Basic definitions of history for the Unified State Exam. Terms on the History of Russia (from ancient times - until the end of the 16th century)

Absolutism(absolute monarchy) is a form of feudal state in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, the feudal state reaches the highest degree of centralization, a bureaucratic apparatus, a standing army and police are created. In Russia it was finally established in the 18th century.

Avant-garde- an artistic movement of the 20th century, advocating a break with the principles of the past and the search for new forms and means of expressing the surrounding world, which manifested itself in such movements as cubism, expressionism, surrealism, etc.

Autocephaly- in Orthodoxy, the administrative independence of the church. In Russia there has been an autocephalous church since 1589.

Autonomation- an idea put forward by I.V. Stalin in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy, which violated their independence and equality.

Autonomy— the right to independent existence, the ability to resolve issues related to the jurisdiction of a specific autonomous entity (republic, district, national, religious or territorial community). Autonomy does not have state sovereignty (complete independence). Cultural-national autonomy presupposes self-government in matters of culture (including religion, language and education).

Autochthons- indigenous peoples who lived on their lands before the formation of existing state borders, associated with a certain territory and living on it since time immemorial; original population.

Aggression- military violation of the sovereignty of the state, its independence and the integrity of its borders. It can be economic, ideological, psychological, etc.

Alternative- one of several mutually exclusive possibilities; the need to choose a single solution from a number of possible ones.

Empire style- an original version of Russian classicism of the first quarter of the 19th century, which has features of external, formal similarity with the French Empire style.

Anarchism- a political movement that advocates the destruction of the state as a coercive form of power and replacing it with a free, voluntary association of citizens.

Annexation- forcible annexation, the seizure by one state of territory belonging to another state or people.

Antagonism(antagonistic contradiction) - one of the types of contradictions in social development, characterized by the highest severity of the struggle of irreconcilably hostile tendencies, forces, social classes, which inevitably leads to such radical way resolving a contradiction as a revolution.

Arakcheevshchina- the internal political course of the autocracy in 1815-1825, which seeks to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of life of Russian society (planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, increasing persecution of education and the press).

Bishop- general name for higher Orthodox clergy(bishop, archbishop, metropolitan).

Assembly- balls in the houses of the Russian nobility, introduced by Peter I.

"Velvet Revolutions"- a special type of revolution, as a result of which there is a transition from a socialist to a liberal system.

Baroque- artistic style in Russia in the 40-50s. XVIII century, characterized by decorative splendor, dynamic complex forms, emotional expressiveness and picturesqueness.

Corvee- all types of forced labor performed by dependent peasants for the feudal lord, primarily on the master's land for several days a week.

Baskak- a representative of the Horde khan in Rus', who exercised control over the actions of the princes and was in charge of collecting tribute.

Basma- a plate made of gold, silver, wood, issued by the Golden Horde khans as a pass.

White Guard- military formations of anti-Bolshevik forces that acted against the Soviet republic after the October Revolution. The color white was considered a symbol of “lawful order.”

Secular clergy- the general name for the lower clergy of the Orthodox Church (priests, deacons). Unlike the black clergy, the white clergy are allowed to create a family and run a personal household.

"White settlements"- urban settlements exempt from state duties.

Bipolar system of international relations- a system based on the confrontation between two superpowers (USSR and the USA) and the military-political blocs they created.

Bironovschina- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features: political terror, the omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, strict tax collection, drill in the army.

Blitzkrieg- a strategy based on quickly achieving victory by delivering concentrated attacks on the enemy and defeating his main forces in the first days of a military campaign.

beekeeping- collecting honey from wild bees from the ancient Slavs.

Boyars- in Kievan Rus, the prince’s senior warriors who helped him govern the state. Since the 15th century boyars are the highest rank among service people.

Boyar- representative of the upper class of society in Rus' in the 11th-17th centuries. Initially, the boyars were vassals of the princes, obliged to serve in their troops, but later they became an independent political force in a number of Russian principalities. In the XIV century. were divided into introduced boyars (the prince's closest advisers) and worthwhile boyars (who headed individual branches of government). From the end of the 15th century. The title of boyar became the highest rank in the Duma; its holders took a direct part in governing the state along with the monarch.

Boyar Duma- the highest council under the prince in Rus'.

Bourgeois-democratic revolution- a social revolution, as a result of which the power of the bourgeoisie is strengthened and broad democratic changes are carried out, while the bourgeoisie itself often loses its revolutionary role.

Bylina- a work of oral folk art in Ancient Rus', based on real events. Tells about the exploits of Russian heroes.

Bureaucracy- the power of officials, a management system carried out with the help of an apparatus of power that has certain functions and privileges and stands above society.

Varangians- this is how in Ancient Rus' they called the Normans (Vikings), immigrants from Scandinavia, participants in predatory campaigns.

Voucher- in 1992-1994. security, intended for free transfer of state property to citizens.

Great Migration- the era of grandiose ethnic movements during the 4th-7th centuries. n. e., an integral part of which was the settlement of the Slavs.

Rope- a community of free peasants (“rope” - with its help the boundaries between communities were determined).

Supreme Privy Council- the highest advisory state institution in the Russian Empire in 1726-1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body consisting of six prominent dignitaries.

Veche- a meeting of all free-born men of the tribe who have the right to bear arms to resolve issues of intra-tribal life.

Vikings- Scandinavian sailors of the Middle Ages, ancestors of modern Swedes, Norwegians, Danes and Icelanders.

Vira- a monetary fine in favor of the prince in the Old Russian state, imposed for the murder of a free person.

Voivode- military leader in Ancient Rus'. Subsequently (from the end of the 15th century) governors were appointed commanders of the main regiments as part of the Moscow army. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. Voivodes also stood at the head of local government in the Russian state (they were royal governors in cities), and had in their hands all the administrative and military executive power in the city and district.

Voivodeship- territorial unit of the Principality of Lithuania. Voivode is the head of a voivodeship.

Military democracy- one of the original forms of political organization among a number of tribes and nationalities during the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system; The organs of military democracy were: a people's assembly, in which soldiers participated, a council of leaders (or elders) and an elected or appointed military leader, the main distinguishing feature of whose power was military leadership.

Military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and create a reserve of trained troops.

War communism- the economic policy of the Soviet government in the conditions of the civil war and foreign military intervention in 1918-1921, which was a system of emergency measures, such as: food allocation, complete nationalization of industry, state monopoly on certain types of goods (salt, sugar, manufacturing, matches etc.), militarization of labor, labor front, military universal training, free provision individual species services (including public transport, pharmacies, telephone, etc.).

Volostel- an official in the Russian state of the 11th-16th centuries, managing the volost on behalf of the grand or appanage prince, in charge of administrative and judicial affairs. The volosts did not receive a salary and were “fed” through taxes from the population.

Free cultivators- in Russia, peasants freed from serfdom with the land by decree of 1803 on the basis of a voluntary agreement with the landowners.

Magus- pagan priest, minister of cult in Ancient Rus'; a person who was recognized as having supernatural abilities, a magician, a sorcerer. With the introduction of Christianity, they began to be considered opponents of state power and led a number of social protests.

Voluntarism- activity that does not take into account the objective laws of development, imposes its will, ignores real possibilities, when what is desired is presented as reality.

Eastern Question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations of the last third of the 18th - early 19th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples, and the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region.

Patrimony- type of land ownership (hereditary family or corporate ownership with immunity).

Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861.

Exit(Horde) - tribute paid by Russian principalities in the XIII-XV centuries.

Gazavat(jihad) - the holy war of Muslims against infidels.

Hegemony- a dominant position, the use of political force to obtain a leading role in the movement, struggle (hegemony of the proletariat).

Geopolitics- a concept in the theory of international relations, according to which geographical factors play a major role in the development of a state or group of states: the presence of minerals, access to the sea, climate, etc.

Publicity- a concept developed by Russian political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of government bodies.

The State Duma — 1) Representative legislative institution (1906-1917), established by the manifesto of Nicholas II on October 17, 1905.

2) According to the 1993 Constitution, one of the chambers of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.

State capitalism— socio-economic structure with state intervention in economic life to establish control and accelerate the development of production.

State Council- the highest legislative body of the Russian Empire since 1810; since 1906 - the upper house with legislative rights. He considered bills introduced by ministers before their approval by the emperor, estimates and staffing of government institutions, complaints about the determinations of departments of the Senate and other bodies.

Guests- merchants engaged in long-distance and international trade.

Civil War- a large-scale armed confrontation between organized groups within a state (less often between two nations that were part of a previously single united state) with the goal of seizing power in a country or in a separate region or changing government policy.

Gridney

Lip- a territorial district in the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries, as a rule, coinciding with the volost, from the middle of the 16th century. - with the county.

Province- the main administrative-territorial unit in Russia since 1708, divided into counties.

Lip Warden- an official who headed provincial institutions, local government bodies (from the 30-50s of the 16th century to 1702), who were in charge of investigation and criminal courts on a provincial scale.

GULAG(Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention) - formed in 1934 under the jurisdiction of the NKVD (People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs), to which all correctional labor institutions of the People's Commissariat of Justice were transferred. Existed until 1956

Tribute- a collection in kind or money from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax on subjects.

"Dat people"- warriors who, on the basis of the Service Code of 1556, were to be supplied armed and equipped by the landowner from a certain amount of land. Military service was carried out only in wartime.

Dual faith- a mixture of pagan and Christian rituals and beliefs.

Butler- a servant of Russian princes and Moscow tsars. With the development of the order system in the 16th century. becomes the head of the order of the Grand Palace. From 1473 to 1646 there was only one butler in Moscow. Since 1646, 12 boyars had this title; then it was granted annually to one or more boyars. As a result, this position became an honorary title.

Household peasants- in the Russian state, dependent people (slaves) who lived at the court of the landowner and served the family of the feudal lord. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. domestic serf servant in a landowner's house.

Nobles- a feudal service class that owned land on the condition of compulsory military service without the right to sell its land property, which was remuneration for this service.

Nobility- a privileged class of secular landowners and government officials. In the XIII-XIV centuries. these are persons obliged to the princes for military service and execution of orders. Since the 15th century the nobles were allocated land and merged with the feudal lords. In the XVI-XVII centuries. There were Moscow and elected (city) nobles from the beginning of the 18th century. a single noble class was formed.

Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state.

Demilitarization- liquidation, on the basis of an international treaty, of military installations in a certain area and a ban on maintaining military bases and troops there.

Democratization— recognition of the need and implementation of democratic principles, reorganization of social political life on the basis of democracy.

Denationalization- transfer of state property into ownership of individuals or groups.

Cash dues- a form of payment from a peasant to a feudal lord in the form of money.

Denomination— changing the nominal value of banknotes in order to stabilize the currency, simplifying payments.

Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 1920-1940s. violent and illegal expulsion of many peoples of the USSR from their territories.

De-Stalinization- the process of abolition, destruction of the Stalinist system.

Tithe(church) - one tenth of the harvest or other income given by the population for the maintenance of the church.

Dictatorship- unlimited political, economic and ideological power exercised by a limited group of people or one person.

Dynastic marriage- a marriage between representatives of the ruling dynasties in different countries with the aim of strengthening the union between states.

Dynasty- a series of rulers who successively succeeded each other according to the principle of kinship and tradition of succession to the throne.

Dissident- a dissident who opposes his beliefs to the official ideology of the country. In 1950-1970 in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, defending human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state. The struggle contributed to the transition of the USSR from totalitarianism to democracy.

Doctrine- a philosophical, political, religious concept, theory, doctrine, belief system, guiding theoretical or political principle.

Druzhina- a detachment of warriors united around the leader; in Ancient Rus' - an armed cavalry detachment under the prince, participating in military campaigns, governing the principality, as well as the prince’s personal household.

Duma nobles- in the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. the third “in honor” Duma rank after the boyars and okolnichy; participated in meetings of the Boyar Duma. The majority come from well-born families. They served as a support for the tsarist power in the fight against the boyar aristocracy in the Duma.

Spiritual regulations- a legislative act of Peter I (1721) on the reform of church institutions, according to which the church was subordinate to the state.

Deacon- from the XV to the XVIII centuries. official (official): manager of the affairs of the order, clerk, head of the office of various departments. The clerks constituted the top layer of the bureaucracy (“orderly people”) in the Moscow state; from the second half of the 16th century. The rank of Duma clerk was entrusted with the responsibility of conducting current office work in central institutions, as well as with local governors. The clerks were mainly from non-noble strata of society.

Deacon- in Orthodoxy, a person who has the lowest level of priesthood, an assistant priest participating in church service. The senior deacon is called protodeacon.

Smoke- hut, peasant yard.

Diocese- in the Russian Orthodox Church, an ecclesiastical-administrative territorial unit, the boundaries of which are determined by the Holy Synod, taking into account the administrative-territorial division of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The administration of the diocese is carried out by the bishop (bishop, archbishop, metropolitan) together with the diocesan governing bodies (assembly, council).

Heresy- 1) a creed that deviates from the dogmas and organizational forms of the dominant religion; 2) deviation from generally accepted rules, delusion.

Heresy of the “Judaizers”- the Orthodox Church name for a number of heterogeneous heresies from the point of view of the official Orthodox Church, used mainly in relation to a breakaway religious group that arose in Novgorod in the last quarter of the 15th century.

Certificate of Complaint- a document issued by the highest authority in Russia granting any rights or benefits to individuals, monasteries (from the 12th century) or groups of the population (from the 17th century).

"Iron curtain"- a term denoting the isolation of the USSR from the capitalist world. As a political concept for the first time in the 20th century. introduced by G. Wells in the book “The Time Machine”, and in Russia by the philosopher V.V. Rozanov after the revolution of 1905-1907. to mark the end of history and culture. In Soviet times, the term was used as a concept of a wall separating socialism and capitalism - irreconcilable systems. After World War II, the term came to mean the border between the "free" and "communist" worlds.

Life- a work, a biography of a clergy or secular person, usually canonized by the Christian Church.

Strike- one of the ways to resolve labor conflict, putting forward both economic and political demands by a collective of workers and employees who stopped working until they were met.

Purchases- communal peasants who became dependent by taking out a “kupa” (loan).

Westerners- direction of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path and opposed the Slavophiles. They criticized the theory of official nationality, serfdom and autocracy; put forward projects for the liberation of peasants with land. Leaders of the movement: P. A. Annenkov, V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, M. N. Katkov, I. S. Turgenev, P. Ya. Chaadaev and others. Printing organs: “Domestic Notes”, “Russian Bulletin”, etc.

Reserved summers- the period during which peasants were prohibited from going out on the autumn St. George’s Day (provided for by the Law Code, 1497). Reserve summers began to be introduced by the government of Ivan IV in 1581, simultaneously with the general census of lands, carried out to determine the extent of severe economic devastation in the 70-80s. XVI century

Zaporizhzhya Sich- the name of a number of successive military and administrative centers of the Dnieper Cossacks from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Liquidated by decrees of Catherine II.

Zemsky Sobors- the highest class-representative bodies in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. They included members of the Holy Council, the Boyar Duma, the “sovereign court,” elected from the provincial nobility and merchants.

Zemstvos— elected bodies of local self-government in Russia since 1864.

Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of Russia, not included in the oprichnina by Ivan IV. The center is Moscow, it was governed by the Zemstvo Boyar Duma and orders.

Architecture- construction art in Rus'.

Elected Rada- unofficial government of the Russian state in the late 40-50s. XVI century Supporters of compromise between different layers of landowners.

Abbot- head (abbot) of a Russian Orthodox monastery.

Idol- an image of a deity worshiped by pagans, most often made of stone or wood.

Outcasts- people who left their social group (peasants who left or were expelled from the community, princes who lost their possessions) for various reasons.

Icon- a pictorial depiction of God or saints in Orthodox Christianity.

Iconography- church painting.

Impeachment- the procedure for judicial prosecution, including criminal charges, of municipal or state officials, officials, up to the head of state, with their subsequent removal from office.

Investment- long-term investment of capital in sectors of the economy within the country and abroad with the aim of making a profit.

Indo-European group of peoples- a generalizing concept for tribes of the Indo-European language family that have common roots at an early stage of their development (English, Germans, French, Greeks, Iranians, Armenians, Irish, etc.).

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in all major sectors of the economy.

Inoki- monks.

Integration- consolidation, merging of public and government structures for joint activities both in the field of politics and economics.

Intervention- violent intervention of one or more states in the internal affairs of another state, violation of its sovereignty. It can be military (aggression), economic, diplomatic, ideological. Intervention is prohibited by international law.

Intelligentsia- a social stratum of people professionally engaged in mental, mainly complex creative work, and cultural development. It arose in connection with the division of physical and mental labor, the accumulation and generalization of knowledge. The term was introduced in the 1860s. writer P.D. Boborykin and became international.

Josephites- church-political movement in the Russian state of the late 15th - mid-16th centuries. (ideologist Joseph Volotsky), who defended the principle of a “rich church”; defended church-monastic land ownership.

Kagan- the title of the head of state among the ancient Turkic (nomadic, tribal) peoples.

Cadets(constitutional democrats) - members of the constitutional democratic party, founded in 1905 and which was the party of the liberal bourgeoisie. Officially, the Cadets called themselves the “people's freedom party” and came out with moderate criticism of the existing order in Russia.

Cossacks- free residents of the outskirts of the Russian state, who performed military service, and also engaged in farming, hunting, and sometimes robbery.

Canonization- canonizing someone as a saint for a righteous life and godly deeds.

Capitalism- a socio-economic formation that replaced feudalism, which is based on private ownership of the means of production and the use of hired labor. Having emerged in the 16th century, capitalism played a progressive role in the development of society, ensuring higher labor productivity and better social relations compared to feudalism.

