2 Russian-Turkish war. Russo-Turkish wars
Russian- Turkish war 1787–1791 was unleashed by Turkey in order to return Crimea. Russian troops operated as part of two armies, united under the general command of G.A. Potemkin. Victory A.V. Suvorov near Kinburn (1787), Fokshani and on the Rymnik River (1789), the capture of Izmail (1790), as well as the naval victories of F.F. Ushakov in the Battle of Kerch and at Tendra Island (1790) weakened the Turkish army and navy. Defeats in the Battle of Machinsky and the naval battle of Kaliakria in 1791 forced Turkey to make peace. He confirmed the annexation of Crimea to Russia, established a new Russian-Turkish border - along the Dniester River, and in the Caucasus - along the Kuban River.
Battle of the Rymnik River (1789)
The period of the Russian-Turkish war 1787–1791. marked by a number of battles on land and sea. One of them was the battle on the Rymnik River on September 11, 1789 between the 100,000-strong Turkish army and the allied army (7,000-strong Russian and 18,000-strong Austrian detachments). Turkish troops occupied three fortified camps located at a distance of 6–7 km from one another. A.V. Suvorov, who commanded the Russian detachment, decided to defeat the enemy piece by piece. For this purpose, he used battalion squares in 2 lines, behind which the cavalry advanced. During a stubborn battle that lasted 12 hours, the Turkish army was completely defeated. The Russians and Austrians lost 1 thousand people killed and wounded, and the Turks - 10 thousand.
Battle of Tendra Island August 29 (September 11), 1790 – Day of Military Glory (victory day) of Russia
The naval battle off Tendra Island took place during the Russian-Turkish War of 1787–1791. between the Russian Black Sea Fleet (37 ships, frigates and other vessels) under the command of Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov and the Turkish fleet (45 ships, frigates and other vessels). On August 28 (September 8), 1790, the Russian squadron suddenly attacked the enemy on the move. During a fierce battle that ended on August 29 (September 9), the Turkish fleet suffered a serious defeat. As a result of this victory, the dominant position of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea was ensured.
Assault on Izmail December 11 (24), 1790 – Day of Military Glory (victory day) of Russia
Of particular importance during the Russian-Turkish war of 1787–1791. had the capture of Izmail, the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube.
Izmail, called "Ordu-kalessi" ("army fortress") by the Turks, was rebuilt by Western engineers in accordance with the requirements of modern fortification. From the south the fortress was protected by the Danube. A ditch 12 m wide and up to 10 m deep was dug around the fortress walls. Inside the city there were many stone buildings convenient for defense. The fortress garrison numbered 35 thousand people with 265 guns.
Russian troops approached Izmail in November 1790 and began its siege. However, bad autumn weather made combat operations difficult. Sickness began among the soldiers. And then the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Field Marshal G.A. Potemkin decided to entrust the capture of Izmail to A.V. Suvorov, who arrived to the troops on December 2 (13). Suvorov had 31 thousand people and 500 guns under his command.
Suvorov immediately began preparing for the assault. The troops were trained to overcome obstacles using fascines and assault ladders. Much attention was paid to raising the morale of Russian soldiers. The plan for the assault on Izmail was a sudden night attack of the fortress from three sides at once with the support of a river flotilla.
After completing preparations for the assault on A.V. On December 7 (18), Suvorov sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress Aidos Mehmet Pasha demanding surrender. The commandant's envoy conveyed the answer that “it would be more likely that the Danube would stop in its flow, the sky would fall to the ground, than Ishmael would surrender.”
On December 10 (21), Russian artillery opened fire on the fortress and continued it all day. On December 11 (22), at 3 o'clock in the morning, at a signal from a rocket, columns of Russian troops began to advance to the walls of Izmail. At 5:30 the assault began. The Turks opened strong rifle and cannon fire, but it did not hold back the rush of the attackers. After a 10-hour assault and street fighting, Izmail was taken. During the capture of Izmail, Major General M.I. distinguished himself. Kutuzov, who was appointed commandant of the fortress.
Enemy losses amounted to up to 26 thousand killed and about 9 thousand captured. The Russian army lost 4 thousand killed and 6 thousand wounded.
Izmail was taken by an army that was inferior in number to the garrison of the fortress - an extremely rare case in the history of military art. The advantage of an open assault on fortresses compared to the then dominant methods in the West of mastering them through a long siege was also revealed. The new method made it possible to take fortresses in a shorter time and with few losses.
The thunder of the cannons near Izmail announced one of the most brilliant victories of Russian weapons. The legendary feat of Suvorov's miracle heroes, who crushed the strongholds of the impregnable fortress, became a symbol of Russian military glory.
Battle of Cape Kaliakra (1791)
After the defeat at Izmail in December 1790, Türkiye did not lay down its arms. In the final stage of the Russian-Turkish war of 1787–1791. The Turkish army, having suffered defeat at Machin and Anapa, pinned its last hopes on the fleet.
July 29 (August 9) Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov led the Black Sea Fleet out to sea from Sevastopol, consisting of 16 battleships, 2 frigates, 2 bombardment ships, 17 cruising ships, 1 fire ship and a rehearsal ship (980 guns in total) in order to search for and destroy the Turkish fleet. On July 31 (August 11), on the approach to Cape Kaliakria, he discovered the Turkish fleet of Kapudan Pasha Hussein at anchor, consisting of 18 battleships, 17 frigates and 43 smaller ships (1,800 guns in total). The Russian flagship, having assessed the enemy's position, decided to win the wind and cut off the Turkish ships from the coastal batteries covering it in order to give a general battle on the high seas in favorable conditions.
The rapid approach of the Russian fleet took the enemy by surprise. Despite the powerful fire from coastal batteries, the Russian fleet, having reorganized into a battle formation as it approached the enemy, passed between the shore and the Turkish ships, and then attacked the enemy with short distance. The Turks desperately resisted, but could not withstand the Russian fire and began to retreat randomly to the Bosphorus. The entire Turkish fleet was scattered across the sea. Of its composition, 28 ships did not return to their ports, including 1 battleship, 4 frigates, 3 brigantines and 21 gunboats. All surviving battleships and frigates were seriously damaged. Most of the crews of the Turkish fleet were destroyed, while Russian ships 17 people were killed and 28 wounded. The Black Sea Fleet had no losses in its ship composition.
Since the Chesme fire (1770), the Turkish fleet has not known such a crushing defeat. As a result of the victory, the Russian fleet gained complete dominance in the Black Sea, and Russia finally established itself as an influential Black Sea power. The defeat of the Turkish fleet in the battle of Cape Kaliakria largely contributed to the final defeat of Turkey in the war with Russia. On December 29, 1791 (January 9, 1792) a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, according to which Russia secured Crimea, the entire northern coast of the Black Sea and freedom of passage through the Black Sea straits.
Russian-Turkish relations in the 16th-19th centuries. were quite tense. Information about the first conflicts between Russia and the Crimean Tatars dates back to the 1500s. The main reason for the Russian-Turkish wars was Russia’s desire to control the territories of the Northern Black Sea region, the Caucasus, the North and later the South, the desire to gain the possibility of navigation in the straits, as well as Russia’s struggle for the rights of Christians living in Ottoman Empire.
Russian-Turkish War 1568-1570
The cause of the first Russian-Turkish war of 1568-1570. the desire of the ruler of the Ottoman Empire Suleiman 1st to return influence to the territories of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates appeared in 1552 and 1556. respectively attached. But the war began only after the death of Suleiman 1st. The new ruler entrusted the conduct of the campaign to Kasim Pasha. An army of more than 19 thousand people appeared in the Astrakhan region in the summer of 1569. The city commandant, Prince Serebryany, defeated the besiegers. The reinforcements that arrived in time for him were able to defeat the then considerable Turkish army of 50 thousand people, sent to protect the builders of the canal, which, according to the attackers, was supposed to connect the Don and Volga. The fleet, which was besieging Azov at the same time, was almost completely destroyed by the storm. Thus, the first Russian-Turkish war ended in Russian victory.
