.1 First Hellenistic period (334-281 BC)
2.3.2 Second Hellenistic period (281-150 BC)
2.3.3 Third Hellenistic period (150-27 BC)
2.4 Roman Empire
2.4.1 Principate (27 BC-284 AD)
2.4.2 Tetrarchy and Dominate (285-324 AD)
2.4.3 Decline of the Roman Empire (395-476 AD)
3 Geography of Antiquity
4 Legacy of Antiquity
4.1 Antiquity and modern society
General periodization of Antiquity
In general, the general periodization of Antiquity is as follows.
Early Antiquity(VIII century BC - II century BC) The birth of the Roman Empire.
Classical Antiquity(1st century BC - 1st century AD), golden age the ancient world, the time of the unity of the Greco-Roman civilization.
Late Antiquity(II-V AD). Collapse of the Roman Empire.
Time periods may vary somewhat within the geopolitical context. Thus, the Golden Age of Antiquity was celebrated in Ancient Greece earlier than in the Roman Empire. In addition, ancient civilization in Eastern Roman Empire arose earlier and died out later than in the Western part, where its way of life was destroyed by the invaders Germans. However, the ancient cultural heritage (mainly in late antique form) is quite well preserved in the life, culture, language and traditions of most modern Romance peoples, and from them it was transmitted to others peoples Mediterranean (South Slavs, Arabs, Turks, Berbers, Jews).
It should also be noted that many elements of classical Antiquity (traditions, laws, customs, etc.) were well preserved in the Asia Minor core of the Eastern Roman Empire ( Byzantine) empire until the 11th century, before the advent Seljuk Turks.
Periodization of Antiquity and Proto-Antiquity
Crete-Mycenaean period - prehistory of Antiquity
Creto-Mycenaean (late III-II millennium BC). Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. The emergence of the first state formations. Development of navigation. Establishing trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East. The emergence of original writing. For Crete and mainland Greece at this stage, different periods of development are distinguished, since on the island of Crete, where a non-Greek population lived at that time, statehood developed earlier than in Balkan Greece, which underwent at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. conquest of the Achaean Greeks. In fact, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is the prehistory of Antiquity.
Minoan civilization (Crete)
King-Priest, fresco in the Palace of Knossos
Early Minoan period (XXX-XXIII centuries BC). The dominance of tribal relations, the beginning of the development of metals, the beginnings of crafts, the development of navigation, a relatively high level of agrarian relations.
Middle Minoan period (XXII-XVIII centuries BC). Also known as the period of "old" or "early" palaces. The emergence of early state formations in different parts of the island. Construction of monumental palace complexes in several regions of Crete. Early forms of writing.
Late Minoan period (XVII-XII centuries BC). The rise of the Minoan civilization, the unification of Crete, the creation of a sea power for the king Minos, the wide scope of trading activity of Crete in the Aegean Sea basin, the flourishing of monumental construction (“new” palaces in Knossos, Mallia, Phaistos). Active contacts with ancient Eastern states. Natural disaster of the mid-15th century. BC e. becomes the reason decline Minoan civilization, which created the preconditions for the conquest of Crete by the Achaeans.
History of discovery and name Open March 16 1900 English archaeologist Arthur Evans and named after the mythical king of Crete Minos- owner labyrinth, built, according to legend, Daedalus. According to the same legend, the ancient Greeks paid tribute to Minos with people whom he fed to the monster To the Minotaur- the offspring of his wife Pasiphae.
Characteristics
The Minoan civilization was a state ruled by a king.
The Minoans traded with Ancient Egypt, exported copper from Cyprus. Architecture is characterized by reinterpreted Egyptian borrowings (for example, the use columns).
The Minoan army was armed with slings and bows. The Minoans also had a double-sided ax as a characteristic weapon. labrys.
Like other nations Old Europe, was common among the Minoans bull cult(cm. taurocatapsia).
The Minoans smelted bronze, produced ceramics and built palace complexes from the middle of the 20th century BC. e. ( Knossos, Fest, Mallia).
Like others pre-Indo-European religions Europe, the Minoan religion is not alien to survivals matriarchy. In particular, it was revered Goddess with snakes(possibly similar Astarte).