Surrender- cessation of armed struggle and surrender of the armed forces of one of the warring states.

Cyrillic- Ancient Slavic alphabet created by Orthodox missionaries brothers Cyril and Methodius.

Classicism- artistic style in Russia XVIII- the beginning of the 19th century, focused on ancient art as the norm and ideal example; characterized by a desire for clarity and purity of proportions, balance, and harmony of forms.

Prince- the head of a tribe, clan, leader of a military squad, and with the development of feudalism - the highest representative of the feudal class, the ruler of the feudal state; an honorary title passed on by inheritance in some noble families.

Coalition- a political or military alliance of states for joint action (anti-Hitler coalition); formation of a government from representatives of several parties (coalition Provisional Government in Russia in 1917).

Collectivization- transformation of agriculture in the USSR at the end of 1920-1930. through the massive creation of collective farms (collective farms).

Kolkhoz(collective farm) - a cooperative organization of peasants in Soviet times, based on collective ownership of land and brutal state regulation.

Committees- committees of the poor, created in 1918 in Russia as government bodies. They participated in the implementation of the food dictatorship together with food detachments: they distributed landowners' lands, agricultural implements, carried out food appropriation, and recruitment into the Red Army. Dissolved early 1919

Convention- an international treaty on a specific issue.

Convergence- the theory of the peaceful rapprochement of socialism and capitalism. Academician A.D. Sakharov was an active supporter of this theory.

Conversion— the process of transition of defense enterprises to the production of civilian products.

Conditions— the conditions for Anna Ioannovna’s accession to the throne, drawn up in 1730 by the Supreme Privy Council with the aim of limiting the monarchy in favor of the aristocracy.

Conservatism— political ideology, focused on protecting the traditional foundations of social life, unshakable values, denial of revolutionary changes, distrust of the popular movement.

Constructivism- an artistic movement in the art of a number of European countries at the beginning of the 20th century, which proclaimed that the basis of the artistic image is not composition, but construction.

Contribution- payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.

Confessional principle— formation of government bodies taking into account the interests of population groups professing different religions in single state; solving political issues, problems of education, culture.

Confession- a feature of religion within a certain religious teaching, as well as an association of believers who adhere to this religion.

Confrontation- confrontation, clash of opposing interests, opposition of parties.

Concession- an agreement on the transfer for operation to a foreign state or company for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises or other objects owned by the state.

Cooperation- a voluntary partnership for joint farming, organizing fishing, small-scale production, and intermediary activities. Main forms: consumer, supply and household, credit, production.

Feeding- territory and system of maintaining boyar-governors at the expense of extortions from the local population.

Feeder- a representative of the local princely administration of the 13th-15th centuries, whom the population was obliged to support (“feed”) during the entire period of service. The princes sent boyars to cities and volosts as governors, giving them also the right to collect taxes in their favor. As a result of the zemstvo reform of 1555-1556. the feeding system was eliminated, and the government converted fees for the maintenance of feeders into a special tax in favor of the treasury.

Corruption- use by officials of their official position for the purpose of personal enrichment.

Cosmopolitanism- the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of the narrow framework of national patriotism and the praise of one’s originality, the isolation of one’s national culture. The term was used by the Stalinist regime to persecute “rootless cosmopolitans” accused of “kowtowing” to the West.

Red Guard- armed detachments, consisting mainly of workers from industrial cities of Russia, formed since March 1917, were the military force of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution of 1917, in March 1918 joined the Red Army (Workers' and Peasants' Red Army - RKKA, official name of the Soviet armed forces from 1918 to 1946).

Serfdom- a system of non-economic dependence in which a person is deprived of the right or opportunity to freely dispose of himself, choose his place of residence, move, determine his occupation, manage the results of his activities, move from one social state to another, etc.

Serfdom- a set of legal norms that establish the most complete and severe form of peasant dependence. Includes a ban on peasants leaving their land plots (that is, the attachment of peasants to the land or the “fortress” of peasants to the land; runaways are subject to forced return), hereditary subordination of the administrative and judicial power of a certain feudal lord, deprivation of peasants of the right to alienate land plots and acquire real estate, and sometimes the possibility for a feudal lord to alienate peasants without land.

Serfs- farmers attached to the land and a certain landowner were considered his personal property, subject to purchase and sale and even deprivation of life.

Fortress- a written document on the ownership of a peasant, serf, property.

Cross-dome structure- architectural structures, most often temples, the plan of which is built on the principle of central symmetry in the shape of a Greek cross with a large dome in the center.

Peasants- in the XIII-XIV centuries. the name of rural and urban residents, from the 15th century. - a generalized name for rural residents only, in contrast to the previous division (people, smerds).

Mutual responsibility- guarantee of all members of the community for the performance of service, payment of taxes, etc.

Cult of personality- exaltation of the role of one person, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, when a person replaces the leadership of the party, eliminates democracy, and establishes a dictatorial regime. The sources of the cult of personality are rooted in both objective and subjective conditions.

Koopa- in Ancient Rus', a cash or in-kind loan issued to someone by a usurer or landowner on the condition that in order to repay it, the debtor (“purchase”) becomes dependent on his creditor for a certain time and works on his farm, performing various tasks etc.

Lavra- the name of some of the largest male Orthodox monasteries, as a rule, subordinate directly to the patriarch.

Legalization— allowing the activities of previously banned political organizations and parties that come out of hiding and begin to operate legally (openly).

Lend-Lease- a government program under which the United States transferred weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food and other material resources to its allies in the anti-Hitler coalition during the Second World War on loan or lease.

Ladder law- the custom of princely inheritance in Kievan Rus. All Rurik princes were considered brothers (relatives) and co-owners of the entire country, so the eldest in the family sat in Kyiv, the next in importance in smaller cities. They reigned in this order: the elder brother, then those younger in order, then the children of the elder brother, followed by the children of the next brothers, followed by grandchildren in the same order, then great-grandchildren, etc.

Chronicle collection- collection of chronicles.

Chronicle- Old Russian historical works in which events are described by year (year).

Liberal- supporter of progressive views, personal freedom and freedom of enterprise.

Price liberalization— establishment by the authorities of free prices on the market while encouraging private entrepreneurship. Introduced in the Russian Federation on January 2, 1992.

Liberalism- a political movement that advocated parliamentarism, political rights and freedoms, democratization of society, and expansion of entrepreneurship. Rejecting the revolutionary path of change, he sought changes in society through legal means and reforms.

The League of nations- an international organization (1919-1946), founded as a result of the Versailles-Washington system, the main goals of which were: disarmament, prevention of hostilities, ensuring collective security, resolving disputes between countries through diplomatic negotiations, as well as improving the quality of life on the planet.

People- free community peasants.

Magistrate- an estate body of city government in Russia since 1720, initially had administrative and judicial functions. Abolished by judicial reform of 1864

Manifesto— 1) Appeal from public organizations, parties, groups of individuals, of a programmatic nature. 2) An act of supreme power in the form of a solemn address to the people.

Manufactory— large production, based on the division of labor and manual craft techniques.

Marginalized- population groups that have changed their status and have not sufficiently adapted to the new environment.

Marxism- a theory developed by Marx and Engels in the mid-19th century. Marxism proved the inevitable death of capitalism, the role of the proletariat and the victory of the socialist revolution, the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism.

Small commodity production- production of goods by artisans - products intended for sale on the market.

Mercantilism- an economic policy based on the predominance of export of goods over import on the principle of “buy cheaper, sell more expensive.” Associated with the policy of protectionism.

Localism- the procedure for appointments to positions according to the nobility of the family and length of service to the Grand Duke.

month- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. a six-day corvee for serfs, primarily courtyard people, deprived of land plots. Remuneration for labor was provided in kind on a monthly basis.

Memorandum- a diplomatic document outlining the essence of an international issue.

Metropolis- a state that has colonies is a metropolis in relation to them.

Militarism- a policy aimed at increasing the military power of the state to solve internal and external problems by military means.

Ministry- the central executive body in charge of individual sectors of the economy or certain areas of public life (culture, education, etc.). In Russia, ministries were formed by the Decree of Alexander I in 1802 instead of collegiums.

Metropolitan- one of the highest ranks of Christian church hierarchy. From the end of the 10th century. and before the establishment of the patriarchate, the metropolitan headed the church organization in Rus'. Until the middle of the 15th century. The Russian Metropolis was one of the provinces of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

Conciliator- an official in Russia during the period of the peasant reform of 1861, appointed from among the nobles to approve charter documents and resolve disputes between peasants and landowners.

Modernization— updating, improvement that meets modern requirements and tastes (for example, equipment modernization).

Modernism- a general name for movements in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries that moved away from traditional concepts and advocated a new approach to reflecting existence (expressionism, avant-gardeism, surrealism, futurism, etc.).

Mosaic- images made up of multi-colored pieces of glass or pebbles.

Monarchy- a form of government in which the supreme state power partially or completely belongs to one person - the monarch (king, czar, emperor, duke, sultan, emir, khan, pharaoh, etc.) and is inherited.

Monastery- a religious community that lives separately according to common rules (charter) and runs its own household.

Monopoly- exclusive right to something; a union of capitalists who seized the exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods for market dominance, establishing high monopoly prices regulated by the market. The formation is associated with the development of free competition capitalism into monopoly capitalism in late XIX V. Main forms: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. In Russia, monopolies arose in the 80s. XIX century.

Monotheism— monotheism.

"Moscow—Third Rome"- a theory created by Abbot Philotheus at the beginning of the 16th century, which argued that the center of world Christianity after the fall of the Byzantine Empire moved to Moscow, since Russia remained the only independent Orthodox state, the guarantor of the preservation of the true Christian faith.

Husbands- in the pre-state and early state period - free people.

Allotment- after the reform of 1861, communal or household land peasant property.

Taxes- obligatory payments established by the state, levied on the population.

Naryshkinskoe Baroque- the conventional name of the style of Russian architecture of the late 17th century, which combined the traditions of Russian white stone patterning with new trends in European architecture.

Natural economy- a type of economy in which the products of labor are produced to satisfy needs, and not for sale on the market.

Quiet in kind- payments from peasants to the feudal lord in the form of natural products.

Nazism- one of the names of German fascism, derived from the name of the National Socialist Party of Germany (Nazi), which operated in 1919-1945. led by Hitler (since 1921), which seized power in 1933 and established a fascist regime. After the defeat of German fascism in World War II, the party was liquidated. Reborn as neo-Nazism.

Nationalization— transfer of private enterprises, land holdings and other sectors of the economy into state ownership.

Nationalism- ideology, politics, as well as psychology in the national question. It is based on the ideas of national exclusivity and national superiority, which receive greater or lesser development depending on the historical situation, on the relationship of a given nation with others.

Nation- a historical community of people, the characteristic features of which are a common language, territory, culture, awareness of a common historical destiny.

Negotiant- a wholesale merchant, businessman conducting large-scale trade deals mainly with other countries.

Non-covetous people- adherents of the religious-political movement at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, who preached the need for the church to abandon “acquisition” (acquisition of land and property values) as contrary to the gospel principles. Ideologists: Nil Sorsky, Vassian Kosoy and others.

New political thinking— a new philosophical and political concept, the main provisions of which included: rejection of the principle of socialist internationalism and recognition of the priority of universal human values ​​over class, national, ideological, religious and others; declaration of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; recognition of the world as whole and indivisible.

Nomenclature- a circle of officials selected on the basis of personal loyalty to the leader and ideological verification. The appointment or approval of officials is the responsibility of a higher authority.

Norman theory- arose in the second quarter of the 18th century. direction in Russian and foreign historiography, whose supporters credited the Normans (Varangians) with creating a state among the Eastern Slavs.

NEP(new economic policy) is an economic policy pursued in Soviet Russia and the USSR in the 1920s, which replaced the policy of “war communism”. The goal is the restoration of the national economy and the subsequent transition to socialism; The main content is the replacement of surplus appropriation with a tax in kind in the countryside, the use of the market and various forms of ownership, the attraction of foreign capital in the form of concessions, and the implementation of monetary reform. A multi-structured economy while maintaining the “commanding heights” (banks, railways, foreign trade, mechanical engineering, mining) in the hands of the state.

White-washed servility- complete slaves in Ancient Rus'. The sources of white servitude were: marriage to a slave, acquisition of slaves. Purchases also became whitewash slaves as punishment for escaping from the master.

quitrent- a form of payment from a dependent peasant to the feudal lord for the use of land in the form of money (monetary) or natural products (natural).

Ognishchanin- manager of the estate.

Okolnichy- the second (after the boyar) duma rank (Boyar Duma) in the Russian state of the 15th-17th centuries, later they head orders and individual branches of government.

Oligarchy- political and economic domination, the power of a small group of people.

Militia- a military formation created for the duration of a war or a military campaign.

Opposition- opposition, resistance, opposition of one’s actions, views, policies to other policies, views, actions. Speaking contrary to the opinion of the majority, with the prevailing attitudes, putting forward one’s own alternative (parliamentary, intra-party opposition, etc.).

Opportunism- opportunism, compromise, unprincipledness.

Oprichnina- a system of measures taken by Ivan IV in 1565-1572. to combat the alleged betrayal of the boyars, which included: the creation of a special territory with a special army, state apparatus, mass repressions, confiscation of land and property.

Horde- a form of community of nomadic peoples that united several clans.

"Horde exit"- tribute to the Golden Horde, which the Baskaks collected with the help of armed detachments.

Orthodox- in the church understanding - corresponding to the official dogmas of the Christian faith.

Workouts- the work of peasants after the abolition of serfdom on the landowner with his tools and livestock for rented land, received a loan.

Youths- junior warriors who accompanied the prince.

Otkhodnichestvo- temporary departure of peasants to work in cities or agricultural work in other areas (it was common in Russia among landowners' quitrent peasants).

Fatherland(votchina) - the hereditary possession of princes.

Pantheon- a set of gods of any religion; temple of all gods.

"Parade of Sovereignties"- the process of collapse of the USSR, which entailed the formation of new states in the post-Soviet space; tendency towards isolation of some former units RSFSR from the common center.

Parsuna- a conventional name for works of Russian portraiture of the 17th century.

Patriarch- the highest clergy in Orthodoxy, the head of an independent (autocephalous) church, elected by the church council. Established in the Russian Orthodox Church in 1589.

Pacifism- an international anti-war movement opposing all wars.

Parchment- writing material made from the skin of domestic animals - small and large livestock.

The Wanderers- Russian artists who were members of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, created by I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov in 1870.

Perestroika- the policy of perestroika implied the introduction of structural and organizational changes to economic, social, political mechanisms, as well as ideology in order to achieve the same acceleration of social development

Tribe- a type of ethnic community and social organization of the era of the primitive communal system (several clans living together in the same territory, speaking the same language and connected by common customs, a single leader, traditions and religious cult).

Pluralism- a concept according to which various parties, trade unions, churches, business and other organizations interact in society while observing democratic norms of tolerance, mutual respect, and non-violence as a means to achieve a goal.

"Graveyards"- specific places where tribute (tax) was to be brought within a specified period, as well as the name of the administrative units from which a certain amount of tax was levied.

Swidden farming system- a primitive management system in which trees in a forest area were cut down and left to dry on the root, and then uprooted and burned. The site was used until it was completely depleted, and then a new one was cleared. It demanded collective farming by the entire clan and even the tribe.

Capitation tax- in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. basic direct tax. Replaced household taxes in 1724. The poll tax was imposed on all men of the tax-paying classes, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80-90s. XIX century

Elderly- a monetary fee from peasants when they transfer from one owner to another, established by the Law Code of 1497.

Polytheism- polytheism, worship of many gods.

Regiments of the “foreign system”(regiments of the “new system”) - military units formed in Russia in the 17th century. on the model of Western European armies. Mainly cavalry: reitar and dragoon.

Polyudye- a tour by the prince and his retinue of the territories (tribes) under his control in order to collect tribute.

Estate- a form of feudal land tenure in Russia in the 14th-17th centuries, based on the conditional right to dispose of property. Estates were given to their owners (nobles) on the condition of performing military service in favor of the overlord - first the Grand Duke, then the Tsar. By the beginning of the 18th century. the legal status of the estate merges with the estate, so that their owners acquire all the rights of unconditional disposal of the property.

Landowners- a new type of nobles that arose in the 13th-14th centuries, allocated land (estate) under certain conditions (most often on the condition of military service).

Posad- the trade and craft part of the Russian city, inhabited by merchants and artisans.

Posadnik- elected official in ancient Russian city-republics (Novgorod, Pskov), head of executive power, city administration.

Possessional peasants- in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. a category of peasants who belonged to private enterprises in which they worked.

Pososhnoye- in the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. state land tax on plows, yam, pyatinny, polonyany money and other fees. Replaced by household tax.

Pososhny people- in the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. temporary service people recruited through conscription (staff) from the draft population. Used in infantry and military construction work.

"Amusing Troops"- squads of young people created in the early 80s. XVII century for the “war fun” of Tsar Peter. At the end of the 17th century. from them the Guards Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments were formed.

Preemptive strike- a preemptive attack on a potential enemy.

Privilege- special rights or benefits.

Orders- central government bodies in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries; local authorities of the palace administration in the 16th-17th centuries; names of streltsy regiments in the 16th-17th centuries.

Assigned peasants- in Russia in the 17th - first half of the 19th centuries. state, palace peasants who, instead of paying the poll tax, worked at state-owned and private factories, i.e., attached (assigned) to them.

Provinces- administrative-territorial units in Russia in 1719-1775. within the province, they were divided into shares and districts.

Food detachment(food detachment) - during the period of war communism, an armed detachment that participated in food appropriation. The food detachments consisted mainly of workers, soldiers and sailors.