Russian-Turkish War 1676-1681
The Second Russian-Turkish War was provoked by an attempt by the Ottoman Empire to gain control over the territory of Right Bank Ukraine and intervene in the confrontation between Russia and Poland. Major events Russian-Turkish war of 1676-1681. concentrated at Chigirin, which was the capital of the Ukrainian Cossacks. The city was captured in 1676 by Hetman Doroshenko, who relied on the support of Turkey. Later, Chigirin was recaptured by the troops of Prince Romodanovsky and Hetman Samoilovich. According to the Bakhchisarai Peace Treaty concluded in the winter of 1681, the border between Russia and Turkey along the lower reaches of the Dnieper was established.
Russian-Turkish War 1735-1739
Russo-Turkish War 1735-1739 became a consequence of the noticeably more frequent raids of the Crimean Tatars and the contradictions that aggravated during the Russian-Polish war of 1733-1735. For Russia, the possibility of access to the Black Sea was of great importance. Russian troops inflicted a number of serious defeats on the Ottoman Empire between 1735 and 1737, but due to severe water shortages and a plague epidemic, they were forced to abandon their positions. Austria later entered the conflict, but also faced shortages fresh water. Negotiations in August 1737 did not bring results, but within next year there were no active hostilities. According to the Peace of Belgrade concluded in 1739, Russia returned Azov.
Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774
Access to the Black Sea coast was necessary for Russia to develop trade. However, the government sought to postpone the outbreak of armed conflict until other problems were resolved. But such a policy was regarded by the Ottoman Empire as weakness. However, the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. turned out to be a failure for Turkey. Rumyantsev successfully blocked attempts by Turkish troops to penetrate deep into the country. The turning point in the war was 1770. Rumyantsev inflicted a number of defeats on the Turkish troops. Spiridonov's squadron made the first passage in history from the Baltic to the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, to the rear of the Turkish fleet. The decisive Battle of Chesme led to the destruction of the entire Turkish fleet. And after the Dardanelles were blockaded, Turkish trade was disrupted. However, despite the excellent chances of developing success, Russia sought to conclude peace as quickly as possible. Catherine needed troops to suppress the peasant uprising. According to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty of 1774, Crimea gained independence from Turkey. Russia received Azov, Lesser Kabarda and some other territories.
Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791
Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791 was unleashed by the Ottoman Empire, which imposed an ultimatum with a number of absolutely impossible demands. By that time, an alliance had been concluded between Russia and Austria. The first successful military operations of the Turkish army against the Austrian troops soon gave way to heavy defeats inflicted by Russian troops under the command of Field Marshals Potemkin and Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky. At sea during the Russian-Turkish War of 1787-1792, despite its numerical superiority, the Turkish fleet was defeated by rear admirals Ushakov, Voinovich, and Mordvinov. The result of this war was the Peace of Yassy concluded in 1791, according to which Ochakov and Crimea were ceded to Russia.
Russian-Turkish War 1806-1812
Having concluded an alliance with Napoleon Bonaparte to return its Black Sea territories, the Ottoman Empire provoked another Russian-Turkish war (1806-1812). It began at the turn of 1805-1806. The approaching war with Napoleon forced Russia to strive for a speedy end to the conflict. As a result, the Bucharest Peace Treaty assigned Bessarabia to Russia. Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th century. led to increased Russian influence in the Black Sea basin.
Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829
Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829 began after Russia and its allies, France and England, supported the liberation movement in Greece. This caused indignation in Turkey, which declared holy war on Russia. Fighting started in April. Wittgenstein's army occupied the principalities of Moldova, Dobruja, Wallachia and was able to launch an offensive on the territory of Bulgaria. And in the Caucasus, a military corps under the command of Paskevich occupied Kare, Akhaltsikhe, Ardagan, Poti, and Bayazet. In 1829, under the command of Dibich, a 40,000-strong Turkish army was defeated at Kulevcha. After the capture of Adrianople, the way to Istanbul was opened. In September, Russia and Turkey signed a peace treaty, according to which Russia received the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast to Batumi. The Bosphorus and Dardanelles have since become open to Russian ships in peacetime.
Russian-Turkish War 1853-1856.
This is Russia's war for dominance in the Balkans and the Black Sea basin with a coalition of the French, British, Ottoman Empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Russian-Turkish War 1853-1856. revealed serious technological backwardness of equipment Russian army. The Allies were able to successfully land in Crimea. But on the Caucasian front Russian troops were able to defeat the Turkish army and capture Kars. Russia was forced to capitulate due to increasing political isolation. According to the Treaty of Paris in 1856, Russia ceded the mouth of the Danube and southern Bessarabia to Turkey. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878
In the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. participated on one side Russian empire with the allied Balkan states and the Ottoman Empire on the other. The conflict was caused by strengthening nationalist sentiments and growing self-awareness in Bulgaria. The April uprising in Bulgaria, brutally suppressed, aroused sympathy for the Christians of the Ottoman Empire. After crossing the Danube, capturing the Shipka Pass and a five-month siege, Osman Pasha's army capitulated. The act of surrender was signed in Plevna. After this, during a raid through the Balkans, the last Turkish units covering the road to Constantinople were defeated. In 1878, at the Berlin Congress, the return of the territory of Bessarabia to Russia was recorded, as well as the annexation of Kars, Batumi, and Ardahan. The result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. There was also the restoration of the independence of Bulgaria, the increase in the lands of Serbia, Romania and Montenegro.
From the very conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzh peace treaty, despite its confirmation in 1779, Turkey tried to evade the fulfillment of its assumed responsibilities, continuing through its agents to worry the inhabitants of Crimea and Kuban and make all kinds of restrictions on our trade.The establishment of Russia in the Crimea and the rapid appearance of the beginnings of a strong fleet on the Black Sea aroused alarming fears of the Porte, intensified by states hostile to us, headed by Prussia. Anticipating a close break with Turkey, Catherine soon after her departure from Crimea, ordered the Sevastopol squadron to be ready to meet the enemy at sea, and the Liman flotilla to take measures to protect Kinburn and Kherson.
Catherine, aware of the weakness of the Black Sea Fleet and wanting to gain the time necessary to strengthen it, was very concerned about maintaining peaceful relations with Turkey. Just before the start of the war, she wrote to Potemkin: “It is very necessary to hold out for two years, otherwise the war will interrupt the construction of the fleet.” But the Turks also understood this well and rushed to open hostilities without waiting for a declaration of war. The manifesto on the break with Turkey took place on September 7.