Cultural connections According to Homer, in addition to the Minoans themselves (autochthonous Cretans, Eteocritans), also lived on Crete Pelasgians(according to Herodotus and others who arrived from Asia Minor or Greece), as well as the Kidons (a small people, possibly related to the Minoans - the name of the city comes from them Cydonia). Later the island was penetrated Achaeans(Greeks).
Genetic affiliation Minoan (Eteocritan) language not installed. Partial decryption Cretan script allowed us to identify some morphological indicators. Undecipherable Phaistos disc.
Sunset The Minoan civilization suffered greatly as a result of a natural disaster in the 15th century. BC e. - volcanic explosion on the island of Thira ( Santorini), which gave rise to a catastrophic tsunami. This volcanic eruption may have provided the basis for the myth of Atlantis.
Previously it was assumed that the volcanic eruption destroyed the Minoan civilization, but archaeological excavations in Crete showed that the Minoan civilization existed for at least about 100 years after the eruption (a layer of volcanic ash was discovered under the structures of the Minoan culture).
After the eruption, the Achaeans seize power on the island. Arises Mycenaean culture(Crete and mainland Greece), combining Minoan and Greek elements. In the 12th century. Mycenaean culture destroyed Dorians, which eventually populate Crete. The invasion of the Dorians leads to a sharp cultural decline and falls into disuse Cretan letter.
Nevertheless, Etheocretan language(the language of the autochthonous Cretans), apparently, still continued to exist - its last monuments, written in the Greek alphabet, date back to the 3rd century. BC e. (a thousand years after the disappearance of the Minoan civilization!)
Mycenaean civilization (Balkan Greece)
Early Helladic period (XXX-XXI centuries BC). The dominance of tribal relations among the pre-Greek population in Balkan Greece. The appearance of the first large settlements and proto-palace complexes.
Middle Helladic period (XX-XVII centuries BC). The settlement of the first waves of Greek speakers - the Achaeans - in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, which was accompanied by a slight decrease in the overall level of socio-economic development of Greece. The beginning of the decomposition of tribal relations among the Achaeans.
Late Helladic period (XVI-XII centuries BC). The emergence of an early class society among the Achaeans, the formation of a productive economy in agriculture in a number of state entities with centers in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, etc., the formation of original writing, the flourishing of Mycenaean culture. The Achaeans subjugate Crete and destroy the Minoan civilization. In the 12th century. BC e. a new tribal group invades Greece - the Dorians, the death of the Mycenaean statehood.
Early Helladic period of Greece Is a part Cretan-Mycenaean period Greek history.
IN III-II thousand BC e. in Balkan Greece lived Pelasgians, lelegi And Carians, the whole country according to Herodotus called Pelasgia. Later Greek historians considered these peoples barbarians, although in reality their culture was at a higher level of development (this is evidenced by archaeological data) than the culture Greek-Achaeans, who invaded Greek territory at the turn of the century III-II thousand BC e.
All settlements of the Early Helladic era can be divided into two types: citadels(for example, in Lerne), in which representatives of the tribal nobility lived, and densely built-up villages (for example, Rafina And Ziguries), populated mainly by peasant farmers. All citadels were surrounded by defensive structures, which were also present in some settlements.
In addition to farming, in the Early Helladic period there arose craft(pottery, blacksmithing), but the number of artisans was small and the products met local demand, but it is possible that it also went beyond the boundaries of the individual community.
The division of settlements into citadels and towns may indicate the beginning of class formation in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The civilization of this period was already ahead of other European cultures in its development, but further progressive growth was prevented by movement tribes across the territory of Balkan Greece.
The emergence of the first Achaean states With the arrival of the first wave of Achaean tribes, we can talk about the formation of the Greek people at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Archaeological data from finds of the Middle Helladic period (XX-XVII) indicate a certain decline in the culture of this period in comparison with the culture of the Early Helladic period. IN burials metal products were absent from this time, instead they reappear stone tools, the inventory of such burials is very scarce and monotonous; most likely, this can be explained by the lack of class stratification in society. Monumental structures are also disappearing, although one cannot help but note the emergence of some innovations, such as Potter's wheel And war chariot.
All settlements of the Middle Helladic period were located, as a rule, on elevated areas and were fortified; an example of such a settlement is fortification Malti Dorion V Messenia. In the center of this settlement there was a palace; workshops of artisans adjoined it; the rest were houses of ordinary people and warehouses.