Prodrazverstka(food appropriation) - a system of procurement of agricultural products in the Soviet state in 1919-1921, an element of the policy of “war communism”: mandatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (above established standards for personal and economic needs) of bread and other products. With the introduction of NEP (1921), it was replaced by the tax in kind.

Producing farm- a type of economy whose goal is to create wealth.

Industrial Revolution- a leap in the development of productive forces associated with the transition from manufacture to machine production and the formation of two main classes of the new capitalist society - the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

Enlightened absolutism- the name of the policy of the second half of the 18th century. in Russia, aimed at the destruction and transformation of the most outdated feudal institutions; depicted the activities of the monarch as a union of philosophers and sovereigns and was aimed at strengthening the dominance of the nobility.

Protectorate- one of the forms of dependence of economically and politically weak states on large ones; a country that has received the state-legal status of a protectorate from a protector country (“patron”) transfers to the protector state the right to determine its foreign policy and represent it in foreign relations. A protectorate was usually established as a result of unequal treaties imposed on a weak state, which led to the complete or partial deprivation of this state of independence not only in external, but also in internal affairs.

Protectionism— state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreigners by strengthening exports and limiting imports, high customs duties and a number of other measures.

Putsch- actions of a group of conspirators to carry out a coup d'etat.

glad- the council of the highest nobility under the Grand Duke of Lithuania, as well as the people's assembly in Lithuania and Poland.

Raznochintsy- in Russia at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. inter-class category of the population, people from different classes (legally this category was not formalized).

Split- a socio-religious movement that arose in the middle of the 17th century, as a result of which there was a separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of a part of believers who did not recognize the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon (1653-1656) and broke with the official church.

Raskolniki- the official name of supporters of the Old Believers in Russia.

Ratification— approval by the supreme body of state power of an international treaty signed by an authorized representative of the state, as well as international conventions.

Rat- Russian army.

Rehabilitation- restoration of rights, return of a good name, reputation of an incorrectly accused, defamed person.

Reaction- active resistance in politics to the development of social progress to preserve and strengthen outdated social orders.

Revolution- deep, qualitative changes in society, economics, worldview, science, culture, etc. Social revolution is the most acute form of struggle between new and old, obsolete social relations with sharply aggravated political processes, when the type of power changes, the winners come to leadership revolutionary forces, new socio-economic foundations of society are established.

Regency- in monarchical states, temporary collegial (regency council) or individual (regent) exercise of the powers of the head of state in the event of infancy, illness, or incapacity of the monarch.

Redoubt- field fortification, a place surrounded by a ditch and rampart.

Residence— residence of a high-ranking official.

Requisition- forced, gratuitous seizure of property into the ownership or temporary use of the state.

Recruitment duty- a method of recruiting the Russian regular army in the 18th-19th centuries. Tax-paying classes (peasants, burghers, etc.) were subject to recruit duty, which nominated from their communities certain number recruits. In 1874 it was replaced by universal conscription.

Craft- production of various goods by artisans - craftsmen.

Reparations- compensation by the defeated state for damage to the victorious state.

Repression(political) - punishment, a punitive measure applied by government agencies in order to protect and preserve the existing system. Any political repression are a manifestation of political violence; an important element of control in totalitarian and authoritarian regimes.

Republic- a form of government in which supreme power belongs to representatives elected by the population.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth- the traditional name of the Polish state since the end of the 15th century. A special form of class monarchy headed by an elected king (from the time of the Union of Lublin in 1569, which finally united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, until 1795), the official name of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

Tribal community- a settlement of people related to each other by blood ties and leading a joint household on the basis of collective property.

Russification— the forced introduction of the Russian language and Russian traditions into the national outskirts of Russia.

Russophobia- contemptuous attitude towards the Russian people, their history and culture.

"Russian Truth"- the first written code of laws in Kievan Rus.

Row- treaty, agreement in Ancient Rus'.

Ryadovichi- in Ancient Rus', persons who served landowners according to a series (agreement), as a rule, became dependent on him for a monetary debt, assistance with seeds or tools, forced to work part of their time for the master; close to purchasing.

Autocracy- an unlimited monarchical form of government of the Russian Tsar (Emperor), which finally took shape by the beginning of the 18th century.

Secret committees- in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. temporary government institutions created during the reign of Nicholas I to discuss projects for various reforms, and in 1857-1858. — projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Secularization- transformation of church property into state property.

Seven Boyars- Russian government after the overthrow of V. Shuisky in 1610

Separate peace- a peace treaty or truce concluded with the enemy by one of the states included in the coalition of countries waging war, without the knowledge or consent of its allies.

Symbolism- philosophical concepts built on the basis of the interpretation of the concept of symbol as the fundamental basis of the connection between being, thinking, personality and culture. In a narrow sense, it is an aesthetic direction and artistic style in European culture from the 1880s to the 1920s.

Synod- the highest state governing body, created by Peter I in 1721, united the highest church hierarchs, headed by a civil official appointed by the emperor (chief prosecutor), was in charge of the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church: was involved in the interpretation of religious dogmas, supervision of the observance of rituals, issues of spiritual censorship and enlightenment, fought against “heretics” and “schismatics.”

Slavophiles- representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century, substantiated and approved a special path of historical development of Russia, different from Western Europe. Leaders of the Slavophiles: S. Khomyakov, I. V. Kireevsky, P. V. Kireevsky, K. S. Aksakov, I. S. Aksakov, Yu. F. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev. Western culture was criticized for the ideas of individualism, the contractual nature of social relations, and imperfect regulation social life, departure from the true faith (Orthodoxy).

Sloboda- type of settlements in feudal Russia, the first mentions date back to the 9th century; in the XII - 1st half of the XIV century. settlements are individual settlements, including those near a fortified city, or a group of settlements, sometimes an entire district, whose residents were exempt from taxes and duties that fell on the burdensome population.

Service people- in the Russian state of the XIV-XVIII centuries. persons in public service. From the middle of the 16th century. were divided into service people according to “fatherland” (boyars, nobles, boyar children), who owned land with peasants, had legal privileges, held leadership positions in the army and government, and service people according to “device” (streltsy, gunners, city Cossacks and etc.) from peasants and townspeople who received cash and grain salaries and were exempt from state taxes and duties.

Change leadership- a socio-political trend among the Russian bourgeois intelligentsia in 1920-1922, which meant a turn of some part of the intelligentsia from the fight against Soviet power to its actual recognition. The ideologists of Smenovekhovism counted on the degeneration of Soviet power under the conditions of NEP.

Smerda- communal peasants in Ancient Rus' (free, then personally dependent).

Time of Troubles/Time of Troubles(the term was introduced by the writer G.K. Kotoshikhin in the middle of the 17th century) - the period from 1598 (the year of the death of Fedor Ivanovich) to 1613 (the election of Mikhail Fedorovich by the Zemsky Sobor), marked by natural disasters, the Polish-Swedish intervention, the most difficult political , economic, government and social crisis.

Adviсe- elected political organizations that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. as Soviets of Workers' Deputies, Soviets of Peasants' Deputies, Soviets of Soldiers' (Sailors') Deputies. In the February Revolution of 1917, there were Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which in 1918 merged with the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies.

Neighborhood (territorial) community- a settlement of people not related by blood, based on a community of economic interests and jointly owning land, but conducting individual farming.

Estate- a group of people with the same rights and responsibilities that are inherited.

Estate monarchy- a form of state in which the power of the monarch was combined with the bodies of class representation of the nobles, clergy, and townspeople. Estate monarchy preceded absolutism.

Hundreds- merchant associations (corporations).

Sokha- a unit of taxation in Russia in the 13th-17th centuries, from which the state land tax was collected - pososhnoe. Originally measured by the quantity of labor. From the middle of the 16th century. The “big plow” consisted of one or another number of quarters of land (plow letter). In 1679, the taxation was replaced by household taxation.

Elder- the elected head of the community, who ensured order and fair distribution within the clan or tribe.

Old Believers- a set of religious groups and churches in Russia that did not accept the church reforms of the 17th century. and became oppositional or hostile to the official Orthodox Church.

Headman- in the 16th - early 20th centuries. an elected official to lead small administrative-territorial units or public groups (headman of a provincial, rural, artel, etc.).

Head of the lip- an elective position introduced by Ivan III in order to limit the powers of governors - feeders. The functions of the governor are to maintain public order and conduct legal proceedings in criminal cases.

Zemstvo elder- an elective position introduced by Ivan IV in 1555 instead of governors - feeders in order to eliminate pockets of princely separatism and strengthen the central government. The main functions of the zemstvo elder: collection of taxes, legal proceedings in criminal cases. The zemstvo elder had a staff of assistants, as well as kissers.

Strategy- part of the art of war that deals with the preparation, planning and conduct of war.

Sagittarius- in the 16th - early 18th centuries. - a standing army armed with firearms. Created in 1540-1560. based on orders of squeakers.

Code of Law- the name of the code of laws in the 15th-16th centuries.

"Table of Ranks"- the law on the procedure for civil service, finally approved by Peter I in 1724. The “Table of Ranks” unified and systematized the administrative service according to the principle not of origin, nobility of the family, but of service suitability and merit.

Tactics- part of the art of war, strategy; the art of commanding troops during battle.

customs duty(duty) - a fee collected by the state for transporting foreign goods across the border.

Shadow economy- a term denoting all types economic activity, not taken into account by official statistics and not included in GNP (gross national product).

Terror- violent actions with the aim of intimidating, suppressing political opponents, competitors, imposing a certain line of behavior.

Tiun- a servant who managed a boyar or princely household.

TOZ- partnership for joint cultivation of land, a form of agricultural cooperation in the 1920s; reorganized into collective farms.

Totalitarianism— a political regime seeking complete (total) state control over all aspects of society; a form of relationship between society and government, in which political power takes complete (total) control of society, forming a single whole with it, completely controlling all aspects of human life

Trekhpolye- a farming system in medieval Rus', when arable land was divided into three plots, of which only one was sown annually (in turn), and the other two remained untouched in order to restore soil fertility.

Trizna- part of the funeral rite of the Eastern Slavs during the pagan period (until the 11th century), accompanied by war games, dances, songs, and a feast. After Christianization, it was preserved in the form of funeral songs and feasts.

Tushino camp- the residence of False Dmitry II, the “nominated patriarch” Philaret, located in the village of Tushino near Moscow in 1608-1610.

Tysyatsky- in Novgorod he was the closest assistant to the mayor, in charge of trade and taxes. He is also the elected leader of the city militia.

"Thousand"- city militia.

Tax- the totality of all monetary and in-kind duties of peasants and townspeople in favor of the state, hence the “duty peasants” - “black-growing” and privately owned, who paid state taxes and bore duties in favor of the state (participation in various public works).

Destiny- land, part of the state, which the prince allocated to his sons or relatives.

Specific period- an era of fragmentation, when the possessions of the princes began to separate from a single state.

Counties- territorial units of the Russian state of the 16th century.

Stacked commission- a temporary collegial body convened by Catherine II with the aim of creating a new Code (code of laws) of 1767-1768.

Unitary state- a form of government in which the territory of the state does not include federal units (states, lands), but is divided into administrative-territorial units (districts, regions).

Union- the unification of two monarchical states by a common monarch or the unification of churches.

Lessons— tax rates (tribute) introduced by Princess Olga.

Summer lessons- in the XVI-XVII centuries. periods (5- and 15-years) during which landowners could bring a claim for the return of fugitive serfs. The “Conciliar Code” of 1649 established an indefinite investigation, which meant the legal registration of serfdom.

strife(civil strife) - wars between princes for the grand-ducal throne.

Accelerating socio-economic development— an attempt to bring the country out of the systemic crisis and correct the economic situation of the country. The main acceleration factors were to be scientific and technological progress, technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering, and on this basis of the entire national economy, and also the activation of the “human factor”.

constituent Assembly- a representative institution created on the basis of universal suffrage to establish the form of government and develop a constitution for Russia.

Favorite- a person who enjoys the favor of the ruler (influential person), who has received privileges and exerts influence.

Favoritism- orders in which everything is determined by the influence of favorites. In Russia, favoritism flourished during the era of palace coups (1725-1762).

Fascism- the most reactionary political movement that arose in capitalist countries (Italy, Germany) in 1920-1930. The policies of fascism are characterized by: terrorist dictatorship, the use of extreme forms of violence, chauvinism, racism, anti-communist ideology, the elimination of democratic freedoms, and the use of state-monopoly methods of regulating the economy. At the end of the 1930s. distributed in Portugal, Spain and several countries in Eastern Europe.

Federation- a form of government in which the state forms federal units - subjects. In the Russian Federation, according to the Constitution of 1993, the subjects (89 units of the federation) are republics within Russia, territories, regions, cities of federal significance (Moscow, St. Petersburg), autonomous regions and autonomous districts.

Feud- a hereditary possession granted by the prince-senior to his vassal, who is obliged to perform court and military service for this.

Feudal lord- the owner of a fief, a landowner who exploited the peasants dependent on him.

Feudal fragmentation- a period in the history of feudalism, a natural process of isolation of individual lands led by princes claiming political independence, during which the power of the supreme ruler significantly weakened.

Feudal rent- one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor (corvée), food (in-kind rent) and cash. It was finally abolished in 1881.

Fiscal- in 1711-1729 a civil servant to supervise the activities of government agencies and officials.

Fusee- flintlock gun.

Futurism- a movement in literature and art of the early 20th century that sought to create “the art of the future” that denied traditional culture.

"Going to the People"- a mass movement of democratic youth into the countryside in Russia in the 1870s. The slogan “To the people!” put forward by A. I. Herzen in connection with the student unrest of 1861. In the 1860s - early 1870s. Attempts to get closer to the people and revolutionary propaganda among them were made by members of “Land and Freedom”, the Ishutin circle, the “Ruble Society”, and the Dolgushins.

Cost accounting(economic calculation) - a method of planned economic management in the USSR, which consisted in comparing the costs of production with the results of economic activity on the basis of self-sufficiency (expenses are reimbursed by income), self-financing, self-government.

"Cold War"- the state of military-political confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States and its allies, on the other, in the period from 1946 to 1991. Signs " cold war": arms race, organization of military-political blocs opposing each other, creation of military-strategic bases and bridgeheads, widespread use of economic pressure measures (embargo, economic blockade, etc.).

Tsar- in Russia in 1547-1721. official title of the head of state.

Kissers- an elective position in the Russian state at the end of the 15th-18th centuries, which participates in the court of governors and volosts. There were three types of tselovalniks: 1) customs and tavern ones with heads, 2) labial ones with labial elders, 3) zemstvo ones with zemstvo elders. As a result of Peter's reforms, provincial and zemstvo institutions were liquidated, and in 1754 internal customs taxation was liquidated. Only tavern kissers are preserved. Later, sellers of state-owned wine shops were called kissers.

Centralized State- a state in which political (gathering together lands with common legislation and central government bodies) and economic (forming a single market) unification around a strong central government takes place. There is a narrowing of the powers of local authorities, their strict subordination to the central ones. In Russia, the process of developing a centralized state began in the second half of the 15th century. and ends at the end of the 17th century.

Petition- request, complaint, denunciation in writing (paperwork of the 15th - early 18th centuries).

Servants- household: women, children, servants, slaves.

"Human factor"— a specific designation of human functioning in the system of social, economic, industrial, scientific, technical, organizational, managerial and other relations; everything that relates to a person as a subject of activity in various spheres of public life. During the period of perestroika, the successful solution of the problems of the country’s socio-economic development, the qualitative renewal of society is associated with an increase in the role of the “human factor”, as an inexhaustible reserve of such development, a decisive factor in all changes.

Striped- a system of peasant use of landowner land, in which the peasant allotment was not concentrated in one place, but consisted of strips distant from each other. It was liquidated as a result of agrarian reforms (1906-1911).

Black Hundreds(black hundred) - 1) In Muscovite Rus' - part of the urban population, which included small traders and industrialists who were not included in the highest ranks (hundreds) of merchants (i.e., merchant, cloth, etc.). 2) Extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1907, consisting of different strata of society (from lumpen to nobles) and speaking from the positions of monarchism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”), were aimed at fighting with the revolutionary movement, carried out pogroms against Jews, dispersing rallies and demonstrations.

Black-nosed peasants- personally free peasants owned by the state.

Black lands- the possessions of black-growing peasants and the tax-paying urban population in the XIV-XVII centuries. From the beginning of the 18th century. began to be called “state” (state) lands.

"Black" people- the general name of the urban and rural population in the XII-XVII centuries, who bore taxes in favor of the state.

"Black redistribution"- an organization of populists that arose in St. Petersburg after the split of “Land and Freedom” (1879). They advocated an equal division of land between peasants according to labor standards, and for communal socialism; They rejected terror tactics and leaned towards propaganda. Leaders: G. V. Plekhanov, P. B. Axelrod, V. I. Zasulich.

Serif strokes- a system of defensive structures on the southern and south-eastern outskirts of the Russian state in the 16th-17th centuries. to repel the raids of the Nogai and Crimean Tatars. They consisted of fences, ramparts, ditches and palisades. They had strongholds - forts and fortified cities. In the 18th century border fortified lines were formed.

Number- taxation system in the XIII-XV centuries. in the territories subject to the Mongolian state and the Golden Horde (China, Central Asia, Iran, North-Eastern Rus', etc.). Based on a census (count, "number") of the population. Taxes were levied on a per capita basis, in proportion to the payer's property.

Extraordinary commissions(Cheka) - commissions to combat counter-revolution, sabotage and profiteering (1918-1922), were local bodies (provincial, district, transport, army), subordinate to the Cheka (All-Russian Extraordinary Committee). The main methods of struggle: confiscation of property, expulsion from Russia, confiscation of food cards, judicial repression, etc.