Turkish attack on our ships in the estuary
On August 21, 1787, the Turkish fleet stationed near Ochakov had already attacked our frigate Skory and the boat Bityug. Despite the significant forces of the enemy and the action of the fortress artillery, our ships, firing for three hours at the closest distance from the pursuing Turks, retreated to the Deep Pier, having only four people killed and wounded. The Turkish fleet, located at Ochakov, consisted of 3 ships, 1 frigate, 1 bombardier boat, 14 small sailing ships, 15 galleys and several smaller rowing vessels. The fleet was commanded by the brave and experienced captain Pasha Eski-Hassan, who was the commander of the Turkish flagship that took off in the Battle of Chesme.The weakness of the Black Sea Fleet
Our naval forces in the Dnieper Estuary were commanded by the Head of the Black Sea Fleet and Ports, Rear Admiral N. S. Mordvinov. In the estuary he had 3 ships, 3 frigates, 1 boat, 7 galleys, 2 floating batteries and several small ships. The actual strength of our flotilla was incomparably weaker than what it should have had in terms of the number and rank of its ships. Given the great haste of equipment and the inevitable material shortages, the Liman Fleet was in dire need of people in general, and especially experienced officers and sailors. Its artillery at the beginning of the war was also in a very unsatisfactory condition: some of the ships had only half the number of guns, many galleys had one 6-pounder gun, and the rest were 3-pounders, and only later could they put one on them and on the boats a pound unicorn. The flotilla even included the squadron on which the empress sailed along the Dnieper. Its ships, built to house servants, kitchens, stables, etc., were quickly armed and adapted for action against the enemy.The fleet goes to sea
Potemkin urgently demanded that the head of the Sevastopol squadron, Rear Admiral Count M.I. Voinovich, promptly go to sea. “Where you see the Turkish fleet,” he wrote to Voinovich, “attack it at all costs... even if everyone dies, but you must show your fearlessness in attacking and exterminating the enemy.” The squadron left and headed towards Varna, where part of the Turkish fleet was located; but on the way she met a severe storm, which forced her to return to Sevastopol to repair the damage she had received. With incredibly strong winds and enormous seas, on many ships that were not particularly strong, the main parts of the body became loose: the beams came out of their places, the joints of the planks separated and such a strong leak opened that it was necessary to use terrible efforts to keep the ships on water. Many ships lost their masts due to the bursting of shrouds and shrouds, and the flagship lost all three.The frigate Crimea sank, and the ship Maria Magdalene, reduced to the point of being unable to stay at sea, was carried into the Bosphorus and surrendered to the enemy. In general, the damage to the squadron was so significant that in order to save itself from death, Voinovich was forced to anchor almost on the open sea.
Military operations in the estuary
The lack of help from Voinovich forced the Liman flotilla to refrain from any risky attack on the strongest enemy, and Mordvinov limited himself primarily to defense. Several attacks carried out by the Turkish fleet and the troops landing from it on the Kinburn fortress were repulsed with great damage by the fire of the fortress, in which the commander of the troops on the Dnieper, Lieutenant General, the future famous field marshal, A.V. Suvorov, commanded. Although Mordvinov appointed two frigates and four galleys to help him, only one galley Desna, under the command of midshipman Lombard, took part in the case. Its armament consisted of a pound unicorn and 16 three-foot cannons and falconets, in addition, there were 120 grenadiers on the galley. During one of Kinburn's attacks, Lombard attacked several enemy ships standing separately from the fleet and forced them to move away from the fortress. During these unsuccessful attacks by the Turks, they had a ship and one xebek blown up and another xebek and two gunboats sunk. In the last of the attacks on September 30, after a heavy bombardment from a fleet that came close, the enemy landed up to 5 thousand troops on the Kinburn Spit, from which, after a bloody battle, barely 500 people escaped by swimming to their ships. In this case, Lombard again distinguished himself, attacking the left wing of the enemy fleet with his galley and forcing 17 small ships to move away from the fortress.On October 4, during a night attack by several ships of our Liman fleet on a Turkish ship and gunboats stationed near Ochakov, one floating battery, which entered into action without waiting for the arrival of its ships, was surrounded by the Turks. Its commander, captain 2nd rank Verevkin, fighting off the strongest enemy, managed to go to sea, but, stranded near Gadzhibey, he took the crew from the sunken battery to the shore, where he was captured. The next day, Mordvinov with 8 ships, approaching Ochakov, after a long firefight, forced the Turkish ships, standing in a cramped place between the shoals, out of fear of fire ships, to move 15 versts out to sea; and in mid-October the enemy fleet left Ochakov and went to the Bosphorus. Thus, during the continuation of this year’s campaign, thanks to the brave defense of Kinburn and the actions of the weak Liman fleet, without the participation of the Sevastopol squadron, it was possible to prevent the enemy from reaching Kherson. But for a strong establishment on the Dnieper estuary, Russia needed to capture Ochakov, which, in addition to being a dangerous neighborhood for Kinburn, served the enemy as a stronghold for actions against the Crimea. Therefore, the capture of Ochakov was the main goal of the campaign of the upcoming 1788. The eighty thousand strong Ekaterinoslav army, under the command of Prince Potemkin, was appointed to capture Ochakov and to occupy the country between the Bug and Dniester rivers, and the Ukrainian army, 30 thousand strong, entrusted to Count Rumyantsev, was supposed to cover the right flank of Potemkin’s army and operate between the Dniester and Prut. In addition, separate corps defended Crimea and our border in the Kuban.
Strengthening the fleet for the 1788 campaign
As the winter continued, the Liman fleet was significantly improved and replenished with new ships, between which were large double-boats armed with 11 guns, including two 30-pound cannons. Mordvinov, left in Kherson, was supposed to take care of all the needs of the fleet and oversee the general course of its activities, while the immediate command of the fleet was entrusted to two remarkable foreigners: Prince Nassau-Siegen and the Scotsman Paul-Jones, accepted into the Russian service with the ranks of counter- admirals. The first of them, having circumnavigated the world with the French captain Bougainville and served first in the French and then in the Spanish troops, distinguished himself in several battles with extraordinary courage and stewardship. The second, Paul Jones, became famous for his courage and military abilities in the fight for the independence of the United States. A rowing flotilla consisting of 51 pennants (7 galleys, 7 snipe boats, 7 floating batteries, 22 war boats, 7 deck boats and one fire-ship) came under the command of Nassau-Siegen; and under the command of Paul-Jones - a squadron of 14 sailing ships (2 ships, 4 frigates and 8 small ships). To assist the Sevastopol Fleet, about 20 cruising or corsair ships were built and equipped by the treasury and private individuals in Taganrog, Kherson and Kremenchug, most of which were converted from prizes captured from the Turks.From early spring, Sevastopol cruising ships began to capture enemy merchant and transport ships off the Danube estuaries and Anatolian shores. Voinovich's squadron, heading to Ochakov, was again forced by a strong storm to return to Sevastopol to repair the damage.
Saken's feat
The Turkish fleet, under the command of Captain Pasha Eski-Gassan, which arrived at Ochakov at the end of May, consisted of 10 ships, 6 frigates and 47 galleys, gunboats and other small vessels. To protect the estuary, our sailing squadron, between which the rowing flotilla vessels were placed, was located in a line from Cape Stanislavsky to the mouth of the Bug. The Turkish admiral, stopping at the entrance to the estuary, sent up to 30 vessels of the rowing fleet into it, to obtain information about the Russian fleet, which, seeing our snipe-boat sailing from Kinburn to the Deep Pier, surrounded it and opened fire. The commander of the snipe boat, Captain 2nd Rank Saken, fired back from the enemy to the last extremity, but when he became convinced of the impossibility of salvation, then, not allowing the thought of surrender, he fell with the nearest Turkish galleys and, together with them, exploded with the snipe boat into the air. The feat of heroic selflessness of Saken, which inspired the Russian sailors to the point of enthusiasm, did not remain without influence on the Turks themselves, showing them the danger of boarding Russian ships even with a huge superiority of forces.Defeat of the Turks on the Dnieper Estuary
Hoping to destroy the Liman Fleet before Potemkin’s army arrived at Ochakov, Captain Pasha twice energetically attacked the line of our ships, but was brilliantly repulsed with the loss of two ships (one of them was the Captain Pasha himself) and three small ships. After the second unsuccessful attack, the Turks, taking advantage of the darkness of the night, rushed in disarray to the exit from the estuary and, pursued by the Nassau-Siegen flotilla and fire from the Kinburn batteries, on July 18, they lost 13 ships burned and sunk (6 ships, 2 frigates, 1 bombardment ship and 4 small). In the last two battles, the Turks' loss in killed, drowned and wounded reached 6 thousand people; 1,763 people were captured. We only had 85 killed and wounded.The 12 enemy ships that did not manage to go to sea remained under Ochakov’s shots, but since they had strong artillery and could render great help besieged garrison, then Potemkin, approaching Ochakov with an army on July 1, ordered the destruction of these ships. Nassau-Siegen, despite heavy fire from the fortress, boldly attacked the Turks and, taking one ship prisoner, burned and sank all the rest. In the last battles, the Greek, Brigadier Alexiano, distinguished himself with particular courage and management, shortly before this he was greatly offended by the appointment of Paul-Jones in his place. Alexiano’s noble revenge, expressed in complete selflessness and in actions that greatly contributed to the victory over the strongest enemy, aroused the gratitude of Paul-Jones himself and drew the attention of Potemkin.