By the end of the Middle Helladic period, a cultural upsurge began to be felt in the development of the civilization of mainland Greece, the first state formations appeared, a process of class formation took place, manifested in the identification of a layer of nobility, and a significant increase in population was observed, associated with the success of agriculture. The number of both small settlements and large cities has increased. The period in Greek history between XVI And XI centuries BC e. It is customary to call the Mycenaean era, after the name of the largest political and economic center of continental Greece - Mycenae, located in Argolis.
Questions about the ethnic origin of the carriers of the Mycenaean civilization remained one of the most difficult for a long time; only after deciphering Linear writing did scientists establish the opinion that they were Achaeans. The Achaeans who moved to Crete and islands Asia Minor around the 16th century BC e., apparently came from the northern, Thessalian Achaeans.
The first city-states formed in the 17th-16th centuries. BC e. - Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos- had close cultural and trade ties with Crete, Mycenaean culture borrowed a lot from Minoan civilization, the influence of which is felt in cult rituals, social life, artistic monuments; undoubtedly, the art of building ships was adopted from the Cretans. But the Mycenaean culture was characterized only by its own traditions, rooted in ancient times (according to A. Evans, the Mycenaean culture is only a branch of the Cretan one and is devoid of any individuality), its own path of development. A few words can be said about the development of Mycenaean trade and external relations with other states. Thus, a number of objects found in Egypt and previously considered to have been brought from Crete, are now identified as products of Mycenaean artisans. There is a hypothesis according to which the Mycenaeans helped to the pharaoh Ahmose(XVI century BC) in his fight against Hyksos, and during times Akhenaten (XV V. BC BC) in his new capital Akhetaton Mycenaean pottery was widespread.
In the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. the Achaeans conquered Crete And Cyclades, colonized many islands in Aegean Sea, founded a number of settlements in the depths of Greece, on the site of which the famous ancient city-states later grew - Corinth, Athens, Delphi, Thebes. This period is considered the heyday of the Mycenaean civilization.
The Achaeans not only maintain old Cretan trade ties, but also build new sea routes to Caucasus, Sicily, V North Africa.
The main centers, as in Crete, were palaces, but their important difference from the Cretan ones is that they were fortified and were citadels. The monumental dimensions of the citadels are striking, the walls of which are built from unprocessed blocks, reaching in some cases a weight of up to 12 tons. Perhaps the most outstanding citadel is Tiryns, the entire defensive system of which was thought out with the utmost care to prevent all unexpected disastrous situations.
Return of the Heraclides The formation of the urban community as it is depicted in the Iliad and Odyssey, with a heterogeneous population in a certain territory, with all the features of the state structure, was greatly facilitated by the movement of Hellenic tribes, known as the return of the Heraclides or resettlement Dorians V Peloponnese. The mixing of tribes that took place and the unification of conquerors and conquered in a common political organization, the thirst for success and improvement in new places should have accelerated the transition from a tribal system to a territorial, state one. The establishment of colonies in Asia Minor and on the islands, which followed the movement of the Dorians, acted even more strongly in the same direction: new interests and new relationships gave rise to new forms of society. The movement of the Hellenes, in which the Dorians played the main role, dates back to the 12th century (from 1104); it started with an invasion Epirus people Thessalians through Pind to that country, which in historical times was called Thessaly. The Aeolian natives were partly conquered, partly fled to the south and gave their place the name Boeotia. Those who lived at the foot Olympus The Dorians moved first to the area that was later called Dorida, and from there part of them, along with Aitolians, through Gulf of Corinth crossed to the Peloponnese, until that time occupied by the Achaeans and in the northern part Ionians. Only after a long struggle with the natives did the Dorians gradually establish themselves in Messenia, Lakonike, Argolis where they entered from the side Argos Gulf, and in Corinth. The Achaeans were forced either to submit to the newcomers in the position of incomplete inhabitants, or, having lost their tribal characteristics, to merge with the winners, or, finally, to move away from their homes. From that time on, the northern strip of the peninsula received the name Achaea, from where the Ionians fled to their fellow tribesmen in Attica: the coastal area was occupied by the Achaeans fleeing from the Dorians. Another part of the Achaeans left Peloponnese and settled on the island Lesbos. From the Isthmus of Corinth, the Dorians penetrated into central Greece and took possession of Megarid. In the Peloponnese, the inhabitants remained on their lands, in political independence from the Dorians Arcadia, A Elis went to the allies of the Dorians, the Aetolians. The immediate consequences of the same conquest of the Peloponnese were the eviction of the Ionians from Attica and other regions to the islands and the Asia Minor coast, where the Ionian 12-city arose ( Miletus, Ephesus, Phocaea, Colophon etc.), and the founding by the Dorians, who came mainly from Argolis, of six cities ( Hexapolis) on the Carian coast and on the adjacent islands. With the return of the Heraclides and the founding of the ancient colonies, which, in turn, served metropolises new settlements, the Hellenic people finally settled permanently in Greece. This event constitutes a boundary beyond which lies the kingdom of legend and myth, and on this side begins the historical existence of Greece, with the common name of the Hellenes.