Chauvinism- a policy consisting in preaching national exclusivity. Expresses false patriotism and excessive national pride.

Evacuation- withdrawal of troops, military equipment, enterprises, institutions from places under threat during a war, natural disaster or from areas intended for economic transformations.

Eclecticism- in art, a combination of incompatible, various alien phenomena in one artistic image.

Extensive- directed not in depth, but in breadth. The term means increase, quantitative expansion, not qualitative.

Ethnos- a historically emerged type of stable social community of people, represented by a tribe, nationality, nation.

Ethnogenesis- the process of formation of an ethnic community (ethnos) on the basis of various ethnic components.

St. George's Day- a single period (a week before November 26 and a week after) for the transfer of peasants from one owner to another, established by the Code of Law of 1497.

Language family- unification of related languages.

Paganism- religious beliefs, which are characterized by polytheism (polytheism) and the deification of objects and animals (fetishism and totemism).

Label- the khan's charter for reign, which gave the Russian princes the right to rule in their lands. It is also a khan’s charter to church hierarchs for certain rights.

Fair- auctions organized periodically (1-2 times a year) in one established place.

Yasak- a tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia consisted mainly of furs, therefore the population (the so-called foreigners) subject to such a tax was called “yasak” people. In the 17th century they became personally free.

Here is all the terminology that you will need when taking the history test - questions on the terms are in parts A and B.

The material is great. For convenience, all terms are arranged not only in alphabetical order, but also in accordance with the chronological period.

Empire is a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, the Empire style absorbed the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.

Anarchists are a political philosophy encompassing theories and views that advocate the elimination of all coercive government and the power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different directions of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from secondary to fundamental ones (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, and the ethno-national issue). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.

Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore in France the monarchical Bourbon dynasty, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In the scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called “anti-revolutionary,” and starting with the third, “anti-Napoleonic.” At various times, coalitions included Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.

Great reforms of the 1860-1870s. – bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856), which began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). Great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), city reform (1870), judicial reform (1864), and military reform (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the field of finance, education, and the press and affected all spheres of life of Russian society.

Military settlements were a special organization of the armed forces in 1810-1857, combining combat service with housekeeping. Some state peasants were transferred to the position of military peasants. The villagers combined agricultural work with military service. It was expected that over time the entire army would be transferred to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment, and save the mass of state peasants from conscription, essentially turning them into free people. Alexander I hoped in this way to take another step towards the abolition of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulation, turned into hard labor. The settlements and A.A., who was in charge of their organization. The Arakcheevs were universally hated. The villagers rebelled several times. The largest uprising was the uprising of the Chuguev and Taganrog settlement regiments in 1819.

The Eastern Question is a designation accepted in diplomacy and historical literature for international contradictions in the 18th – early 20th centuries associated with the emerging collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.

Temporarily obligated peasants are peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to fulfill their previous duties in favor of the landowner before switching to redemption.

Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906. redemption by peasants from landowners of land plots provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landowners the ransom amount for the land, and peasants who were in debt to the state had to repay this debt over 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of quitrent that peasants paid to landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to collect more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, receiving about 700 million rubles. income.

Ghazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam there is a holy war for faith, against infidels (those who do not believe in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).

The State Council is the highest legislative institution. Transformed in January 1810 from the Permanent Council in accordance with the “Plan of State Transformations” by M. M. Speransky. He did not have legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted to him for consideration by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, budgets, reports of ministries, some higher administrative issues and special judicial cases).

The Decembrists were participants in the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.

Clergy - ministers of worship in monotheistic religions; persons professionally engaged in the performance of religious rites and services and constituting special corporations. In the Orthodox Church, the clergy is divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the 19th century, they were a privileged class of Russian society, exempt from corporal punishment, compulsory service and poll tax.

Westerners - the direction of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path and opposed the Slavophiles. Westerners fought against the “theory of official nationality,” criticized serfdom and autocracy, and put forward a project for the liberation of peasants with land. The main representatives are V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin and others.

The zemstvo movement is a liberal-opposition social and political activity of zemstvo councilors and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and involving them in government. It manifested itself in the submission of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, holding illegal meetings and congresses, and publishing brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: “Conversation”, “Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists”, “Union of Liberation”. Prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Peter D. Dolgorukov, P.A. Geyden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of the political parties of Cadets and Octobrists, the zemstvo movement ceased.

Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the zemstvo reform of 1864. In charge of education, healthcare, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and governors, who had the right to repeal zemstvo decisions.

Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of shares of the crop. It was a form transitional from feudal land lease to capitalist.

Imamate is the general name for a Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of the murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in the end. 20s XIX century during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonialist policy of tsarism.

Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.

Counter-reforms of the 1880s – the name of the activities of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, revision of the reforms of the 1860s: restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), introduction of class principles in primary and secondary schools, abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), introduction of the institute zemstvo chiefs (1889), establishment of bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.

The Corps of Gendarmes is a police force that has a military organization and performs functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. The corps of gendarmes served as political police.

Petty bourgeois - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917, a tax-paying class of former townspeople - artisans, small traders and homeowners. They united at the place of residence into communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, by law they could be subjected to corporal punishment.

Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegiums. The purpose of the reform was to restructure the central authorities based on the principle of unity of command. Initially, eight ministries were created: Military Ground Forces (from 1815 - Military), Naval Forces (from 1815 - Naval), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also under Alexander I there were the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or more comrades (deputies).

Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the mountaineers North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of muridism was its combination of religious teachings and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against the “infidels” (i.e., non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism presupposed the complete and unquestioning subordination of its followers to their mentors - the Murshids. Muridism was led by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave greater organization to the struggle of the Caucasian mountaineers.

Populists are representatives of an ideological movement among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the position of “peasant socialism” against serfdom and capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal populists ). Founders: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of “peasant socialism”), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious trend), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda trend), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial trend). The revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs).

Neo-Russian style is a direction in Russian architecture of the late 19th century. – 1910s, which used motifs of ancient Russian architecture with the aim of reviving the national identity of Russian culture. It is characterized not by exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by generalization of motifs, creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style allow us to consider it as a national-romantic movement within the framework of the Art Nouveau style. V. M. Vasnetsov (facade of the Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F. O. Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky Station, 1902-1904), A. V. Shchusev (Marfo-Mariinsky Cathedral, 1908-1912) worked in this style.

Nihilism - in the 1860s. a movement in Russian social thought that denied the traditions and foundations of noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.

The Patriotic War of 1812 was the liberation war of Russia against the army of Napoleon I. Caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, Russia’s refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.

Labor - in post-reform Russia, a system of peasants cultivating the land of the landowners with their own implements for rented land (mainly for sections), loans of bread, money, etc. A relic of the corvée economy.

Cut-offs are part of the peasant plots that went to the landowners as a result of the reform of 1861 (the reduction of plots was carried out if their size exceeded the norm established for the given area).

The Peredvizhniki were artists who were members of the Russian art association, the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. They turned to depicting the everyday life and history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, and exposing social orders. The ideological leaders of the Wanderers were I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov. Main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; Among the Peredvizhniki there were also artists from Ukraine, Lithuania, and Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Peredvizhniki joined the AHRR.

The Petrashevites were participants in the evenings held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, problems of restructuring autocratic politics and serfdom were discussed. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the circle participants were writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to achieve the implementation of their plans by force, for which they created a secret society and began issuing proclamations. However, it was not possible to fulfill the plan. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of execution, it was replaced by hard labor. The convicted Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.

Poll tax - in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced household taxation. The poll tax was imposed on all men of the tax-paying classes, regardless of age.

Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual labor to machine labor and, accordingly, from manufactory to factory. It requires a developed market of free labor, therefore it cannot be fully accomplished in a feudal country.

Commoners - people from different classes: clergy, peasantry, merchants, philistines - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, they are carriers of revolutionary democratic views.

Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality using specific means inherent in one or another type of artistic creativity. In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes on specific forms of certain creative methods (enlightenment realism, critical, socialist).

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement in the culture of the late 18th – 1st half. XIX century Reflecting disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism contrasted the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with the aspiration for unlimited freedom, the thirst for perfection and renewal, and the idea of ​​personal and civil independence. The painful discord between a fictional ideal and cruel reality is the basis of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often its idealization), traditions of folklore and culture of one’s own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, fine arts).

The Russian Empire is the name of the Russian state from 1721 to September 1, 1917.

Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (otherwise known as neo-Russian, false Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and representing a synthesis of the traditions of ancient Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements of Byzantine culture. Russian-Byzantine architecture is characterized by the borrowing of a number of compositional techniques and motifs of Byzantine architecture, most clearly embodied in the “model projects” of churches by Konstantin Ton in the 1840s. As part of this direction, Thon built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.

The Holy Alliance is a treaty concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative to create the Holy Alliance belonged to the Russian Emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states joined this treaty, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. The Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Alliance developed the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of forcibly suppressing any national and revolutionary movements.

Slavophiles are representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, who proceeded from the position of the fundamental difference between Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia’s mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They polemicized both with Westerners and with the “theory of official nationality.” In contrast to the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nicholas autocracy, etc. The main representatives: the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, A. I. Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, A. S. Khomyakov.

Estates are social groups that have rights and responsibilities enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The class organization of society, which usually includes several classes, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia from the second half of the 18th century. The class division into nobility, clergy, peasantry, merchants, and burghers was established. Officially, estates in Russia were abolished in 1917.

Social Democrats are a direction in the socialist and labor movement that advocates a transition to a socially just society through reforming the bourgeois one. In Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. Marxism became most widespread. In 1883, the “Emancipation of Labor” group was created in Geneva (V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deitch, V.N. Ignatov, G.V. Plekhanov), the main task of which its members considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class” was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. Ulyanov, G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, N.K. Krupskaya, Yu.O. Martov), ​​which was engaged in illegal propaganda activities in the working environment, organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP(b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP(b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The theory of official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education S.S. Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.”

Appanage peasants are a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia at the end of the 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on appanage lands and belonged to the imperial family. They carried duties mainly in the form of quitrents. In 1863, the basic provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the appanage peasants, and they received ownership of part of the appanage lands for compulsory redemption.

A factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and division of labor.

“Going to the People” is a mass movement of radical populist youth in the countryside, aimed at promoting socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of ​​“going to the people” belongs to A.I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the “Bell,” addressed this call to student youth. It began in the spring of 1873, reaching its greatest extent in the spring and summer of 1874 (covering 37 provinces of Russia). The Lavrists aimed to propagate the ideas of socialism, while the Bakunists tried to organize mass anti-government protests. By November 1874, over 4 thousand people were arrested, the most active participants were convicted.

Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and the media with the aim of suppressing undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, from 1804 it was regulated by censorship statutes and temporary rules.

Menshevism - arose at the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after opponents of Lenin’s principles of party building found themselves in the minority in the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, they were formally together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the bulk of the Mensheviks took the position of social chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became involved in the struggle against Soviet power.

“World of Art” is a Russian art association. It took shape in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers led by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the magazine “World of Art”, it existed in its original form until 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, - in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910, most of the masters of “M. And." was part of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. And." included many St. Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya. Bilibin, A. Ya. Golovin, I. E. Grabar, K. A. Korovin, B. M. Kustodiev, N. K. Roerich, V. A. Serov and etc.). M. A. Vrubel, I. I. Levitan, M. V. Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists participated in the “World of Art” exhibitions.

Modernism (from the French “newest, modern”) is the general name of trends in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, avant-gardeism, surrealism, dadaism, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to the reflection of existence.

Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.), privately owned (individual, group or joint stock) and exercising control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital with the aim of establishing monopoly prices and extracting monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 d.) in the mining industry. In total, about 200 monopolies existed in Russia during this period.

The Octobrists are members of the right-wing liberal party “Union of October 17th”. It was formed by 1906. The name comes from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. It demanded popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number of members, together with affiliated groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper “Slovo”, “Voice of Moscow”, etc., over 50 in total. The largest faction in the 3rd State Duma, alternately blocked with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 it ceased to exist.

Cut - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - a peasant farm, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.

Progressive Bloc - was created in August 1915 from members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives) with the aim of putting pressure on the government. The association was headed by the left Octobrist S.I. Shidlovsky, but the actual leader was the leader of the cadets P.N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, a declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published with demands for updating the composition of local authorities, ending persecution for religion, releasing certain categories of political prisoners, restoring trade unions, etc. the main objective bloc was to create a government of “public trust” from among representatives of the administration and Duma figures in order to lead the country out of the difficult political and economic situation in which it found itself during the First World War, and to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.

A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of socio-political conditions for revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis at the top,” i.e., the inability of government officials to maintain their dominance unchanged, while it is necessary that the “tops” themselves cannot live in the old way; aggravation, higher than usual, of the needs and misfortunes of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation occurred in the late 50s and early 60s. XIX century was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the aggravation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Reached its climax in 1880-1881. In the conditions of the ensuing reaction after the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. Revolutionary situation at the beginning of the 20th century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution due to the outbreak of World War I. Revolutionary situation in 1916-1917. resulted in the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.

Russian seasons abroad - performances of Russian opera and ballet troupes organized by S. P. Diaghilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. Contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term caught on and became a household word to denote the success of Russian cultural and artistic figures abroad.

Symbolism is a movement in European and Russian art of 1870-1910. Focuses primarily on artistic expression through symbol. Striving to break through visible reality to “hidden realities”, the supra-temporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the symbolists expressed rejection of bourgeoisism and positivism, longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic premonition of world social changes, trust in age-old cultural values ​​as a unifying principle. Main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valery, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M. K. Ciurlionis, M. Vrubel and others.

A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. Syndicate participants retain production, but lose commercial independence.

Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council - in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies of leadership and coordination of the workers’ struggle for their rights on the ground. On an incomparably larger scale, the Soviets were revived during the February (1917) Revolution and, until June 1917, acted as a “second” government opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies operated. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were representative bodies of state power in the center and locally in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 - in the Russian Federation (from 1936 to 1977 - Councils of Working People's Deputies, from 1977 - Soviets people's deputies). Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies became the highest body of state power (until 1991). A distinctive feature of the Soviets was the inseparability of legislative and executive powers.

The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land ownership, which marked a turn in the agrarian-political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of Internal Affairs and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P. A. Stolypin (1862-1911) . Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of November 9, 1906), strengthening the Peasant Bank, forced land management (laws of June 14, 1910 and May 29, 1911) and resettlement policy were aimed at eliminating the shortage of land while maintaining landownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, creation of an additional power base among the wealthy layer of peasants. The reform was disrupted after the assassination of P. A. Stolypin by the Socialist Revolutionary D. Bogrov.

A trust is a form of monopoly in which members of an association lose production and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.

The June 3rd coup was the dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and changes to the electoral law. Considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.

The Triple Alliance was a military-political bloc of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. In 1915, Italy and Türkiye joined.

Trudoviki - a faction of peasant deputies and populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program was close to the program of the People's Socialist Party; it included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of landowners' lands. The printed organ is the newspaper “Working People”. In June 1917 merged with the People's Socialists

According to the Stolypin agrarian reform, a farm is a farm separated from the community along with land and house. Was private property.

The Black Hundreds (from the Old Russian “black hundred” - the taxable townspeople) - members of extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, speaking under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, “Unions of Russians”) people”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the revolution of 1905-1907 they supported the repressive policies of the government, organized pogroms, and organized the murders of a number of political figures. After the February Revolution of 1917, the activities of Black Hundred organizations were prohibited.

Social Revolutionaries (social revolutionaries) - a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. Leader – V.M. Chernov. The tactic is political terror. Left Socialist Revolutionaries - a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917, the left wing of the Socialist Revolutionaries). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Nathanson. Newspapers “Land and Freedom” and “Znamya Truda”. They took part in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). From the beginning of 1918 they were opponents of the Brest Peace Treaty and the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918 they organized an armed uprising, which was suppressed. Separate groups of Left Socialist Revolutionaries operated in Ukraine, Far East, in Turkestan. They ceased operations in 1923.

1917–1920

Annexation (from Latin “annexation”) is the forcible seizure by the winner of part of the territory of the defeated state.

The White Movement is the collective name for political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed Soviet power during the years Civil War. The origin of the term is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of supporters of law and order. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M.V. Alekseev, P.N. Wrangel, A.I. Denikin, A.V. Kolchak, L.G. Kornilov, E.K. Miller, N.N. Yudenich).

White is the name of opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the Civil War.

The Military Revolutionary Committee is the body of the Petrograd Council for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulations on the PVRK were approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks; there were also left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the highest emergency body of state power. Dissolved in December 1917.

The Provisional Government is the central body of state power formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. Existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to October 25 (November 7, 1917). Created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma of 1917 and the Socialist-Revolutionary-Menshevik leadership of the Petrograd Soviet. It was the highest executive and administrative body and also performed legislative functions. Local authorities The authorities of the provisional government were provincial and district commissars.

Second coalition. Provisional Government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for capitalists and 7 for socialists) July 24 (August 6) - August 26 (September 8), 1917

Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) – May 2 (15), 1917

The first coalition Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for capitalists and 6 for socialists) May 5 (18) – July 2 (15), 1917

Third coalition. Provisional Government A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for socialists and 6 seats for capitalists) September 25 (October 8) – October 25 (November 7).

After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the remaining capitalist deputy ministers, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. Based on the forged protocol of August 17 (30), the self-proclaimed Provisional Government issued orders against Soviet power, received up to 40 million rubles from the State Bank, from which it paid salaries to saboteur officials. The underground Provisional Government “operated” until November 16 (29), 1917

VTsIK - All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Councils of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - workers', peasants' and Cossacks' deputies) - a body that exercised general management of the councils during the break between Congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the First Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee took shape at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, the Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 were Left Socialist Revolutionaries). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks and 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Socialist Revolutionaries) were elected. Since the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties have not been elected to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Since January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, people's commissariats to manage individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 – Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 – M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.

VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Crimes in Ex officio; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (resolution of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, “in connection with the transition to peaceful construction” V.I. Lenin proposed reorganizing the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into the State Political Administration (GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.

Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. During the war, the problem of power is solved, which, in turn, must provide a solution to the main vital issues facing the warring parties.

Dual power is the simultaneous existence of two authorities in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917. After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation arose in Russia: two authorities were created at the same time - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Adviсe. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of dual power. The period of struggle between two dictatorships for autocracy.

A decree (from the Latin “decree”) is a normative legal act issued by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees and adopted by the Congresses of Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, “Decrees are instructions calling for mass practical action.”

Dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the liquidation of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, a necessary condition and the main result of its victory. The proletariat uses its power to suppress the resistance of the exploiters and their complete destruction; then power is used for revolutionary changes in all spheres of social life: economics, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of the working people and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry with the leading role of the working class.. In 1917, in Russia, after the implementation of the October Socialist Revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the form of Soviets.

Intervention (from Latin “invasion”) is the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Modern international law considers intervention to be an offence. Intervention can be military, economic, ideological, or carried out in other forms.

“Greens” is the name in Russia during the Civil War for people hiding in the forests who evaded military service. Liquidated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.

Contribution (from Latin “to collect”) - money or other material assets collected after the war from a defeated state by the victorious state, as well as forced monetary collections levied by the authorities from the population in the occupied territory.

Confiscation (from the Latin “to take into the treasury”) is a forced seizure, without compensation by the state, of a private person’s property. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, the lands of landowners, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.

The Kornilov mutiny was an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army of the General Staff, Infantry General L. G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.

The Red Guard attack on capital is a term that characterizes the methods of carrying out socio-economic activities of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of direct expropriation of the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legitimized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, the merchant fleet, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.

Reds is a generalized name for supporters of the Bolsheviks, defenders of Soviet power during the Civil War and military intervention. In a broad sense, it applies to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.

Educational program is the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Massive campaign to teach basic adult literacy in the 1920s and 1930s. As a result of the campaign, by the end of the 30s. The literacy rate in the USSR reached 90%.

Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy into state ownership.

Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. They were created by bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food (part of the Food Army), trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets (procurement, harvesting and procurement, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; the governing body was the Military Food Bureau of the All-Russian Central Council of Trade Unions). We carried out food appropriation in the countryside; acted together with committees of poor people, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the confiscated bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.

Prodrazvyorstka is a system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of “war communism”, established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. It caused discontent among the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, and was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.

Workers' Faculty - workers' faculty. In 1919-1940 a general educational institution in the USSR for preparing young people who did not have a secondary education for higher education; were created at universities (3 years of full-time study, 4 years of evening studies).

Reparations are compensation by a defeated state for damage to the victorious state.

Sabotage is a deliberate failure to fulfill duties or their careless performance.

Sovnarkom - Council of People's Commissars (SNK) is the highest executive and administrative body of state power, the government of the Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8), 1917. Until his death, it was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (in 1946 transformed into the Council of Ministers).

Communist cleanup is voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday April 12, 1919 at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first mass subbotnik on May 10, 1919 on the Moscow-Kazan Railway. Spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, All-Union Leninist communist subbotniks have been held.

Terror (from Latin “fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to and including physical destruction.

The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, intended to establish a form of government and develop a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917. It met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd and after 13 hours of work it was closed at the request of the guard.

Emigration (from Latin “to move, to move out”) is a departure outside the country associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of a given state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, for the purpose of temporary or permanent settlement in the territory of a foreign state. States may allow restoration of citizenship to emigrants.

1920–1930

Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy, which would violate their independence and equality.

Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is in the hands of one person or group of people. Authoritarianism is characterized by a complete or partial absence of political freedoms of citizens and restrictions on the activities of parties and organizations.

Antonovshchina - peasant movement of 1920-1921. in the Tambov province, directed against Soviet power and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the Red Army, sometimes even using gas attacks. In June 1922, Antonov was killed. The abolition of food appropriation in 1921 significantly reduced the number of dissatisfied peasants.

“The Great Turning Point” is Stalin’s expression, which he used to characterize the policy of accelerated industrialization and collectivization of agriculture that began in the late 1920s in the USSR.

GOELRO (short for State Commission for Electrification of Russia) is the first unified state long-term plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V.I. Lenin by the State Commission for Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years and provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Mostly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO - the Volkhov hydroelectric station in the Leningrad region.

GULAG - Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention), in 1934-1956 a division of the NKVD (MVD), which managed the system of forced labor camps (ITL). Special departments of the Gulag united many ITL in different regions of the country: Karaganda ITL (Karlag), Dalstroy NKVD/MVD USSR, Solovetsky ITL (USLON), White Sea-Baltic ITL and the NKVD plant, Vorkuta ITL, Norilsk ITL, etc. The heaviest weapons were installed in the camps conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violation of the regime, mortality from hunger, disease and overwork was extremely high. Prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, Far East and other regions.

Twenty-five thousanders are workers of the industrial centers of the USSR who, at the call of the Bolshevik Party, went to the villages for economic and organizational work in early 1930 during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. The resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks provided for sending 25 thousand people; in fact, 27.6 thousand went.

Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agricultural to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has developed successfully since the late 19th – early 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (from the end of the 20s), industrialization was accelerated by the totalitarian regime using violent methods due to the sharp limitation of the standard of living of the majority of the population and the exploitation of the peasantry.

Collectivization is the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a programmatic setting of the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st Five-Year Plan (1928/29 – 1932/33). By the end of 1932 it was largely completed. By 1936, the collective farm system had fully developed.

Collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the collectivization period of the late 20s - early 30s. XX century They farmed on state land assigned to K. for so-called eternal use. The highest governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects a board headed by a chairman, mostly a protege of local party bodies, district and regional party committees. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the farms by that time had been transformed into state state farms.

The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from various countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with a center in Moscow, essentially became an instrument for implementing the idea of ​​world revolution. Supreme bodies: Congress (the last 7th Congress was held in 1935), Executive Committee (permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor of the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the late 20s. The Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of ​​​​carrying out a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, J.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, “fulfilled its mission.” In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Concession (from Latin “permission, assignment”) is an agreement on the transfer into operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; agreement for the lease of enterprises or plots of land to foreign firms with the right production activities, the enterprise itself organized on the basis of such an agreement.

The cult of personality is a policy that exalts one person, characteristic mainly of a totalitarian regime and promoting the exclusivity of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, ascribing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.

The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, an integral part of socialist transformations. The Cultural Revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.

The League of Nations is an international organization created in 1919. The official goal is to develop international cooperation and guarantee peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. Expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.

Peaceful coexistence is a type of relations between states with different social systems, which presupposes the renunciation of war as a means of resolving controversial issues and their settlement through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition of the right of every people to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.

NEP (new economic policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed in the Soviet republic by 1920. The highest point of dissatisfaction with the current policy of “war communism” was the Kronstadt rebellion. At the X Congress of the RCP(b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin's food appropriation was replaced by a smaller tax in kind. The main elements of this policy: progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 tax in kind), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to rent and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, abolition of the rationing system and rationed supplies, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the New Economic Policy was phased out.

The opposition is an organized group that opposes the ruling elite according to assessments, programs, and policies. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and internal party.

Tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 to replace the surplus appropriation system, was the first act of the new economic policy. Collected from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (significantly below surplus appropriation) taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by a single agricultural tax.

The Five-Year Plan is the period for which centralized economic planning was carried out in the Soviet Union. The five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, at the 21st Congress of the CPSU, a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965 was adopted. Subsequently, five-year plans were adopted again. The last, thirteenth Five-Year Plan was designed for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a market decentralized economy.

Repressions are coercive measures of government influence, including different kinds punishments and legal restrictions applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of persons. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (Red Terror, decossackization). With the beginning of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, repressions became widespread. They reached a particular scale in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to Gulag camps on charges of committing political crimes. Political repression continued with varying degrees of intensity until Stalin's death in March 1953.

Socialist realism is a creative method of literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries of socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of a socialist-conscious concept of the world and man, the depiction of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. Formed initially at the beginning of the 20th century. in the works of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, party spirit and humanism. The sculpture “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by V. Mukhina became a symbol of socialist realism.

The Stakhanov movement was a movement of workers in the USSR for increasing labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of Donbass, and then spread to other industries, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A. G. Stakhanov.

Totalitarianism (from Latin “whole, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, comprehensive state control over all spheres of social life.

Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political trends in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, linked the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921 During the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of “war communism”, nationalization, and militarization of trade unions. Much of what they propagated was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion of 1923-1924. Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of intra-party relations, expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy; they proclaimed the slogans of “dictatorship of industry”, “super-industrialization”. The 13th Party Conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP(b). The XV Party Congress in 1927 declared membership in Trotskyism incompatible with being a member of the party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political movement in the RCP(b) ceased to exist due to the expulsion of L. Trotsky abroad, however, much later, the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious during the years of Stalinist repression.

Shock worker is a Soviet concept that originated during the first five-year plans, denoting a worker who demonstrates increased labor productivity. The shock movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the shock workers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as role models (miner Alexei Stakhanov, locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor driver Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies authorities, etc. The attitude towards shock labor and shock workers among Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activities evoked respect. On the other hand, an increase in the productivity of some workers soon had a negative impact on the earnings of others, since established production standards naturally increased and wage rates decreased.

Federation (from Latin “union, association”) is a form of government in which the federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, unified federal (union) government bodies are formed, a single citizenship, monetary unit, etc. are established.

Cost accounting (economic accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on the comparison of an enterprise’s costs for production with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of expenses and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, everyone working in meeting planned targets and using resources economically. In fact, it means the admission of the principles of a market economy into socialist planned regulated production.

1941–1945

The Anti-Hitler Coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against the aggressive bloc consisting of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The creation of the coalition began in June 1941, when the governments of England and the United States made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Nazi Germany. By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, New Zealand and others took part in the common struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies with their armed forces. Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.

Blitzkrieg is the theory of a fleeting war with victory achieved in the shortest possible time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.

Blockade is the encirclement of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base by land, sea or air with the help of armed forces in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating a state politically or economically, to put pressure on him.

The Great Patriotic War is the war of the Soviet people with Nazi Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name “Great Patriotic War” began to be used in the Russian-language tradition after Joseph Stalin’s radio address on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people during the battles, as well as brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.

The second front is the front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was discovered by the USA and Great Britain in June 1944 with the landing in Normandy (France).

Genocide is the destruction of certain population groups for racial, national or religious reasons.

Deportation (from Latin “expulsion”) - during a period of mass repression, the expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were evicted. In 1989, a Declaration was adopted recognizing repressive acts against peoples subjected to forced relocation as illegal and criminal.

The card system is a system for supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To purchase a product, one had to not only pay money for it, but also present a one-time coupon giving the right to purchase it. Cards (coupons) established certain standards for the consumption of goods per person per month, so this system was also called standardized distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917, they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the card system occurred in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The card system was reintroduced in the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, and was finally abolished in December 1947. The new and last wave of rationed distribution in the USSR (coupon system) began in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage. It has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, due to the “release” of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.

A radical turning point in the course of a war is strategic and political changes during military operations, such as: the transition of strategic initiative from one belligerent side to another; ensuring reliable superiority of the defense industry and the rear economy as a whole; achieving military-technical superiority in supplying the active army with the latest types of weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of forces in the international arena.

Lend-Lease is a system for the loan or lease of weapons, ammunition, food, medicine, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US expenses on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 amounted to $46 billion. The volume of supplies to the British Empire amounted to over 30 billion dollars (% of the loan was 472 million) to the Soviet Union 10 billion dollars (% of the loan was 1.3 billion dollars).

Occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany as a result of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany was created to manage the Soviet zone. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.

Occupation (from Latin “capture”) is the temporary seizure of foreign territory by military force without legal rights to it.

The partisan movement is a type of people’s struggle for the freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformation, which is waged on territory occupied by the enemy, with the armed core relying on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. It manifests itself in the form of combat operations, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded on the Nazi-occupied territory of the USSR. Strategic leadership was carried out by Headquarters through the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. There were over 1 million people in partisan detachments and formations. The partisans liberated entire areas, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.

Underground - illegal organizations fighting invaders in occupied territories. “Young Guard” - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. V. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovo underground in 1941-1942. in the Kaluga region.

“Rail War” is the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy’s railway communications in the occupied territory of the Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and part of Ukraine.

Evacuation (from Latin “empty, remove”) - withdrawal of troops, military property or population during war, natural disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding of the area during hydraulic construction ).

1945–1991

Corporatization is a way of privatizing state and municipal enterprises by transforming them into open joint-stock companies. It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.

Lease contracts are forms of organizing and remunerating the labor of employees of rental collectives within enterprises. A contract agreement is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, under which the rental collective undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise a certain amount of products at on-farm prices and tariffs. He has the right to dispose of products produced in excess of this volume independently. Lease contract form. became widespread during the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).

The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in human history when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only individual, most often small and insignificant states from a strategic point of view, which declared their neutrality.

Military-strategic parity is the equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.

Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and possibilities. Charges of subjectivism and voluntarism were brought against N.S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, which led to his resignation.

MIC - military-industrial complex, designation (belongs to D. Eisenhower) of the alliance of military industry, army and related ones that developed in a number of countries (USA, USSR, etc.) during the 2nd World War and strengthened during the Cold War parts of the state apparatus and science.

Glasnost is a concept developed by Russian political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of government bodies.

State Emergency Committee – State Committee according to the state of emergency in the USSR, created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of government agencies who disagreed with the reform policies of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of the new Union Treaty. The State Emergency Committee included: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, Chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasant Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association state enterprises and industrial, construction, transport and communications facilities of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, Vice President of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were sent into large cities, almost all television programs stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations in opposition to the CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the State Emergency Committee showed indecisiveness. In this situation, Russian President B.N. Yeltsin showed the greatest activity. He called on all citizens to disobey and a general strike. The center of resistance to the State Emergency Committee was the White House, the building of the Russian government. Within three days it became clear that society did not support the State Emergency Committee (putsch). Members of the State Emergency Committee went to Crimea to see M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under Article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason to the Motherland) in the “GKChP” case. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt undertaken by the Emergency Committee accelerated the process of the collapse of the USSR.

Demilitarization - disarmament, prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, withdrawal of troops and military equipment, conversion of military industries.

Currency reform is changes carried out by the state in the field of monetary circulation, usually aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same rate. The 1991 monetary reform in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - after the name of the Prime Minister of the USSR Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.

De-Stalinization is the debunking of Stalin’s personality cult and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of managing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the personality cult of I.V. Stalin. After the removal of Malenkov, the process of de-Stalinization continues N.S. Khrushchev, who delivered a report “On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences” at a closed meeting of the 20th Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the rehabilitation process fades. A new wave of de-Stalinization begins during the period of perestroika.

Dissidents are “dissidents”. The name of participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. Dissidents in various forms advocated for the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights activists), against the persecution of dissent, and protested against the entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were subjected to repression by the authorities.

“Iron Curtain” - after W. Churchill’s speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression “Iron Curtain” began to be used to refer to the “wall” separating capitalism and socialism.

Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, covering approximately two decades (1964-1982). In official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.

The Cuban Missile Crisis was an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment of American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as to the threat of an invasion of American troops in Cuba. The most acute crisis that brought the world to the brink of nuclear war was eliminated due to the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (led by N. S. Khrushchev) and the USA (led by President J. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles weapons. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the lifting of quarantine and the abandonment of the invasion of Cuba; it was also confidentially announced that American missiles would be withdrawn from Turkey and Italy.

Cooperation is a form of labor organization in which a significant number of people jointly participate in one or different, but interconnected labor processes, as well as a set of organizationally formalized voluntary mutual aid associations of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas economy. Based on share participation.

“Cosmopolitanism” (from the Greek “citizen of the world”) is the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of national patriotism. Refusal of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. “universal human values”. The campaign against cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in the post-war years. They were accused of being apolitical and lacking ideas, of “kowtowing to the West.” It resulted in rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.

“Lysenkoism” is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, the denial of genetics and a temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from approximately the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I.V. Stalin, T.D. Lysenko (who over time became a symbol of the campaign) and many other people.

Multi-party system is a political system in which there can be many political parties that theoretically have an equal chance of winning a majority of seats in the country's parliament. It began to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the Third Congress of People's Deputies abolished Article 6 of the Constitution, which established the leading role of the CPSU.

New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which included: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposing socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; declaration of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; advertisement as universal method resolving international issues not of the balance of power between the two systems, but of the balance of their interests; rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and recognition of the priority of universal human values ​​over class, national, ideological, etc. Led to the end of the Cold War.

Nomenklatura - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum that dominates the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenklatura: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.

STR (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces based on the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and direct productive force. Began in the middle of the 20th century. It sharply accelerates scientific and technological progress and has an impact on all aspects of society.

“Thaw” is a common designation for changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that began after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term “thaw” goes back to the title of the story by I. G. Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The “thaw” period was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. Important role The 20th Congress of the CPSU played a role in these processes, condemning Stalin’s cult of personality. The “Thaw” contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, positive changes in the mid-50s. were not further developed.

Passport regime is one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons in the areas of protecting state security. While monitoring their own subjects and arriving foreigners, the authorities may require identification from them, as well as proof that they are not a danger to public peace. Official documents identifying a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, and place of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. By the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968, new rules for registration and deregistration of citizens in rural areas were introduced.