The battle at o. Fedonisi
The Sevastopol squadron, which managed to repair its damage, went to sea under the command of Voinovich and on July 3 near the island. Fedonisi met with the Turkish fleet. The Turks had 25 battleships and frigates and up to 20 small ships; Voinovich had 2 ships, 10 frigates and 24 small vessels. The captain-pasha, who was in the wind, attacked our fleet, sending five opponents to each of the ships and large frigates. But even with such a superiority of enemy forces, thanks to the skillful and decisive maneuvers of the head of the vanguard, Captain Ushakov, and the well-aimed, live fire of our artillery, soon after the start of the battle, many of the attacking Turkish ships, having suffered damage, hastened to evade the battle. The fierce struggle lasted for about 3 hours, and the captain-pasha was forced to leave the battlefield. Although the losses of the Turks were limited to one sunken xebek, an important consequence of our victory was that the enemy fleet, instead of the expected appearance off the coast of Crimea, had to retire to the shores of Rumelia to repair the damage. The Turkish ships that took part in the battle, compared to the Russians, had much stronger artillery, and therefore our ships also suffered quite a bit in this unequal battle. For example, the frigate Berislav, in addition to severe damage to the mast, received several important holes from Turkish stone hundred-pound cannonballs.In this first victory of the Black Sea Fleet over significant enemy forces, the combat abilities of Fyodor Fedorovich Ushakov, highly appreciated by Potemkin and which subsequently served as the reason for the appointment of Ushakov in Voinovich’s place, were revealed with particular brilliance.
At the end of July, the Turkish fleet, increased by ships located at the mouth of the Danube, returned to the besieged Ochakov, and the Turks, having occupied the nearby island of Berezan, erected strong fortifications on it. “He (Captain Pasha), wrote Potemkin, is making a great obstacle (to the success of the siege); stuck to Ochakov like a Spanish fly.” During their stay at the estuary, the Turks, despite the significance of their fleet, consisting of 25 linear and 40 small ships, did not dare to attack the defenders of the estuary and only managed, taking advantage of the wind contrary to our ships, to land a landing party of 1,500 people to reinforce the Ochakov garrison. But when there was a calm, the 33 Turkish ships remaining at the fortress were soon destroyed by our rowing flotilla.
To distract the enemy fleet from the besieged fortress, Potemkin sent Captain D.N. Senyavin with a detachment of 5 ships to the shores of Anatolia. Senyavin, successfully fulfilling the assignment given to him, took several prizes, burned up to 10 Turkish merchant ships, destroyed large reserves of grain on the shore and, in general, as Potemkin wrote, “spread fear along the Anatolian shores, causing a satisfying defeat to the enemy.” But the main goal of sending Senyavin’s detachment was not achieved: the Turkish fleet stubbornly held on to Ochakov until late autumn and left for the Bosporus only in November. Nassau-Siegen and Paul-Jones, who strongly disagreed with each other, left command of the fleet, which was still commanded by Rear Admiral Mordvinov. Our ships stayed in the estuary until the frosts and, caught in the ice, unable to reach the Bug and Kherson, remained to spend the winter in different places of the estuary. During this difficult autumn stay, 4 armed boats were killed by a strong storm.
Conquest of Ochakov
After the removal of the Turkish fleet, the fortifications on the island of Berezan were taken, and on December 6, after a bloody assault, Russian troops captured Ochakov. The acquisition of this fortress meant for Russia important: it finally and firmly established the possession of the Dnieper estuary and the adjacent region, brought security to Kherson and protected Crimea from the influence of Turkey.Russian corsairs in the Archipelago
The next year, 1789, in addition to the Danube and the Black Sea, following the example of the previous war, it was planned to act on Turkey from the side of the Archipelago. To accomplish this, in the spring of 1788, Lieutenant General Zaborovsky was sent to Italy with some agents to prepare an uprising of the Christian population of Turkey, recruit several thousand Slavs and Greeks into the Russian service and equip a detachment of corsair ships. Vice Admiral Greig was appointed commander-in-chief of the naval and ground forces in the Archipelago, who with a strong squadron arming itself in Kronstadt was supposed to go to the Mediterranean Sea. But the outbreak of war with the Swedes prevented the departure of Greig's squadron and stopped the recruitment of troops among the Christian peoples subject to Turkey. Thus, our maritime activity on the part of the Archipelago was limited only to equipping corsair ships. Some of them were the property of Greek and Slavic sailors, others were armed at the expense of the Russian government. All ships had Russian flags; their crews, consisting of local residents, wore Russian military uniforms, and captains and officers received Russian ranks. Turkish and Swedish ships were given full prey to the corsairs, and attacks on ships of neutral nations were strictly prohibited, except in cases of obvious suspicion of transporting military contraband. Two corsair squadrons, equipped in Trieste and Syracuse, appeared at the entrance to the Dardanelles in March 1789. One of them was commanded by the Greek Lambro Kachoni, who was distinguished by his extraordinary courage even in the last war and received the rank of major for his exploits. The other squadron, consisting of ships armed by the government, was commanded by the old Maltese captain Lorenzo Guilgelmo, a former pirate and the fiercest enemy of the Turks. He was accepted into the Russian service with the rank of lieutenant colonel or captain of the 2nd rank. The crews of the ships consisted of experienced, brave sailors, ready to undertake the most risky enterprises because of the rich spoils. Corsair ships, despite their small size and weak artillery, caused significant damage to the enemy. By attacking ships going to Constantinople, the corsairs made it much more difficult to deliver food supplies to the capital and made the population feel the burden of war. They ravaged the coastal villages, and once Lambro Caccioni even took the small fortress of Castel Rosso. Capturing and destroying merchant ships, the corsairs, at the right opportunity, decided to enter into battle even with Turkish military ships, for example, Gilhelmo’s squadron, consisting of 9 ships, between the islands of Zeo and Sira entered into battle with an enemy detachment (of 3 ships, 2 half-galleys and 5 kirlangchi) and forced the Turks to retreat. In general, corsair ships often disturbed the enemy, harming trade traffic in the Archipelago. Ruining coastal villages, they forced the Turkish government to maintain significant detachments of ground troops and military vessels to protect their shores, thereby diverting them from the Danube and the Black Sea.The new Turkish Sultan Selim III, who ascended the throne after the death of Sultan Abdul Hamid, was dissatisfied with the actions of Captain Pasha Eski-Hassan, and appointed his favorite and fellow pupil, almost a youth, Hussein in his place. Taking care of the speedy replenishment of the fleet with new ships, Hussein in early spring sent squadrons to guard the coasts to Sinop and Varna, but they did not prevent our cruisers from destroying several Turkish ships near the mouth of the Danube and devastating the coast near Kyustendzhi. The Turkish fleet appeared off the coast of Crimea and stood for some time near the Dnieper estuary, but, remembering previous failures, did not dare to make an attempt to attack our fleet. In early September, the appearance of the Sevastopol fleet forced the Turks to retire to the sea and made it possible for Voinovich to move from the estuary to Sevastopol with a squadron of four newly built ships, 10 frigates (from 50 to 20 guns), one bombardier and several small ships. That same fall, two new ships were brought from Taganrog to Sevastopol, and Voinovich reported to Potemkin: “Now the Turkish fleet seems to have someone to talk to on the Black Sea.”