Poetic sources
The state of Hellenic societies closest to historical time is depicted with remarkable clarity and completeness in the so-called Homeric poems, Iliad And Odyssey, to the beginning 8th century BC existing approximately in their current form. The state of society depicted in them contains all the elements of the further development of Greece and constitutes, as it were, the starting point in the formation of various forms of government. The creation of the Iliad and Odyssey dates back to the 10th-9th centuries. The events sung in the poems are separated from the time of compilation of the poems by the movement of tribes and peoples in mainland Greece, the consequence of which was the founding of Asia Minor and island colonies. It is not possible to distribute the historical material contained in the poems by eras and periods; its main share belongs to the times of the author himself. The individual type of Hellene, with its most constant strengths and weaknesses, with its beliefs and inclinations, was already established in the society of Homer's time. There are no positive laws in this society yet; therefore, deviations from the norm of relations in one direction or another are more frequent and less sensitive here; however, ancestral customs and attitudes, protected by the gods, as well as public opinion. Remnants of the tribal system still live in society, especially in family and private legal relations; but the city community has already taken shape, its management is distributed between the individual leader, the council of elders and the people. Economic dependence of other leaders on the people, the power of public speech, cash speakers, examples of criticism directed against leaders, etc., indicate that even at that time the people in urban communities were not a powerless mass or an unresponsive instrument of other authorities. If obedience to the leader is required from the people, then caring for the people, justice in resolving matters, courage in war, wisdom in advice and eloquence in peacetime are also required for the leader. The personal merits of a leader are one of the necessary conditions for honor on the part of the people and for obedience to their demands. The further success of the public was that the mutual relations of the authorities acquired greater certainty; the concept of the common good in the state took precedence over all other interests; personal merit and service to society were the main right to influence and significance in the state.
Homeric society is far from homogeneous in its composition: it distinguishes between simple and noble people, in addition to the free there are slaves; Among the free, there are differences in status and occupation; mutual relations between masters and slaves bear the stamp of patriarchal simplicity and intimacy; in relations between men and women there is more equality in rights than was the case in later historical times. Poems Hesiod complement the testimony of Homeric songs about Hellenic society at that distant time.
Polis period
(XI-IV centuries BC) Ethnic consolidation of the Greek world. The formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood. The highest cultural and scientific achievements of ancient Greek civilization.
Homeric (prepolis) period , “dark ages” (XI-IX centuries BC)
The final destruction of the remnants of the Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization, the revival and dominance of tribal relations, their transformation into early class ones, the formation of unique pre-polis social structures.
Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC)
First period of Antiquity. Begins parallel to the decline of the Bronze Age. The beginning of the Antiquity period is considered to be the date of the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games in 776 BC e.
Formation of policy structures. Great Greek Colonization. Early Greek tyrannies. Ethnic consolidation of Hellenic society. The introduction of iron into all areas of production, economic growth. Creation of the foundations of commodity production, the spread of elements of private property.
Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC)
V-IV centuries BC e. - the period of the highest flowering of the polis system. As a result of the Greek victory in Greco-Persian wars(500-449 BC) the rise of Athens occurs, the Delian League(led by Athens). The time of the highest power of Athens, the greatest democratization of political life and the flowering of culture occurred during the reign of Pericles(443-429 BC). The struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece and the contradictions between Athens and Corinth related to the struggle for trade routes led to Peloponnesian War(431-404 BC), which ended in the defeat of Athens.