Perestroika is the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev and others) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal human ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, due to contradictory efforts, created the preconditions for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Human rights activists are individuals who criticized the evils of the socialist system in the USSR, opposed the violation of human rights, and proposed ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system of the USSR. The human rights movement operated in the 60s and 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal newsletter in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. Participants in the movement were subjected to brutal repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of perestroika

A putsch is a coup d'état carried out by a group of conspirators, an attempt at such a coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term; the State Emergency Committee’s attempt to remove USSR President M. Gorbachev from power contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.

Détente of international tension - improving relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-70s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the USA recognizing the post-war borders in Europe as inviolable, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed

Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) of rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform pursued the goal of getting rid of the excess money supply in cash circulation and at least partially solving the problem of deficit in commodity market USSR

Market economy – social economic system, developing on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. A market economy is based on the principles of free enterprise and choice. The distribution of resources, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of a market economy and largely ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, in the economic systems of developed countries, a certain degree of government intervention is carried out (ensuring the general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, implementing social protection measures, etc.).

Samizdat is a method of illegal distribution of literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge or permission of official bodies, usually by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers, etc.

CIS, Commonwealth of Independent States - an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR, in conditions of deep crisis and collapse, was ceasing to exist, and declared their desire to develop cooperation in political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan joined the Agreement and signed, together with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, the Declaration on the Goals and Principles of the CIS in Almaty. Later Georgia joined the CIS. In 1993, the CIS Charter was adopted, which defined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: Council of Heads of State, Council of Heads of Government, Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Interstate Economic Council, Interparliamentary Assembly centered in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordination and Advisory Committee in Minsk.

Economic councils are territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of sectoral ministries.

The shadow economy is a term that refers to all types of economic activity that are not taken into account by official statistics and are not included in GNP.

Commodity shortage - lack, shortage; a product that is not in sufficient quantity.

The Helsinki Process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The Helsinki process began with the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975).

“Cold War” is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 40s to 1991. The “Cold War” is characterized by the confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the USA, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres using psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.

The people of the sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the “sixties” was the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the “thaw”.

1992–…

A share is an issue-grade security that gives the owner the right to receive income or dividends depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.

Exchange - an institution in which the purchase and sale of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or mass goods sold according to samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; building where stock exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first stock exchange arose in 1703 in St. Petersburg.

Near Abroad is a collective name for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltics), which emerged in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR. The term is more historical and cultural in nature than geographical. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states directly bordering it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, China, North Korea).

Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994, a government security (to bearer) for a designated purpose with a specified nominal value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other property (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous okrugs, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.

Devaluation is an official decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit or a depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or some national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.

Default - the economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the most severe economic crises in the history of Russia. The main reasons for the default were: Russia's huge public debt generated by the collapse of Asian economies, a liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials, which formed the basis of Russia's exports, as well as populist economic policy of the state and the construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual default date is August 17, 1998. Its consequences seriously affected the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The ruble exchange rate against the dollar fell more than 3 times in six months - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The trust of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. A large number of small businesses went bankrupt, many banks burst. The banking system collapsed for at least six months. The population lost a significant part of their savings, and their standard of living fell. However, the devaluation of the ruble has allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.

Impeachment (from the English “censure, accusation”) is a special procedure for holding senior officials accountable (through the lower house of parliament).

Conversion is the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of civilian products.

Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and power entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and growth of influence resources. The result of corruption is the degradation of power and increased crime.

Price liberalization is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted of abandoning state regulation of prices for most goods (since 1992)

Nanotechnology is the technology of objects whose dimensions are about 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes the atomic assembly of molecules, new methods of recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions at the molecular level, etc.

National projects are a program for the growth of “human capital” in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. As priority areas“investments in people” the head of state highlighted: healthcare; education; housing; Agriculture.

A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, supreme power belongs to the president. The President can be elected by popular vote, parliament or any institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). Once elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled or re-elected without emergency circumstances provided for by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the president has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after, as a result of general elections or the current political situation, the balance of forces in parliament has changed in favor of the opposition to the president, his election program and political course. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy he proclaimed, the president, based on the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures provided for by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government developed in the Russian Federation after the October crisis of 1993.

Privatization is the transfer or sale of part of state property to private ownership.

Separation of powers is a characteristic feature of the rule of law, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.

A referendum (Latin referendum - something that must be communicated) is a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.

The Federation Council - according to the 1993 Constitution, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.

The Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, the parliament is a representative and legislative body. Consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

“Shock therapy” is a course to improve the economy through its accelerated transfer to a market economy. Conducted by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N. Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar reforms).

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Dictionary of basic terms and concepts of Russian history

A

Absolutism(or absolute monarchy) is a form of feudal state in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. The heyday of absolutism in Western European countries was the 17th-18th centuries, in Russia - the 18th-19th centuries.

Autonomy(gr. autos- himself + nomos- law) - self-government, the right to independently exercise certain functions of state power and or management, granted by the constitution of any part of the state.

Authoritarianism- a political regime established or imposed by a form of power that is concentrated in the hands of one person or in one of its organs and reduces the role of others, especially its representative institutions.

Excise tax(Latin accidere - cut) a type of indirect tax on consumer goods; included in the price of the relevant product or service fee.

Alternative- selection of a single solution from two or more mutually exclusive possibilities.

Annexation- forcible annexation, the seizure by one state of territory belonging to another state or people.

B

Corvee- a form of feudal land rent, free forced labor of the dependent peasantry working with their own equipment on the feudal lord's farm. It spread widely in Russia from the second half of the 16th century, reaching its peak in the 18th century.

Baskak- a tribute collector appointed by the Horde to one or another Russian principality.

Boyar- originally a senior warrior in the princely squad. Later - rank in Moscow Rus'.

Boyar Duma- since the 15th century, the advisory body under the Grand Duke, consisting of boyars and okolnichy, was served by Duma clerks.

Bureaucracy- a control system carried out with the help of an apparatus of power, separated from the society standing above it, possessing specific functions and privileges.

IN

Rope- the name of a territorial community among the Eastern Slavs.

Supreme Privy Council- the highest advisory state institution in Russia in 1726-1730. Created by Catherine I to solve the most important state issues.

Veche- the highest body of self-government in the cities of ancient Rus'.

Military settlements- a special organization of troops in the Russian Empire in 1810-1857, introduced with the aim of reducing military expenses and the possible reduction of serfdom. Military villagers combined service with agricultural activities.

Parish- an administrative-territorial unit of Russia until 1923. In ancient Rus' - the entire territory subordinate to the prince.

Free cultivators- as peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner according to the Decree of 1803.

Voluntarism(Latin voluntas - will) - an activity that does not take into account objective laws and is guided by the subjective desires and arbitrary decisions of the persons carrying it out.

Eastern Question- designation of the problem that arose in connection with the beginning of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the expanding national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples and the struggle of leading European countries for markets for raw materials and sales of products.

VSNKh- Supreme Council of the National Economy (December 1917 - 1932) - the central Soviet state body for regulation and management of the main sectors of the national economy.

G

General Regulations- the charter of the civil service of Russia in the 18th - early 19th centuries, issued by Peter I in 1720. It established the duties of officials, the procedure for discussing cases, and the organization of office work.

State peasants- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th century, peasants living on state (state) lands. They bore feudal duties in favor of the state, but were considered personally free.

Civil War- organized armed struggle for state power between classes and social groups within the country.

Province- the main territorial-administrative unit in Russia since 1708. It was divided into counties.

GULAG- Main Directorate of Camps, later the full name Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps and Colonies. As of May 1, 1930, the NKVD of the RSFSR administered 279 correctional labor institutions with 171,251 prisoners, and about 100 thousand prisoners in the OGPU camps. In 1930, the OGPU Camp Administration was organized, which became the main one in 1931 (GULAG). At the end of 1930, the NKVD of the RSFSR ceased to exist, the prisoners under its jurisdiction were transferred to the Gulag. On January 1, 1941, there were about 1,930 thousand prisoners in the Gulag, in addition, 930,221 people. (mostly exiled kulaks) made up a contingent of special settlers

D

Tribute- natural or monetary extortion from conquered peoples.

Dual power- this is a peculiar and extremely contradictory interweaving of two authorities in Russia, created after the February Revolution in March-early July 1917: the Provisional Government and the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.

Houseyard people- in ancient Rus', courtiers of princes and kings. In the 17th - 19th centuries, serfs were taken to serve in the landowner's house.

Palace (specific) lands- lands that in Rus' belonged personally to the Grand Duke, and later to the Tsar, by feudal property law. They provided food and agricultural raw materials to the royal palace and palace households.

Nobility- in Russia arose in the 12th - 13th centuries. as the lowest part of the military service class, which made up the court of a prince or a major boyar. Since the 14th century, land - an estate - began to be received for service; in the 17th century. made up the bulk of landowners, in whose interests it was legally formalized serfdom. Under Peter I, a class was finally formed - an estate. According to the “Table of Ranks,” people from other classes were replenished for promotion. The privileges were enshrined by Catherine II in the “Charter Granted to the Nobility” (1785). After 1861, the economic role weakened, but continued to dominate politically until 1917.

Democracy(democracy) - a political regime in which the following principles are unconditionally fulfilled: separation of powers; legality of the opposition; rule not of persons, but of law (rule of law); independence from media authorities; resolving conflicts through constitutional means.

De-Stalinization- a process that began after Stalin’s death in the life of Soviet society, which meant the rejection of certain provisions of the theory and practice of the Stalinist version of economic and political development.

Dictatorship- unlimited political, economic and ideological power, exercised by a strictly limited group of people led by a leader.

Dictatorship of the proletariat- political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with the working peasantry and other strata of the working people. According to Marxism, the main functions of the proletariat are: suppressing the resistance of the overthrown exploiting class and building a socialist society.

Dissident(dissenter, contradictor) - a dissident person who does not agree with the dominant ideology, with the dominant worldview, with the existing system.

Differentiation(Latin differentia - difference) - division, division into various parts, forms, steps.

Druzhina- armed detachments under the prince in ancient Rus'. Divided into “senior” and “junior”.

Thought- a body of representative and legislative power in Russia (city duma, State Duma). In ancient Rus' - an assembly, a council of boyars, zemstvo elected officials (the zemstvo duma, the boyar duma).

Ataman is the head of the Cossack association.

Corvee - all types of forced labor performed by dependent peasants for the feudal lord, primarily on the master's land for several days a week.

Baskaks are representatives of the Horde Khan in Rus', who exercised control over the actions of the princes and were in charge of collecting tribute.

“White settlements” are urban settlements exempt from state duties.

Bobyls are representatives of the poor layer of the peasant class, who do not have a yard and are personally dependent.

Beekeeping is the collection of honey from wild bees among the ancient Slavs. (“board” - “hollow” where bees live)

Boyars - in Kievan Rus', the prince's senior warriors who helped him govern the state. Since the 15th century, boyars have been the highest rank among service people.

Boyar - a representative of the upper class of society in Rus' in the 11th-17th centuries. Initially, the boyars were vassals of the princes, obliged to serve in their troops, but later they became an independent political force in a number of Russian principalities. In the XIV century. were divided into introduced boyars (the prince's closest advisers) and worthwhile boyars (who headed individual branches of government). From the end of the 15th century. The title of boyar became the highest rank in the Duma; its holders took a direct part in governing the state along with the monarch.

The Boyar Duma is the highest council under the prince in Rus' (1547 under the tsar).

Bratchina is an ancient Russian feast.

Bylina - works of oral folk art in Ancient Rus', based on real events. They talk about the exploits of Russian heroes.

Varangians - this is how the Normans (Vikings), immigrants from Scandinavia and participants in predatory campaigns, were called in Ancient Rus'.

Grand Duke - originally a title Prince of Kyiv, later the head of the Grand Duchy of Rus'.

The Great Migration of Peoples is an era of grandiose ethnic movements during the 4th-7th centuries AD, an integral part of which was the settlement of the Slavs.

Verv - a community of free peasants (“rope” - with its help the boundaries between communities were determined).

Veche - from the Old Slavonic “vet” - council, body of state self-government in Rus'. In Ancient Rus' - a people's assembly among the Eastern Slavs, at which decisions were made by a majority vote. In the Novgorod and Pskov republics, the veche had the highest legislative and judicial power. Gathered in specially designated places; decisions were made by the majority of those present. The attributes of the veche were a veche bell and a special platform.

Byzantium is a medieval state from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which the Emperor of the Roman Empire Constantine I the Great (306-337) founded Constantinople and moved the capital here from Rome. It existed until the middle of the 15th century, when it was destroyed by the Ottoman Turks; until the end of the 12th century. it was a powerful, rich state that played a huge role in the political life of Europe and the Middle East.

The Vikings were Scandinavian explorers of the Middle Ages, the ancestors of modern Swedes, Norwegians, Danes and Icelanders. In the VIII-XI centuries. their devastating raids led to the devastation of entire regions of European countries. In England, the Vikings were called Danes, in other countries of Western Europe - Normans, in Rus' - Varangians.

Vira - a fine in favor of the prince in the Old Russian state, imposed for the murder of a free person.

Voivode - military leader in Ancient Rus'. Subsequently (from the end of the 15th century) governors were appointed commanders of the main regiments as part of the Moscow army. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. governors also stood at the head of local government in the Russian state (they were royal governors in cities). They had in their hands all the administrative and military executive power in the city and district (in the 18th century - in the provinces).

Voivodeship is a territorial unit of the Principality of Lithuania. Voivode is the head of a voivodeship.

Magus - pagan priest, minister of cult in Ancient Rus'; a person who was recognized as having supernatural abilities, a magician, a sorcerer. According to pagan beliefs, the Magi could predict the future, recognizing the will of the gods, and perform miracles. With the introduction of Christianity, they began to be considered opponents of state power and led a number of social protests.

Patrimony - feudal land ownership, passed on by inheritance.

Hetman is the head of the Lithuanian army.

The head is a military leader, lower than a voivode.

An ancient settlement is the remains of an ancient fortified settlement or city.

The guests were merchants engaged in long-distance and international trade.

A charter is a written document.

Greek fire is a burning mixture of resin and other flammable substances, capable of burning even on water.

The hryvnia is the largest monetary unit of ancient Rus' in Moscow Rus' - 10 kopecks or 20 money.

Gridney - junior warriors who accompanied the prince.

Tribute is a collection in kind or money from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax on subjects.

Dual faith is a mixture of pagan and Christian rituals and beliefs.

The nobles were a feudal service class that owned land on the condition of compulsory military service without the right to sell their land property, which was remuneration for this service. (land was given for the duration of service)

The nobility is a privileged class of secular landowners and government officials. In the XIII-XIV centuries. the term denoted persons obliged to the princes for military service and execution of orders. Since the 15th century the nobles were allocated land and merged with the bulk of the feudal lords. In the XVI-XVII centuries. There were Moscow and elected (city) nobles from the beginning of the 18th century. a single noble class finally emerged. The compulsory service introduced under Peter I was abolished by the manifesto of 1762, the rights and privileges of the noble class were legally secured under Catherine II during the provincial reform of 1775 and in the Charter of 1785.

Cash rent is a form of payment from a peasant to a feudal lord in the form of money.

Tithe (church) - one tenth of the harvest or other income given by the population for the maintenance of the church.

Tithe is a Russian measure of land area equal to 1.0925 hectares.

Boyar children are poor nobles.

Detinets - Kremlin.

Children's - the same as gridneys, youths.

Dynastic marriage is a marriage between representatives of the ruling dynasties in different countries with the aim of strengthening the union between states.

Dynasty - a series of rulers who successively replaced each other according to the principle of kinship and tradition of succession to the throne.

Dugouts are small boats hollowed out from an entire tree trunk.

A princely domain is a complex of lands inhabited by people belonging directly to the head of state, the head of the dynasty.

A squad is a group of warriors united around a leader. In Ancient Rus' - an armed cavalry detachment under the prince, participating in military campaigns, managing the principality, as well as the prince’s personal household.

Clerk - from the 15th to the 18th centuries, an official (official): manager of the affairs of the order, clerk, head of the office of various departments. Clerks constituted the top layer of the bureaucracy ("orderly people") in the Moscow state in the second half of the 16th century. the rank of Duma clerk appears. They were entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining current office work in central institutions, as well as with local governors. The clerks were mainly from non-noble strata of society, although in the 17th century. Representatives of the titled aristocracy also appeared as part of the administrative bureaucracy.

Deacon is the lowest rank of the Orthodox Church, an assistant to the priest.

Smoke - a hut, a peasant's yard.

Esaul - assistant ataman in the Cossack troops.

A life is a work, a biography of a clergy or secular person, usually canonized by the Christian Church.

Zhito - bread.

The granary is a warehouse for storing grain.

Purchases are those peasants and community members who became dependent by taking out a “kupa” (loan).

Fallow farming system is a primitive farming system in which the grass on the site was burned and the fertilized soil was used until completely depleted, after which the site was left for 2-4 years until the grass cover was restored.

Architecture is the name given to the art of construction in Rus'.

Hegumen is the head (abbot) of a Russian Orthodox monastery.

An idol is an image of a deity worshiped by pagans, most often made of stone or wood.

Outcasts are people who for some reason left their social group (peasants who left or were expelled from the community, princes who lost their possessions).

An icon is a pictorial representation of a god or saints in Orthodox Christianity.

Iconography - church painting.

The Indo-European group of peoples is a general concept for tribes from the Indo-European language family and having common roots at an early stage of their development (English, Germans, French, Greeks, Iranians, Armenians, Irish, etc.)

Monks are monks.

Kagan is the title of the head of state among the ancient Turkic (nomadic, tribal) peoples, along with the title - prince among the Eastern Slavs.