With some lull in naval warfare, our land armies, acting in alliance with the Austrians, won brilliant victories. Suvorov defeated the Turks at Focsani and Rymnik, Prince Repnin, who took command of the army instead of Rumyantsev, won a victory at the Salce River, and Potemkin occupied Chisinau and Akkerman, cut off by the flotilla from help from the sea. This year's military operations ended with the capture of Bendery. Throughout the entire campaign, a detachment of the Liman flotilla under the command of Captain Akhmatov was stationed on the Danube to assist the ground forces.
Capture of Hajibey and foundation of Nikolaev
An important naval success was the capture of the small fortress of Gadzhibey, located 60 versts west of Ochakov near a vast bay, from which at that time the Turks exported large quantities of grain and where the city of Odessa was subsequently built. In the same 1789, at the confluence of the Bug and Ingula rivers, a new shipyard was built in a place more convenient than in Kherson. The city founded under her name was named Nikolaev by Potemkin. The first ship laid down at the Nikolaev shipyard was a 46-gun frigate, also named Nikolai.The indecisive and overly cautious actions of Count Voinovich forced Potemkin to appoint Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov as the head of the Sevastopol fleet and port, whose glorious exploits were not slow to justify this.
Russia's political predicament
The protracted war with Turkey, despite brilliant victories and the occupation of several important fortresses, did not lead to the desired peace; Meanwhile, the political situation was very tense. The Swedish war continued, and Prussia, having started it, tried to arm Poland against us. The new war, which was preparing to break out with the onset of the spring of 1790, did not take place only because of the greed of Prussia, which demanded the cities of Danzig and Thorn for help to Poland. With the death of Emperor Joseph, our alliance with Austria weakened, and the new Emperor Leopold II, by agreement with Prussia in Reichenbach, was inclined towards peace with Turkey. Under such circumstances, the Porte, under the influence of Prussia and England, convinced of the extreme weakening of Russia, hoped, by continuing the war, to achieve an honorable peace for itself.The commander-in-chief of the Turkish army on the Danube, the Grand Vizier, clearly aware that the Turks would be defeated during offensive actions, considered it best to occupy a strong garrison of the fortress along the lower reaches of the Danube, and especially Izmail, and limit himself to a defensive position. He proposed to direct a decisive blow to the southern borders of Russia, moving a 40,000-strong corps from Anapa to Kuban and sending a large fleet with a strong landing to capture the Crimea and destroy Sevastopol and the fleet. The happy start of hostilities encouraged the Turks in further successes: the Austrian troops, under the command of the Prince of Coburg, suffered a severe defeat at Zhurzha, and our general Bibikov, who undertook a winter campaign to capture Anapa, was repulsed and returned with great damage.
Fleet victories at the Kerch Strait and at Gadzhibey (Battle of Tendra)
But the Turks were not so happy at sea. In the middle of May 1790, Ushakov, leaving Sevastopol with a squadron of 7 linear and 12 small ships, for three weeks walked around the shores of Anatolia and Abkhazia from Sinop to Anapa, bombarded cities, burned and sank the ships, removing cargo from them, and, returning to Sevastopol, brought with him eight prizes, captured ships loaded with wheat. Having received news of the Turkish fleet going to sea, Ushakov went to look for the enemy and met him at the Kerch Strait. Our flagship had 10 ships, 6 frigates and 17 small ships, and the Turkish fleet, under the command of Captain Pasha Hussein, consisted of 54 pennants (10 ships, including four of “excellent size”, 8 frigates and 36 bombardment and small ships).On the morning of July 8, both fleets, lined up in a battle line on the port tack, approached within a cannon shot. The Turks, who were in the wind, attacked our vanguard, which was under the command of Brigadier Golenkin, but the advanced enemy ships, met by strong and well-aimed fire, soon fell into confusion. The Turkish admiral reinforced the attack with the addition of new ships; and Ushakov, closing the line of ships and adding sails, hurried to the aid of those attacked; under the wind of the vanguard, he built a line of frigates that formed a reserve, ready to provide immediate assistance where it would be most needed.
In a fierce battle, many enemy ships with battered spars and rigging fell behind our line, suffering even greater defeats here. The wind, which changed to our advantage by four points, allowed us to approach the enemy within the distance of a grape shot, and when the Turks turned on another tack, under the fire of our artillery, their ships suffered terrible defeats. Three badly beaten ships were ready to surrender, but they were saved by the arrival of help. The rear admiral's ship caught fire twice; the flag shot down from the vice admiral's ship was taken by a boat lowered from one of the Russian ships. When our fleet also turned onto another tack, the flagship, and behind it, other Turkish ships began to descend to cover their battered ships and, pursued by Ushakov, hurried to go downwind, continuing to fire back from the enemies that were overtaking them. Thanks to the darkness and the better progress of the ships, compared to ours, the enemy managed to escape. The most brutal and continuous battle lasted from noon to 6 pm. Our loss consisted of 100 people killed and wounded, but the enemy's, apparently, was incomparably more. The defeat of the Turkish fleet at Kerch Strait was averted by the enemy's alleged attack on Crimea.
Having repaired the damage to his ships in Sevastopol, Ushakov again set out to sea and joined the four frigates of the Liman squadron, which was located at Ochakov under the command of Major General Ribas, ready for departure.
On August 28, seeing the Turkish fleet anchored between Tendra and Hajibey, the admiral, despite the superiority of the enemy forces, boldly attacked it. The Turks, not expecting an attack, hastened to cut the ropes and, setting sail, lay close-hauled on the port tack, heading towards the mouths of the Danube. Ushakov, keeping to the wind and increasing the sails, took such a course as to cut off the rear ships of the enemy. Captain Pasha, the same Hussein, under whom the experienced admiral Said Bey was an adviser, turned on the starboard tack and, forming a battle line, went to the aid of the cut-off ships. Ushakov, who was in the wind, in the battle line, on the starboard tack went down to the enemy with a shot of grapeshot and opened fierce fire on him, which soon forced the damaged Turkish ships to leave their places and go down to the wind. The admiral ordered three frigates to leave the line and hold against our vanguard to help it in the event that the enemy put it in two fires. Signals about the pursuit of the enemy and about his intensified attack, which were not sent on the ship of our flagship, were executed by all ship commanders accurately and decisively. After a two-hour fierce battle, the defeat of the enemy was certain, and the Turks, pursued at the closest distance by our ships, began to gybe at about 5 o'clock in the evening and fled in complete disorder. At the height of the battle, there were moments when our ships, and especially the flagship, had to fight three opponents at the same time.
Despite the severe damage, the Turks, thanks to the speed of their ships and the onset of darkness, managed to escape the pursuit of the winner for the second time.