Characterized by. The flourishing of the economy and culture of Greek city-states. Reflecting the aggression of the Persian world power, raising national consciousness. The growing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms of government and backward agrarian policies with an aristocratic structure, the Peloponnesian War, which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of Macedonian aggression.
Hellenistic period
Hellenistic (IV-I centuries BC). The short-term establishment of the world power of Alexander the Great. The origin, flourishing and collapse of the Hellenistic Greek-Eastern statehood.
First Hellenistic period (334-281 BC)
The campaigns of the Greek-Macedonian army of Alexander the Great, the short period of existence of his world power and its collapse into a number of Hellenistic states. High Hellenism coincided with the fierce Punic Wars, which diverted Rome's attention from the eastern regions of the Mediterranean, and lasted until the Roman conquest of Macedonia in 168 and their destruction of Corinth. During these years, Rhodes flourished, the rich kingdom of Pergamon played a huge role under Attalus I (241-197) and Eumenes II (197-152), and majestic monuments of Ptolemaic Egypt were created.
Second Hellenistic period (281-150 BC)
The flourishing of Greek-Eastern statehood, economy and culture.
Third Hellenistic period (150-27 BC)
Crisis and collapse of Hellenistic statehood.
The Roman Empire
The Roman Empire (27 BC-476 AD)
Principate (27 BC-284 AD)
Tetrarchy and Dominat (285-324 AD)
Decline of the Roman Empire (395-476 AD)
Geography of Antiquity
Geography. Balkan Greece in ancient times occupied an area of approx. 88 thousand sq. km. In the northwest it bordered with Illyria, in the northeast with Macedonia, in the west it was washed by the Ionian (Sicilian), in the southeast by the Myrtoian sea, in the east by the Aegean and Thracian seas. It included three regions - Northern Greece, Central Greece and Peloponnese. Northern Greece was divided into western (Epirus) and eastern (Thessaly) parts by the Pindus mountain range. Central Greece was delimited from Northern Greece by the Timfrest and Eta mountains and consisted of ten regions (from west to east): Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris Ozole, Doris, Phocis, Locris Epiknemidskaya, Locris Opunta, Boeotia, Megaris and Attica. The Peloponnese was connected to the rest of Greece by the narrow (up to 6 km) Isthmus of Corinth.
The central region of the Peloponnese was Arcadia, which was bordered on the west by Elis, on the south by Messenia and Laconia, on the north by Achaea, on the east by Argolis, Phliuntia and Sicyonia; Corinthia was located in the extreme northeastern corner of the peninsula. Insular Greece consisted of several hundred islands (the largest are Crete and Euboea), forming three large archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest of the Aegean Sea, the Sporades in its eastern and northern parts, and the Ionian Islands off the western coast of Asia Minor. Balkan Greece is mainly a mountainous country (it is pierced from north to south by two branches of the Dinaric Alps) with an extremely indented coastline and numerous gulfs (the largest are Ambracian, Corinthian, Messenian, Laconian, Argolid, Saronic, Mali and Pagasian).
The largest of the Greek islands are Crete, southeast of the Peloponnese and Euboea, separated from Central Greece by a narrow strait. The numerous islands of the Aegean Sea form two large archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest and the Sporades in the eastern and northern parts. The most significant of the islands off the western coast of Greece are Kerkyra, Lefkada, Kefallenia and Zakynthos.
Heritage of Antiquity
Antiquity and modern society
Antiquity has left a huge mark on modernity.
Funds Analysis mass media and reader preferences shows that at the turn XX-XXI centuries society is on the rise of interest in ancient heritage [ source not specified 138 days ] . Intensive efforts are underway around the world archaeological searches, and their results immediately become the subject of media attention and public discussion. For example, Turkish archaeologists have been conducting research in the ancient city for seven years Antadros in the north-west of modern Turkey - they are trying to find evidence of legendary settlements Cimmerians. As historian Gürcan Polat of Turkey's Aegean University said, "the time of real discovery is yet to come." Archaeologists from the Roman French School and University of Bordeaux in the summer of 2006, excavations began on a large necropolis in Roman catacombs Saints Peter and Markellina dating back to the beginning of Christianity in Ancient Rome. Serious discussions are ongoing in connection with the start of excavations of the so-called “ Bosnian pyramids» on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.