Kaganate is a state of Turkic-speaking tribes, headed by a kagan.

Cossacks are free inhabitants of the outskirts of the Russian state, who performed military service, and also engaged in farming, hunting, and sometimes robbery.

Kievan Rus - this is how the Old Russian state of the mid-9th - early 12th centuries is usually called in historiography.

Cyrillic is an ancient Slavic alphabet created in the 9th century by Orthodox missionaries brothers Cyril and Methodius. On its basis the Russian alphabet arose.

The key keeper is the fireman's assistant in the estate.

The prince is a military leader among the Eastern Slavs, later the head of state of Ancient Rus'.

Greek colonies are settlements of Greeks outside their homeland.

The End is an area of ​​the city divided into streets.

Feeding - the territory and system of maintaining boyar-governors at the expense of extortions from the local population.

Feeder - a representative of the local princely administration of the 13th-15th centuries, whom the population was obliged to support (“feed”) during the entire period of service. The princes sent boyars to cities and volosts as governors, giving them also the right to collect taxes in their favor. The arbitrariness and abuse of feed workers led to the need to regulate their income with special charters. As a result of the zemstvo reform of 1555-1556. the feeding system was eliminated, and the government converted fees for the maintenance of feeders into a special tax in favor of the treasury.

The Kremlin is (detinets) the central fortified part of ancient Russian cities, surrounded by fortress walls with towers.

Serfdom is a social order in which the owner of the land had the right to forced labor, property and personality of the peasants attached to his land and belonging to him.

Serf peasants - farmers attached to the land and a certain landowner, were considered his personal property, subject to purchase and sale and even deprivation of life.

A fortress is a written document on the ownership of a peasant, serf, or property.

Peasants - (from the word “Christians”) - in the 13th-14th centuries the name of rural and urban residents, and from the 15th century - a generalized name only for rural residents, in contrast to the previous division (people, stinkers).

Blood feud is a custom according to which all relatives were obliged to take revenge on the criminal for a crime.

Mutual responsibility is a guarantee of all members of the community for the performance of service, payment of taxes, etc.

Kunas are money in Kievan Rus, equal to 1/50 of a hryvnia.

Kupa - in Ancient Rus', a cash or in-kind loan issued to someone by a usurer or landowner, on the condition that in order to repay it, the debtor ("purchase") becomes dependent for some time on his creditor and works on his farm , carries out various assignments, etc. In case of non-payment of the debt, the lender had the right to make the insolvent debtor his slave.

Kurultai is a meeting of the Mongolian nobility and military leaders under the khan.

A boat is a fast-moving single-wood boat, a boat made from scraped trunks of huge trees, with oars or sails, designed to carry several hundred pounds of cargo or a crew of 40-50 people.

“Battle of the Ice” - the defeat of German knights on the ice of Lake Peipsi in 1242 by Novgorod warriors led by Prince Alexander Nevsky.

Ladder (ladder) - a system of succession to the throne, according to which the throne passed from the elder brother to the younger, and after the end of the generation, to the elder nephews of the latter.

Chronicle corpus - a collection of chronicles.

Chronicle - ancient Russian historical works in which events are described by year (year).

“People” are free community peasants.

Localism is the procedure for appointments to positions according to the nobility of the family and length of service to the Grand Duke.

Metropolitan (Greek mitropolitis - a person from the main city) is one of the highest ranks of the Christian church hierarchy. From the end of the 10th century. and before the establishment of the patriarchate, the metropolitan headed the church organization in Rus'. In the church of the Byzantine Empire, the term meant the bishop of the capital city of a particular province. Until the middle of the 15th century. The Russian Metropolis was one of the provinces of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

Mosaic - images made up of multi-colored pieces of glass or stones.

Monarchy (Greek monarchia - autocracy) is a form of government and a state headed by one person (monarch), whose power is inherited. A monarchy can be absolute, and then it merges with autocracy, but it can also be constitutional, parliamentary.

A monastery is a religious community that lives separately according to the same rules (charter) and runs its own household. The largest monasteries in Rus' were called laurels. Monasteries owned lands and serfs. At the beginning of the 16th century. Based on the attitude towards monastic property, a split occurred in the Russian Orthodox Church into Josephites and non-possessors. In 1764, under Catherine II, the secularization (confiscation) of church lands was carried out.

The Mongol Empire is a state on the territory of Eurasia that emerged in the 13th century. As a result of the aggressive campaigns of its founder Genghis Khan, the empire included Northern China, Central Asia, most of Iran and the Caucasus. Under his descendants, the conquests continued (Batu Khan's campaign against Rus' and Eastern Europe, the seizure of China by Kublai), but at the same time the collapse of the empire began into several independent states, one of which became the Golden Horde.

Monotheism is monotheism.

“Moscow - III Rome” is a theory created by the abbot of the Pskov Eleazar Monastery Philotheus at the beginning of the 16th century, which argued that the center of world Christianity after the fall of the Byzantine Empire moved to Moscow, because Russia remained the only independent Orthodox state, the guarantor of the preservation of the true Christian faith.

Taxes are obligatory payments established by the state and levied on the population.

Subsistence farming is a type of farming in which the products of labor were produced to satisfy one's own needs rather than for sale on the market.

Quirk in kind - payments from peasants to the feudal lord in the form of natural products.

The Norman theory is a trend in Russian and foreign historiography that emerged in the second quarter of the 18th century, whose supporters credited the Normans (Varangians) with creating a state among the Eastern Slavs.

Quirk is a form of payment from a dependent peasant to the feudal lord for the use of land in the form of money (monetary) or natural products (natural).

Ognishchanin - manager of the fief (ognishche - hearth).

Okolnichy is the second (after the boyar) Duma rank (Boyar Duma) in the Russian state of the 15th-17th centuries. Along with the boyars, okolnichy from the end of the 15th century. are members of the Duma and the Sovereign's Court, and later head orders and individual branches of government. The rank of okolnichy was initially given to younger representatives of noble princely and boyar families, but from the second half of the 16th century. nobles also receive it.

A horde is a form of community of nomadic peoples that united several clans.

“Horde Exit” is a tribute to the Golden Horde, which the Baskaks collected with the help of armed detachments.

Youths are the younger warriors who accompanied the prince.

The fatherland is the hereditary possession of the princes.

The lords are wealthy Lithuanian landowners.

Parchment is a writing material made from the skin of domestic animals - small and large livestock.

A tribe is several clans living together in the same territory, speaking the same language and bound by common customs, a single leader, traditions and religious cult.

“Pogosts” are certain places where tribute (tax) was to be brought within a specified period. As well as the name of the administrative units from which a certain amount of tax was levied.

The slash-and-burn farming system is a primitive farming system in which trees in a forest area were cut down and left to dry on the root, and then uprooted and burned. The site was used until it was completely depleted, and then a new one was cleared. It demanded collective farming by the entire clan and even the tribe.

Elderly - a monetary fee from peasants when they pass from one owner to another, established by the Code of Law of 1497.

Poluustav is a type of writing in Rus' in which the letters are small, unclear, and slanted. The letter is fluent.

Polyudye - a tour by the prince and his squad of territories (tribes) under his control in order to collect tribute (9-10 centuries).

An estate is a form of feudal land tenure in Russia in the 14th-17th centuries, based on the conditional right to dispose of property. Estates were given to their owners (nobles) on the condition of performing military service in favor of the overlord - first the Grand Duke, then the Tsar. Lands received conditional ownership under local law were mainly nobles and boyar children, who made up the mounted militia in the Russian army of that time. By the beginning of the 18th century. the legal status of the estate merges with the estate, so that their owners acquire all the rights of unconditional disposal of the property.

Landowners are a new type of nobles that emerged in the 13th-14th centuries - princely nobles who were allocated land (estate) under certain conditions (most often on the condition of military service).

Posad is a trade and craft part of the Russian city, inhabited by merchants and artisans. As a rule, city residents were under the control of a princely governor and bore duties in favor of the state treasury. The struggle for the liquidation of private land holdings and households belonging to large feudal lords inside the posads ended in the 17th century. with the adoption of the Council Code.

Posadnik is an elected official in the ancient Russian cities of the republics (Novgorod, Pskov), head of the executive branch, city government. He was appointed by the prince or elected at the veche.

Tonsure - tonsure as a monk (monk).

Orthodoxy is one of the main trends in Christianity, which arose with the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern in 395. It finally came together in 1054.

Privileges are special rights or advantages.

An appropriating economy is an economy in which a person does not produce anything himself; he is fed by nature. He is engaged in gathering and hunting.

A producing economy is one in which a person himself raises livestock, cultivates the land, grows crops, i.e. feeds himself.

The route from the “Varangians to the Greeks” is the main trade route that passed through the territory of Kievan Rus, which until the 12th century directly connected the countries of Western Europe with the East.

Rada - the council of the highest nobility under the Grand Duke of Lithuania, as well as the people's assembly in Lithuania and Poland.

Rat - Russian army.

Residence is the residence of a high-ranking official.

Craft - the production of various goods by artisans - craftsmen.

A republic is a form of government in which supreme power belongs to representatives elected by the population.

Clan - a group of blood relatives in a primitive society.

A clan community is an association of people based on blood kinship, as well as on common property and labor. Association of related families

“Russian Truth” is the first written code of laws in Kievan Rus.

Row - treaty, agreement in Ancient Rus'.

Ryadovichi - persons who served the feudal lords under an agreement (row), are close to purchases.

Cursive is the fastest type of writing, in which the letters extend beyond the edge of the line, and there are many abbreviations of words.

Sloboda is a part of the city inhabited by people (artisans) of similar professions, most often on the outskirts, whose residents were exempt from government duties (white settlements). Black settlements were not exempt from taxes.

Smerdas are communal peasants in Ancient Rus', dependent on the prince. (Then free and personally dependent).

Three-field farming is a system of farming in medieval Rus', when arable land was divided into three plots, of which only one was sown annually (in turn), while the other two remained untouched in order to restore soil fertility. It was used from the 13th century and became dominant in the country from the 15th century. and retained its importance in the peasant economy until the end of the 18th century. one was sown in the spring with spring crops, the other in the fall with winter crops, and the third with fallow crops.

The trinity of deity (Trinity) is a Christian dogma that asserts that one God exists in three persons: God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit.

Tumen is one of the military units in the Mongolian army of the 13th century, usually numbering from 5 to 10 thousand soldiers. In the Russian translation it changed its sound to “darkness”. It was also used in Rus' in the 14th century: in chronicles, for example, “temnik” (that is, the commander of tumen, “darkness”) is called Mamai.

Tysyatsky - in Novgorod he was the closest assistant to the mayor, in charge of trade and taxes. He is also the elected leader of the city militia.

Thousand - city militia.

Tax is the totality of all monetary and in-kind duties of peasants and townspeople in favor of the state, hence the “tax peasants” - “black-growing” and privately owned, paying state taxes and bearing duties in favor of the state (participation in various public works).

An inheritance is land, a part of the state that the prince allocated to his sons or relatives.

The appanage period of Rus' was an era of fragmentation, when the possessions of the princes began to separate from the unified Kyiv state.

Counties are territorial units into which the Russian state was divided in the 16th century. They were divided into camps and volosts.

Ulus - translated from Mongolian - possession. Self-governing possession of the Mongolian state. Rus' was the ulus of the Khan of the Golden Horde, and the Russian princes, thus, were the vassals of the khan.

Union (Latin unio - unity, union) - the unification of two monarchical states by a common monarch or the unification of churches.

“Lessons” - the amounts of taxation (tribute) taught by Princess Olga.

Strife (civil strife) - wars between princes for the grand-ducal throne.

Charter - oldest type letters in Rus'. Careful, leisurely writing.

Feudal lords - in the Middle Ages, land owners who received land as hereditary possession from the prince on the terms of serving him.

Feudal fragmentation is a period in the history of feudalism, a natural process of isolation of individual lands led by princes claiming political independence. At the same time, the power of the supreme ruler weakened significantly.

Khan - the leader of a tribe among some eastern peoples in the Middle Ages, in particular among the Mongol-Tatars.

“St. George’s Day” is a single period (a week before November 26 and a week after) for the transfer of peasants from one owner to another, established by the Code of Law of 1497.

A language family is a grouping of related languages.

Paganism is a religious belief characterized by polytheism (polytheism) and the deification of objects and animals (fetishism and totemism). Nature and the cosmos are recognized as a fateful, creative force. The gods personify the forces of nature or some human activity.

Yarlyk - the khan's charter for reign, which gave the right to Russian princes to rule in their lands. Also, this is a khan’s charter to church hierarchs for certain rights.

Fair - trades organized periodically (1-2 times a year) in one established place.

Yasak, a tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia, consisted mainly of furs, so the population (the so-called “foreigners”) subject to such a tax was called “yasak” people. In the 17th century they became personally free.

Absolute monarchy, absolutism- a type of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. With absolutism, the highest degree of centralization is achieved, a standing army and police, and an extensive bureaucratic apparatus are created. The activities of estate representative bodies, as a rule, cease. The heyday of absolutism in Russia occurred in the 18th-19th centuries.

Autonomation- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin’s proposal to include independent Soviet republics into the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy.

Excise tax (lat. trim)- a type of indirect tax on the consumption of goods produced by domestic private enterprises. Included in the price of the product. It existed in Russia until 1917.

Anarchism (Greek anarchy)- a socio-political movement that advocates the destruction of all state power. In the 19th century the ideas of anarchism were accepted revolutionary populism. Russian anarchism later emerged during the revolution of 1905-1907. and during the Civil War.

Annexation (Latin annexation)- the violent seizure by one state of all or part of the territory belonging to another state or nationality.

Antisemitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.

“Arakcheevshchina”- the internal political course of the autocracy in the last decade (1815-1825) of the reign of Alexander I. Named after the emperor’s confidant, A. A. Arakcheeva. This period is characterized by the desire to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of life of Russian society: planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, increasing persecution of education and the press. Assemblies (French assembly) - meetings-balls in the houses of the Russian nobility, introduced in 1718 Peter I. Women also took part in the assemblies.

Corvee- free forced labor of a dependent peasant who worked with his own equipment on the feudal lord's farm for a plot of land received for use. In Russia, the existence of corvee was already recorded in “Russkaya Pravda”. It became widespread in the European part of Russia in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 19th centuries. It actually existed until 1917 in the form of a development system.

Baskak- representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Controlled local authorities. In the Russian principalities in the second half of the XIII - early XIV centuries. - Horde tribute collector.

White Guard- military formations that acted after the October Revolution against the power of the Bolsheviks. The color white was considered a symbol of “legal order.” The military force of the white movement is the White Guard - an association of opponents of the Soviet regime (the opposite of the Red Guard). It consisted mainly of officers of the Russian army led by L.G. Kornilov, M.V. Alekseev, A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and others.

White matter- ideology and policy of the White Guard. It was an independent movement in the anti-Bolshevik movement. The movement began in the spring and summer of 1917, when there was a unification of forces that advocated “restoring order” in the country, and then the restoration of the monarchy in Russia. L.G. was nominated for the role of dictator. Kornilov. After the victory of the October Revolution, the white movement formalized its political program, which included the national idea of ​​a “united and indivisible” Russia, the primacy of the Orthodox Church, loyalty to historical “principles,” but without a clear definition of the future state structure. At the first stage, the “democratic counter-revolution” in the person of the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks took part in the white movement, but later the monarchical tendency with the idea of ​​​​restoring the monarchy became more and more clear. The White movement was unable to propose a program that would suit all the forces dissatisfied with the Bolshevik regime. The disunity of forces within the white movement itself and the curtailment of foreign aid marked its end.

“Bironovschina”- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features of “Bironovism”: political terror, the omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, disrespect for Russian customs, harsh tax collection, drill in the army.

Neighborhood Council- advice from those close to the Grand Duke, and then to the Tsar. Under Vasily III, the Near Duma included 8-10 boyars. In the middle of the 16th century. The Middle Duma was actually the government of Ivan IV (the Elected Rada). From the second half of the 17th century. especially trusted persons began to be invited “to the room” (hence the name - Secret Duma, Room Duma). At this time, the Middle Duma was the support of the tsar and in many ways opposed the Boyar Duma.

Bolshevism- an ideological and political movement in Russian social democracy (Marxism), which took shape in 1903. Bolshevism was a continuation of the radical line in the revolutionary movement of Russia. The Bolsheviks advocated the transformation of society only through revolution, denying the reformist path of development. At the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, during the elections of governing bodies, supporters of V.I. Lenin received a majority and began to be called Bolsheviks. Their opponents, led by L. Martov, who received a minority of votes, became Mensheviks. Bolshevism advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism. Revolutionary practice of the 20th century. rejected many of the provisions of Bolshevism as utopian.

Boyars- 1) the highest stratum of society in Russia in the X-XVII centuries. They occupied a leading place after the Grand Duke in public administration. 2) From the 15th century. - the highest rank among service people “in the fatherland” in the Russian state. Boyars occupied the highest positions, headed orders, and were governors. The rank was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the liquidation of the Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma is the highest council in Russia under the prince (from 1547 under the tsar) in the 10th-18th centuries. The legislative body discussed important issues of domestic and foreign policy.

“Bulyginskaya Duma”- developed in July 1905 by the Minister of Internal Affairs A.G. Bulygin (hence its name) the law on the establishment of the Duma - the highest legislative advisory representative body - and the regulation on elections to it, according to which the majority of the population (workers, military personnel, women, etc.) did not have voting rights. The convening of the “Bulygin Duma” was disrupted by revolutionary events in October 1905.

Bureaucracy (Greek: dominance of the office)- 1) A system of control carried out with the help of an apparatus of power that had specific functions. 2) A layer of people, officials associated with this system.