Ushakov, with a freshening wind, anchored to repair the damage, but at dawn, seeing the Turkish fleet not far away, he immediately weighed anchor and headed towards the enemy. The Turks, still not recovered from yesterday's defeat, scattered in different directions, fleeing from the terrible enemy. During this flight, one 66-gun ship, Meleki-Bahr (Lord of the Seas), was captured; and the other 74-gun, on which Said Bey was, caught fire and flew into the air after the most desperate resistance. At the same time, the elderly and brave admiral was saved by the Russian prisoners on the ship, who carried him out of the fire and transferred him to our approaching boat. Of the 800 people who made up the crew of the lost ship, barely a tenth was saved.
During the transition of the Turks to Constantinople, another 74-gun ship and several small ships that had extensive damage sank with its entire crew. In addition, the enemy lost two more small ships, taken after the battle by our cruisers, and a floating battery driven aground. In the battles of August 28 and 29, the Turks had 14 large ships, 8 also large frigates and 23 “chosen and best” various kinds small ships. Ushakov had 10 ships, 6 frigates and 20 small vessels; Moreover, the majority of Turkish ships were superior to the Russians both in their size and seamanship, and in the strength of their artillery.
The victorious fleet, anchored near Hajibey, was visited on September 1 by Potemkin, who arrived from Yassi. Delighted with the sailors' military successes, he thanked them all, from senior to junior. “Ours, thanks to God,” he wrote to one confidant, “they gave us such pepper that we liked it. Thanks to Fedor Fedorovich." The main culprit of the victory, Ushakov, was awarded the Order of St. George 2nd class, an annual pension and five hundred souls of peasants.
Potemkin, convinced by past examples that naval battles with the Turks, the defeat of the flagship upsets the entire fleet and introduces itself the surest remedy for victory, he ordered Ushakov to always have four of the best frigates with his ship during the battle under the name of the Keizer Flag Squadron. “With the aforementioned squadron,” he wrote to Ushakov, “push towards the flagship (ship), embracing it with strong and living fire; divide which ship should hit the rigging, which should hit the hull, and so that when firing cannonballs, some guns will launch bombs and cannonballs, but don’t bother taking them, but try to destroy them, because one is more likely than the other. Demand from everyone that they fight courageously, or, better yet, in the Black Sea style.”
Actions of the Danube Flotilla
The peace concluded with Sweden in August allowed the start of an offensive movement on the Danube. To assist the land army sent to the lower reaches of the Danube, the Liman Rowing Flotilla was sent under the command of Major General Ribas; Ushakov with the Sevastopol squadron was ordered to escort it from Ochakov to the mouth of the Danube. Unable to be with Ochakov by the time Ribas’s flotilla went to sea, Ushakov approached it only when it entered the mouth of the Danube. Having sent out cruisers to protect the river from the Turkish fleet, the admiral stood at anchor until half of November in a very inconvenient place in view of the Sulina and Kiliya estuaries, and when the presence of the fleet here was no longer necessary, Ushakov, having walked along the Rumelian coast almost to Kaliakria, returned to Sevastopol, where the cruisers also gathered, having managed to take several prizes.Ribas's flotilla, which entered the Danube, consisted of 34 ships (22 lances, 6 snipe boats, 2 boats, 1 schooner and 1 small vessel), 48 Cossack boats and several transports. During the autumn of 1790, our land army captured the fortresses: Kiliya, Tulcha, Isakchi, which contained a huge warehouse of various supplies for the Turkish army, and finally, after a bloody assault on December 11, Izmail, taken by Suvorov, fell, which was the enemy’s main stronghold for action. on the Danube. During the capture of these fortresses, with the exception of Kiliya, the rowing fleet took an active part, which was of great benefit to the ground forces. The total number of enemy ships captured was about 60, and the number of those blown up and sunk reached 200.
One of the remarkable deeds of Ribas was the capture of the fortifications at the entrance to the Sulim estuary; this gave the flotilla free entry into the Danube. During the siege of Ishmael, while on a double-boat under the command of Lombard, he lit and blew up a large Turkish ship with a firebrand, which was located at a distance of no more than 30 fathoms from the double-boat that attacked him.
Our corsair ships located in the Archipelago continued to bring some benefit, but it was greatly weakened by the discordant actions of the detachments of Lambro Cachoni and General Psaro, who took command of the detachment of Lorenzo Guilhelmo. The proud Lambro Cachoni, not wanting to obey Psaro, deliberately moved away from him and acted independently. Once, avoiding joint action with the Psaro squad. Lambro, having entered into battle with a strong enemy squadron, was completely defeated and, forced to burn his five ships, barely escaped to shore.
The hopes of the Turks for the successful action of the 40,000-strong corps moving from Anapa were completely unjustified. The Turks, encountered by General Herman in September in the Kuban, were completely defeated and fled with great damage, leaving 30 guns in the hands of the winners. The crowds of mountaineers who helped the Turks were scattered, and the two sovereign princes closest to our border and the inhabitants of the banks of the Laba River accepted Russian citizenship. Thus, during the continuation of the 1790 campaign, Turkey was defeated at sea and on land. It seemed that the failures she suffered, of which the most important was the loss of Ishmael, should have forced her to lean towards peace, but this was prevented by the influence of Prussia and England. The first, rejecting Austria from an alliance with Russia and restoring France against it, was already gathering troops to our border; England armed a strong fleet, threatening to send it to the Baltic Sea. In the hope of such powerful help, Turkey, despite heavy losses, decided to continue the war.
In 1791, the Ribas flotilla, which remained on the Danube, was to continue to assist our army, and the Sevastopol fleet, under the command of Ushakov, was to keep the Turkish fleet from attacking the shores, thereby ensuring freedom of movement for our ground forces. Ribas's flotilla guarded the banks of the Danube and, taking or destroying Turkish ships, repeatedly transported significant detachments of our troops across the river or built bridges for their crossing, as was the case at Galati. Finally, she provided important assistance in the capture of Brailov and especially Machin, during which Prince Repnin defeated an 80,000-strong enemy army.
Battle of Kaliakria
Entering the Black Sea, under the command of Captain Hussein Pasha, the Turkish fleet consisted of 18 ships, 10 large and 7 small frigates and 43 small vessels. In addition to the Turkish ships themselves, there were ships from Tunisia, Algeria, Tripoli and the Albanian city of Dulzinho. The Turks, anchored under the shots of coastal batteries off the Rumelian coast near Kaliakria, against Cape Kalerax Burnu, were attacked on July 31 by the Sevastopol fleet under the command of Ushakov. Our fleet, half the number of ships compared to the Turkish one, consisted of 16 battleships (including 9 had from 46 to 50 guns), 2 frigates, 2 bombardiers and 19 small ships.Having passed under battery fire between the enemy fleet and the shore, Ushakov, who was in the wind, quickly attacked the Turks. Not having time to raise anchors, the enemy ships cut the ropes and, with a fairly strong wind, setting sail in disarray, collided with each other and broke the spars. Hurrying to get away into the wind, the Turks, after several unsuccessful attempts, managed to form a battle line on the port tack. Ushakov, who was pursuing them in three columns, formed a fleet in a battle line on the same tack and, closing the distances, attacked the enemy. The ship Rozhdestvo Khristovo, under the flag of Ushakov, came within half a cable's distance of the bow of the ship of the Algerian flagship Said-Ali, knocked down its fore-topmast and main-topsail and inflicted such damage that it forced it to retreat behind other ships. The fierce battle, which lasted more than three hours, ended in the complete defeat of the Turks. The terribly beaten enemy ships, fleeing in disarray to jibe, were again covered by the saving night for the vanquished, and the subsiding wind made it possible to repair more dangerous damage. But despite this, on the way to the Bosphorus, with the wind strengthening, some of the ships most damaged in the battle sank, while others were forced to take refuge off the coast of Rumelia and Anatolia. Only the Algerian squadron reached the Bosphorus, and when the flagship ship, which had been destroyed by Ushakov, with more than 450 people killed and wounded, began to sink in the middle of the night, then, demanding help with cannon shots, he terribly alarmed the Sultan and the entire capital. The sad state of the returning ships clearly indicated what the outcome of the battle was. Panic fear, which gripped the inhabitants of Constantinople, was further increased by the spread of rumors about the imminent appearance of “Ushak Pasha” in the Bosphorus, as the Turks called Ushakov. The glorious victory at Kaliakria cost us only 17 people killed and 27 wounded; and the damage received by the ships turned out to be so insignificant that they were corrected within three days.
Meanwhile, the victories of our army on the Danube, the storming of the Anapa fortress and the occupation of Sudzhuk-Kale (present-day Novorossiysk) by General Gudovich forced the Turks to begin concluding peace, the preliminary conditions of which were signed by Prince Repnin and the Grand Vizier on July 31, the day of the battle of Kaliakria. If the Porte was still hesitant in choosing between peace and war, then Ushakov’s victory, which threatened the security of the capital itself, forced the Turks to become convinced of the need for a speedy conclusion of peace.
Treaty of Jassy
According to the peace treaty concluded in Iasi on December 29, 1791, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhsky treaty was restored in full force, with its subsequent clarifications and additions. Our border with the Caucasus remains the Kuban River, and with European Turkey the Dniester. Among other articles, various provisions and benefits were stipulated for the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were left in the possession of Turkey, and the peace and security of the possessions of the king of Kartal and Kakheti, which were under the protection of Russia, were ensured.Plan
Introduction
1 Background to the conflict
2 Russo-Turkish War (1676-1681)
3 Russo-Turkish War (1686-1700)
4 Russo-Turkish War (1710-1713)
5 Russo-Turkish War (1735-1739)
6 Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774)
7 Russo-Turkish War (1787-1792)
8 Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812)
9 Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829)
10 Crimean War (1853-1856)
11 Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
12 Caucasian Front (World War I)
13 List of Russian-Turkish wars
15 Sources
Introduction
Russian-Turkish wars (Turkish Osmanlı-Rus Savaşları) - a series of military conflicts between the Russian and Ottoman empires in the 17th-19th centuries.
The wars were fought initially over control of the Northern Black Sea region and Northern Caucasus, later - for the South Caucasus, for the rights of navigation in the straits, the rights of Christians within the Ottoman Empire and the right of their patronage by the Russian monarch, and in the half of the 19th century for their liberation from Ottoman rule and inclusion in the orbit of Russian influence ( see Eastern Question); During the First World War, the Russian government considered the possibility of capturing Constantinople and the straits.
In general, the Russian-Turkish wars cover a period of 241 years. On average, only 19 years separated one Russian-Turkish war from another.
1. Background to the conflict
Conflicts between Russia and Turkey began from the time of the latter’s conquest of Crimea in 1475. The reason for the beginning of relations was the oppression to which Russian merchants in Azov and Kafe began to be subjected to by the Turks. Russian trade in these cities, very active and profitable in the past, had to stop. In 1492, Ivan III, through the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray, sent Bayazet II a letter in which he complained about the oppression of the Russians by the Turks. The Sultan of Turkey, in response, sent his ambassador to the Moscow Tsar, but he was detained within Lithuanian borders and, by order of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander, was returned back to Turkey. After this, Ivan III sent his ambassador Mikhail Pleshcheev to Turkey in 1497, but permanent relations again did not begin.
Pleshcheev refused to perform exactly the Turkish ceremony. The Sultan therefore refused to send his ambassador to Ivan III, but gave Pleshcheev a charter, which protected all the rights and benefits of trade of Russian merchants within Turkish borders. Russian trade resumed. John also sent to the Sultan to complain about the robberies of the Azov Cossacks.
Under Vasily III, Russian relations with the Turks were actively maintained, and Grand Duke apparently attached great importance to them. In 1513, Alekseev was sent as ambassador to Constantinople to establish friendly relations between Vasily III and Sultan Selim. The Sultan responded to this with a letter in the Serbian language, which confirmed all the rights of Russian merchants in Turkey, and sent Ambassador Kaman expressing his readiness to be constantly with the Prince of Moscow “in friendship and brotherhood.” In 1515, Ambassador Korobov was sent from Moscow to Turkey, who ensured that the Turks did not take for themselves the property of Russian merchants (zaumorshchinas) who died in Turkey. Korobov also had instructions to conclude an alliance with the Sultan against Lithuania and Crimea, but Selim rejected this, promising to send a new ambassador to Moscow.
A year passed after this, then another - there was no news from the Sultan. After consulting with the boyars, the Grand Duke sent the nobleman Golokhvastov to Turkey in 1517 to ask about the health of the Sultan. The ambassador returned with a promise of safe trade, but not a word was said about an alliance against Lithuania and Crimea, the Sultan only forbade the Crimean Khan to attack the Moscow borders. Crimeans often violated this prohibition. Therefore, as soon as Vasily III learned about the death of Selim and the accession to the throne of Suleiman the Magnificent, immediately in 1521 he sent ambassador Gubin with congratulations and a complaint to him about the Crimean Khan, who was slandering Moscow to the Turkish Sultan. Gubin was believed in Turkey, and the Crimean Khan was again sent a strict order not to attack the Moscow borders.
Together with Gubin, the Turkish ambassador Skinder, Prince of Manku, came to Moscow with a proposal to the Tsar to send a good man to the Sultan to conclude strong friendship and brotherhood. Ivan Semenovich Morozov was sent, but the negotiations did not lead to anything. After this, relations with Turkey continued, but were predominantly of a commercial nature. Ominous signs also began to appear: Turkey declared Kazan to be the “yurt of the Sultan,” while Moscow considered it “the yurt of the Grand Duke of Moscow”; Türkiye was looking for places on the Don to build a Turkish city.
Skinder, an obviously influential man who had visited Moscow more than once as an ambassador, was particularly distinguished by his hostile attitude towards Moscow. During the reign of Elena Glinskaya, Moscow's relations with Turkey were peaceful; Turks still came to trade in Moscow. There was, however, an attempt on the part of Prince Semyon Belsky to raise Lithuania against the Moscow state in an alliance with Turkey and Crimea, but this attempt ended in failure. Belsky left Moscow and hoped to regain the principality of Belsky, and, perhaps, Ryazan. In 1541, during the boyar rule, when the Crimeans moved to Moscow under the command of Sahib I Giray, the Turks were with them. The latter are now increasingly beginning to help the Crimeans; Their relations with Moscow are aggravated, which was greatly facilitated by the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan by Ivan IV. Although the Sultan did not act actively, he encouraged the Crimean and Nogai khans to attack the Moscow borders and defend Kazan and Astrakhan.
In 1556, the Crimean Khan moved against Moscow. The Tsar sent against him the clerk Rzhevsky, who not only drove out the Crimeans, but even went to the lower reaches of the Dnieper, to Ochakov and defeated the Turks here. In this campaign, Rzhevsky was helped by the Zaporozhye Cossacks. In 1558, during a new clash with the Crimeans, Danilo Adashev went to the lower reaches of the Dnieper, devastated the Crimea and took two Turkish ships. The Turkish Sultan Suleiman II, busy with other matters, ignored all these successes of the Moscow army for the time being. Finally, in 1563, he planned a campaign to Astrakhan, wanting to take it away from Moscow. The Crimean Khan dissuaded him, fearing the strengthening of the Turkish Sultan on the northern shores of the Black Sea. Until 1569, the Crimean Khan managed to delay the Turkish campaign.