Varangians (Normans, Vikings)- this is how in Rus' they called participants in predatory campaigns - immigrants from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes).

“Great Fourth Menaion” (monthly readings)- Russian church and literary monument of the 30-40s of the 16th century; a month-by-month collection of biblical books, translated and original Russian lives, works of the “church fathers,” as well as literary works, including secular authors. The purpose of this meeting is to centralize the cult of Russian saints and expand the circle of reading church and secular literature.

Rope- territorial community in Ancient Rus' and among the southern Slavs.

Supreme Privy Council- the highest state institution in Russia in 1726-1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body under the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.

Veche (old school Bern - advice)- national assembly among the Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Rus'. The first chronicle mentions of the veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development occurred in Russian cities of the second half of the 11th-12th centuries. In Novgorod, Pskov, and Vyatka land it remained until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. The Veche decided issues of war and peace, summoned princes, adopted laws, concluded treaties with other lands, etc.

Voivode- military leader, ruler Slavic peoples. In the Russian state, the term “voevoda” meant the head of the princely squad or the head of the people’s militia. Mentioned in Russian chronicles from the 10th century. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries. Each of the regiments of the Russian army had one or more governors. The regimental governors were liquidated by Peter I. In the middle of the 16th century. The position of city governor appeared, heading the military and civil administration of the city and district. From the beginning of the 17th century. Voivodes were introduced in all cities of Russia instead of city clerks and governors. In 1719. governors were placed at the head of the provinces. In 1775, the position of voivode was abolished.

Military courts- emergency military judicial bodies introduced in Russia during the revolution of 1905-1907. and carried out speedy trials and immediate execution for anti-state activities. They also operated during the First World War.

Military-industrial committees- public organizations created in Russia during the First World War to assist the government in mobilizing industry for military needs.

Military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and create a reserve of trained troops. Ultimately, the establishment of military settlements was supposed to lead to the elimination of recruitment. “Settled troops” were settled on state-owned (state) lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, and Kherson provinces. Those who lived in military settlements were engaged in both combat service and agricultural work. In 1817-1826 The leadership of military settlements was carried out by Count Arakcheev. Strict regulation of life, drill - all this made the life of the settlers very difficult and was the cause of armed uprisings: Chuguev (1819), Novgorod (1831), etc. In 1857, military settlements were abolished.

“War communism”- a unique economic and political system that developed in the Soviet state during the Civil War (1918-1920). It was aimed at concentrating all the country's resources in the hands of the state. “War communism” was associated with the elimination of all market relations. Its main features: the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the transfer to martial law of defense factories and transport, the implementation of the principle of food dictatorship through the introduction of surplus appropriation and the prohibition of free trade, the naturalization of economic relations in the conditions of the depreciation of money, the introduction of labor conscription (from 1920 - universal) and the creation labor armies. Some features of this policy were reminiscent of the classless, commodity-money-free society that Marxists dreamed of. In 1921, “war communism” showed its inconsistency in the conditions of the peaceful development of the country, which led to the abandonment of this policy and the transition to the NEP.

Volosteli- in Russian principalities from the 11th century. and in the Russian state until the middle of the 16th century. official in rural areas - volosts. The volostels exercised administrative, financial and judicial power.

“Free tillers”- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803. The conditions for liberation could be: a one-time ransom, ransom with installment payment, working off corvée. Landowners could free peasants without ransom. By the middle of the 19th century. About 100 thousand male souls were freed. In 1848, free cultivators were renamed state peasants, settled on their own lands.

Eastern Question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations of the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the rise of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples, and the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region. Russia managed to win a number of victories in the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th - early 19th centuries. England tried to weaken the influence of Russia and France in the eastern question. The Eastern Question intensified during the Crimean War (1853-1856). Russia was losing its position in the division of the Turkish inheritance, and England and France secured their dominant position in Turkey. As for Russia, despite its military successes in the Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878) and the signing of the victorious peace in San Stefano, it was forced to make concessions to the Western powers at the Berlin Congress. Since the end of the 19th century. and before Turkey’s participation in the First World War on the side of Germany, the Eastern question was an integral part of international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. After Turkey's surrender in World War I, the Eastern Question entered its final phase. The Ottoman Empire collapsed, the Lausanne Peace Treaty between Turkey and the Entente powers established new borders of the Turkish state.

Votchina (fatherland - passed down from the father, sometimes from the grandfather)- the oldest type of feudal land ownership. It arose in the Old Russian state as a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIV-XV centuries. was the dominant type of land tenure. Since the 15th century existed along with the estate. Differences between patrimony and estate in the 17th century. gradually wore off. The final merger into one type of land ownership - the estate - was formalized by the decree of 1714 on single inheritance. Most of the monastic and church estates were liquidated during the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries.

Temporary peasants- a category of former landowner peasants freed from serfdom as a result of the reform of 1861, but not transferred to redemption. For the use of land, these peasants bore duties (sharecropping or quitrent) or paid payments established by law. The duration of the temporary relationship was not established. Having bought the allotment, those temporarily obliged became landowners. But until this moment, the landowner was the trustee of the rural society. In 1881, a law was passed on the compulsory purchase of plots of temporarily obliged peasants. In certain regions of Russia, temporary-obligation relations remained until 1917.

All-Russian market- an economic system that has developed as a result of the specialization of farms in individual regions of the country in the production of certain types of products and the strengthening of trade between them. The All-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century. Fairs played a huge role in the formation of the single market.

Second front- during the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the USSR allies in the anti-Hitler coalition in June 1944 with the landing in Normandy.

Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861. To purchase land plots from landowners, peasants were provided with a loan, which they had to repay in 49 years, paying annually 6% of the amount. The size of redemption payments depended on the size of the quitrent that peasants paid to landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased in 1907.

Guard- privileged (i.e. enjoying exclusive rights) part of the troops. In Russia, the guard was created by Peter I in the late 90s of the 17th century. from the “amusing” troops - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - and at first bore the name of the royal, and from 1721 - the imperial guard. After the death of Peter, thanks to its exceptional position in the army, it became a political force that played a significant role in the palace coups of the 18th century. From the beginning of the 19th century. loses its importance as a political force, maintaining the status of privileged military units. It existed until the end of 1917. During the Great Patriotic War, in September 1941, the rank of guards units was introduced for the Armed Forces of the USSR.

Hetman- elected head of the registered Cossacks in the 16th-17th centuries. Since 1648 - ruler of Ukraine and head Cossack army. Since 1708, the hetman was appointed by the tsarist government. For a long time there were no such appointments, and in 1764 the hetmanate was abolished.

Vowels- elected deputies of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas in Russia from the second half of the 19th century.

City Duma- an unclassified body of city government in Russia (1785-1917). She was involved in issues of improvement, health care and other city affairs. It was headed by the mayor.

City government- executive body of city government in Russia (1870-1917). She was elected by the City Duma. The administration was headed by the mayor.

Living room hundred- a corporation of privileged merchants in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries, second in wealth and nobility after the “guests”. With the knowledge of the tsar, trading people from the towns and peasants were enrolled in the Gostinaya Hundred. Their number sometimes reached 185, they were exempt from taxes and received other privileges. The hundred usually sent two elected representatives to zemstvo councils.

The State Duma- a representative legislative institution of Russia from 1906 to 1917. Established by the Manifesto of Nicholas II of October 17, 1905. The Duma was in charge of legislative proposals, consideration of the state budget, state control reports on its implementation and a number of other issues. Bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after approval by the State Council and approval by the Emperor. She was elected for a term of 5 years. During the existence of this body of power, there were four Duma convocations: I State Duma (April - July 1906); II (February-June 1907); III (November 1907 - June 1912); IV (November 1912 - October 1917). The Russian Constitution of 1993 revived the State Duma, calling it the lower house of the Federal Assembly. This emphasizes the continuity of the legislative bodies of modern Russia with pre-revolutionary Russia. The State Duma of the third convocation has been in place since 1999.

State peasants- a special class in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Formalized by decrees of Peter I from black-sown peasants, odnodvortsy, lads and other peasant categories. State peasants lived on state lands and paid rent to the treasury. They were considered personally free. Since 1841 they were under the control of the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the 19th century. they made up 45% of the agricultural population of the European part of Russia. In 1886 they received the right to purchase land plots as their own.

State Council- the highest legislative institution of the Russian Empire. It was created from the Permanent Council in 1810, and in 1906 it became the upper legislative chamber. He considered bills introduced by ministers until they were approved by the emperor. Members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor, and since 1906 some of the Council members were elected. Abolished in December 1917

GOELRO (State Electrification of Russia)- the first unified long-term plan for the restoration and development of the economy of Soviet Russia for 10-15 years, adopted in 1920. It provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Mostly completed by 1931.

Civil War- the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. Organized armed struggle for power.

Lip- in Northwestern Rus', a territorial term corresponding to a volost or city. In the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. - a territorial district governed by a provincial headman. A province has been an administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first 8 provinces. Each province was divided into districts. Some provinces were united into governor generals. They were headed by governors or governors general. In 1914, Russia was divided into 78 provinces. In the 20s of the XX century. instead of provinces, edges and regions were formed.

GULAG- Main Directorate of the NKVD (MVD) camps of the USSR. The abbreviation Gulag is used to refer to the system of concentration camps that existed under Stalin.

“Walking People”- in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. a general name for freed slaves, runaway peasants, townspeople, etc., who did not have any specific occupation or place of residence and lived mainly by robbery or hired work. They did not bear any duties.

Tribute- a collection in kind or money from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax on subjects. Known in Rus' since the 9th century. In the XIII-XV centuries. a type of tribute was “exit” - a monetary collection in favor of the khans of the Golden Horde. During the formation of the Russian centralized state, tribute became a mandatory state tax from black farmers, palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century combined with other fees and was called data money. Datochnye people - in Russia in the 15th-17th centuries. persons from the taxable urban and rural population, assigned to lifelong military service. From the middle of the 16th century. included in the “new order” regiments. Under Peter I they were replaced by recruits.

“Twenty-five thousand meters”- workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, sent in the 1929-1930s by decision of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) to economic and organizational work on the creation of collective farms in the countryside. In fact, significantly more than 25 thousand left.

Palace Peasants- feudal-dependent peasants in Russia who lived on the lands of the great princes, tsars and members of the royal family and bore duties in their favor. Since 1797 they began to be called appanage peasants.

The era of palace coups- the name accepted in historiography for the period 1725-1762, when in the Russian Empire, after the death of Peter I, who did not appoint an heir, supreme power passed from hand to hand through palace coups, which were carried out by noble groups with the support of guards regiments.

Nobility- the dominant privileged class, part of the feudal lords. In Russia until the beginning of the 18th century. nobility are some class groups of secular feudal lords. Mentioned since the end of the 12th century; was the lowest part of the military service class, constituting the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the 13th century nobles began to be awarded land for their service. In the 18th century turned from a servant into a privileged class.

Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state. In the first years of Soviet power, decrees were the names of laws and regulations issued by the Council of People's Commissars, the Congress of Soviets and their executive bodies. Thus, the decree “On Peace” and the decree “On Land” were adopted by the Second Congress of Soviets on the night of October 27, 1917.

Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 20s-40s. expulsion of some peoples of the USSR. During the Great Patriotic War, this measure affected many nations. Eviction in 1941-1945 Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachays, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were subjected. The Stalinist regime affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds, etc. In 1989, the deportation of peoples was declared illegal and condemned as a grave crime .

Tithe- tax in favor of the church. It amounted to a tenth of the harvest or other income of the population.

“Wild Field”- the historical name of the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously developed in the 16th-17th centuries. runaway peasants and slaves, it was populated by service people to repel the raids of the Crimean khans.

Dictatorship of the proletariat- according to Marxist theory, the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with other sections of the working people. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat must occur after the victory of the socialist revolution; its existence is limited to the transition period from capitalism to socialism. The policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat is associated with the implementation of violence against “alien” classes and sections of society.

Dissidence- disagreement with the official ideology, dissent. In the 50-70s in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, defending human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state.

Volunteer Army- white army, created in the south of Russia in 1917 from volunteer officers, cadets, etc. It was headed by generals M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov and A.I. Denikin. In March 1920, the Volunteer Army was defeated by Red Army troops under the command of M.V. Frunze. The remaining forces of the Volunteer Army became part of the army of Baron P.N. Wrangel.

Duma officials- in the Russian state, officials were boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles, Duma clerks, who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma. In the 17th century headed the orders. They were governors of the largest cities.

Single inheritance- the procedure established by the decree of Peter I in 1714 for the transfer of land property by heredity, aimed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could pass to only one of the heirs) and legally eliminated the differences between estates and estates.

Heresies- religious movements in Christianity that deviate from the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and cult. They became most widespread in the Middle Ages.

Gendarmerie, gendarmes- police, which have a military organization and perform security functions within the country and in the army. In 1827-1917 in Russia there was a Separate Corps of Gendarmes, which performed the functions of political police.

Bookkeepers- dependent peasants and townspeople who entered into bondage, “mortgaged.” Having lost personal freedom, they were exempt from paying taxes. Existed from the XIII to the XVII centuries.

Purchases- in Ancient Rus', smerdas (see Smerda), who worked on the feudal lord’s farm for a “kupa” - a loan. Having worked off the debt, they were released. Unlike serfs (see Serfs), they had their own household.

Westerners- representatives of the direction of Russian social thought of the mid-19th century. They advocated the Europeanization of Russia, based on the recognition of the commonality of Russia and Western Europe. They were supporters of reforming Russian society “from above.” They constantly polemicized with the Slavophiles on the problems of the development paths of Russia. “Reserved Summers” - at the end of the 16th century. this was the name of the years in which peasants were prohibited from moving from one landowner to another on St. George’s Day. They were an important stage in the enslavement of peasants.

Land redistributions- in Russia, a method of distributing land within a peasant community. Since 1861, they were carried out by village gatherings on the basis of equalized land use.

Zemskaya hut- an elected body of local self-government created as a result of the zemstvo reform of Ivan IV. The zemstvo hut consisted of the zemstvo headman who headed it, a sexton and kissers, who were elected by the tax population of the city or volost. At the end of the XVI-XVII centuries. existed along with the voivodeship administration and was actually subordinate to it. In the 20s of the 18th century. replaced by magistrates and town halls.

Zemsky Sobors- central national class-representative institutions in Russia from the mid-16th to the 50s of the 17th century. The core of the zemstvo councils was the Consecrated Cathedral, headed by the metropolitan (since 1589 the patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who, by virtue of their position, had the right of a boyar court. In addition, zemstvo councils included representatives of the Sovereign's court, privileged merchants, elected representatives of the nobility and the elite of the townspeople. They discussed the most important national issues. The last Zemsky Sobor took place in 1653.

Zemstvo movement- liberal-opposition socio-political movement of the second half of the 60s of the XIX - early XX centuries. Its participants defended the expansion of zemstvo rights and the extension of the principles of zemstvo self-government to higher state institutions.

Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of the Russian state with its center in Moscow, not included by Ivan the Terrible in the oprichnina. Zemshchina was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders. She had her own special zemstvo regiments. It existed until the death of Ivan the Terrible.

Zubatovshchina- the policy of “police socialism”, implemented by the SV. Zubatov - head of the Moscow security department(since 1896) and the Special Section of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation, legal workers' organizations under police control (for example, the organization of GA. Gapon in St. Petersburg).

Elected Rada- a narrow circle of associates of Tsar Ivan IV - A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makariy, A.M. Kurbsky and others, actually an unofficial government in 1546-1560. The elected Rada united supporters of achieving a compromise between various groups and layers of feudal lords. She advocated the annexation of the Volga region and the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Discussed plans for reforms of the central and local government apparatus and implemented them.

“The Chosen Thousand”- included in the Thousand Book of 1550, members of the Sovereign's court (serving princes, boyars, okolnichi, etc.) and provincial boyar children, who were supposed to receive an increase in their land holdings in other counties, as well as estates near Moscow.

Sharecropping- a type of land lease in which rent is paid to the owner of the land as a share of the harvest (sometimes up to half or more).

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in industry and other sectors of the economy for the growth of productive forces and economic recovery. Carried out in Russia at the end of the 19th century. It has been carried out in the USSR since the late 1920s. based on the priority of heavy industry in order to overcome the gap with the West, create the material and technical base of socialism, and strengthen defense capabilities. Unlike other countries of the world, industrialization in the USSR began with heavy industry and was carried out by limiting the consumption of the entire population, expropriating the funds of private owners in the city and robbing the peasantry.

International- the name of a large international association of the working class (International Workers' Association), created to coordinate the movement of the proletariat. The First International was founded with the direct participation of K. Marx and F. Engels in 1864. In 1876 its activities ceased. The Second International was founded in 1889 and existed until 1914, that is, until the First World War. With the outbreak of hostilities, the social democratic parties of the leading Western European countries spoke out in favor of supporting their governments in the war, which predetermined the collapse of the international unification. The III International (Communist International, or Comintern) was formed by V.I. Lenin in 1919 and became a kind of headquarters of the communist movement, located in Moscow. The Comintern became an instrument for the implementation of the idea of ​​world revolution. May 15, 1943 I.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, “fulfilled its mission.” In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Josephites- representatives of the church-political movement and religious movement in the Russian state (late 15th - mid-16th centuries). It was named after the abbot of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, Joseph of Volotsky. In the fight against non-acquisitive people, they defended the dominant position of the church in Russian society, the inviolability of church dogmas, and the inviolability of the church's ownership. They were supported by the grand princely authorities, and the Josephite Philotheus created the theory of “Moscow - the third Rome”. In the second half of the 16th century. lost their influence in church and political affairs.

Sharecropping- a type of sharecropping in which the rent for the land is half the harvest.