Suleiman I died in 1566; his successor Selim II entrusted the conduct of the campaign to Kafa Pasha Kasim, but the campaign ended in complete failure. This did not eliminate the danger that threatened Moscow from Constantinople. Wanting to prevent it, John IV sent Novosiltsev as ambassador to the Turkish Sultan, who was supposed to recall the previous friendly relations between Moscow and Turkey and offer to be in the same relations in the future. The Sultan demanded the opening of the Astrakhan road for trade, free passage of merchants into Moscow, and the destruction of the Kabardian town built by the Russians.
In 1571 he was sent to Turkey new ambassador Kuzminsky, who, on behalf of the tsar, promised the destruction of the Kabardian town and proposed an alliance “against the Roman and Polish kings, and the Czech, and the French, and other kings, and all the Italian sovereigns.” The alliance, however, was not concluded due to the fact that the Sultan demanded Kazan and Astrakhan for himself.
During the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich, relations with Turkey continued. In addition to the difficulties that Turkey caused Moscow with its constant support of the Crimean Khan, new complications arose: the Don Cossacks, considered Moscow subjects, attacked the Azov Cossacks, the Nogais, whom the Sultan considered his subjects, and harassed them. In July 1584, the envoy Blagov was sent from Moscow to Sultan Amurat; he was supposed to announce the accession of Fyodor Ivanovich to the throne, also announce that the new tsar would exempt Turkish merchants from duties and tamgas and would settle the misunderstandings that arose due to the fact that the Don Cossacks were fugitive people and did not obey the Moscow tsar. The main goal of Blagov’s embassy was to again establish friendly relations with the Sultan. The negotiations ended in nothing. The Sultan, however, sent his envoy Ibrahim along with Blagov to Moscow, but he refused to negotiate an alliance and reduced everything to the question of the Don Cossacks.
In 1592, the nobleman Nashchokin was sent to the Sultan, in 1594 - the nobleman Islenev. The Sultan still avoided an alliance, brought the whole matter to the Don Cossacks and demanded that Moscow bring the Don Cossacks together and destroy the fortresses on the Don and Terek. Moscow again asserted that the Cossacks were fugitives, thieves, and acted without permission, without the tsar’s knowledge. In Turkey, apparently, they did not believe this.
Under Boris Godunov there were no peaceful relations with Turkey. Boris helped the Austrian court with money in its war with Turkey even under Fedor: now, having become king, he helped the Moldavian governor Mikhail. IN Time of Troubles There was too much work and anxiety within the state and little attention was paid to external relations.
Relations with Turkey resumed after the election of Mikhail Fedorovich. The alliance against Poland and the issue of attacks by the Don Cossacks on the Turkish borders constituted the main, essential point of these relations, which sometimes took on a peaceful, friendly character, sometimes clearly hostile. In 1613, nobleman Solova-Protasyev and clerk Danilov were sent as envoys to Sultan Akhmet. They had to testify to the Sultan about the friendship of the young king and ask him to send an army against the Polish king. The Sultan promised, but did not keep his promise. Therefore, in 1615, new envoys were sent - Pyotr Mansurov and clerk Sampsonov, with the aim of persuading the Sultan to war with Poland, as well as with complaints about the raids of the Azov Cossacks on the Moscow borders. The ambassadors were received honorably, especially since they showered them with gifts, sables, etc. The complaints in Turkey were also responded to with complaints about the Don Cossacks. Unfortunately for the Moscow ambassadors, there was a change in the Grand Vizier, they had to appease him and his entourage, and the Russian ambassadors managed to leave Constantinople only after a 30-month stay and, moreover, with the most vague answer - a promise to send an army as soon as it returned from Persia, from which Turkey was at war at that time.
After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774. The confrontation between Turkey and Russia did not stop, but moved to the diplomatic front. The skillful efforts of Russian diplomats led to the fact that in 1783 the Crimean Khan Shagin-Girey abdicated the throne and handed Crimea over to the Russian Empress. This news was met with indignation in Turkey, which began to prepare for a new war. The Turks, using the help of Western European instructors, significantly strengthened the power of the main fortresses, recreated a strong fleet, reorganized and retrained the army.
Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791 was unleashed by Turkey in order to return Crimea. Relying on the diplomatic and military support of France, England and Sweden, Turkish Sultan Selim III began to demand the return of Crimea, recognition of Georgia as his vassal, and inspection of Russian merchant ships passing through the Black Sea straits. Having received a refusal, on August 13, 1787, he declared war on Russia. On August 21, 1787, even before receiving news of the declaration of war in St. Petersburg, the Turkish fleet attacked Russian patrol ships near Kinburn. On October 1, 1787, a Turkish landing force landed on the Kinburn Spit, but was attacked and destroyed by A.V.’s corps. Suvorov.
Russian troops operated as part of two armies, united under the overall command of Field Marshal G.A. Potemkin. Victories of Chief General A.V. Suvorov near Kinburn (1787), Focsani and on the Rymnik River (1789), the capture of the Izmail fortress (1790), as well as the naval victories of Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov in the Battle of Kerch and at Tendra Island (1790) weakened the Turkish army and navy. Defeats in the Battle of Machinsky and in the naval battle of Kaliakria in 1791 forced Turkey to make peace. He confirmed the annexation of Crimea to Russia, established a new Russian-Turkish border - along the Dniester River, and in the Caucasus - along the Kuban River.
Siege of Ochakov
May 24-25, 1788 Russian Ekaterinoslav Army of Field Marshal General G.A. Potemkina advanced to the Turkish fortress of Achi-Kale, which had an important strategic position ( Russian name Ochakov), located on the northwestern shore of the Dnieper-Bug estuary. Even before her arrival at this fortress on June 7 and June 16-17, 1788, the Russian rowing flotilla under the command of Admiral K.G. Nassau-Siegen inflicted two heavy defeats on the Turkish fleet in the estuary, which was covering Achi-Kale from the sea. Having lost 7 battleships, 2 frigates and several auxiliary ships, the enemy no longer tried to impede the actions of the Russian fleet and troops near Ochakov.
On July 1, 1788, the main forces of the Yekaterinoslav army approached the Turkish fortress and, camping 3.5 km from Achi-Kale, on the banks of the Dnieper, began installing siege batteries. The bombardment of the fortress began on July 18, 1788 and continued until the assault in December of this year. Twice, on August 18 and on the night of September 5, 1788, the besieged Turkish garrison made forays out of the city, but was repulsed and retreated back to the fortress with losses (during the foray on July 18, 1788, Major General M.I. Kutuzov was wounded ). More successful was the sortie on November 12, 1788, during which the Turks tried to destroy the battery gap on the left flank. The Russians suffered heavy losses, among those killed was Major General S.P. Maksimovich. After this sabotage, which demonstrated the readiness of the besieged to fight to the end, G.A. Potemkin ordered preparations to begin for the assault on the fortress. It took a little longer due to snow storm, which began on November 14 and lasted until November 28, 1788. Only on December 1, 1788, at 7 a.m., in a 23-degree frost, Russian troops launched an assault. It lasted only 1 hour 45 minutes, despite fierce enemy resistance. Out of 13 thousand Only 4 thousand people surrendered to the Turkish garrison. led by the commandant three-bunchuzhny Pasha Hussein (among the prisoners were three two-bunchuzhny pashas and 448 officers). During the assault, 8,700 Turks died, incl. 283 officers. Another 1140 people. from the Ochakovo garrison, captured wounded, died in hospitals and infirmaries. The trophies included 323 guns and 180 banners. The Russians lost 1 general (Major General S.A. Volkonsky), 1 brigadier (I.P. Gorich), 3 staff officers, 25 chief officers, 936 soldiers killed. About 5 thousand people were wounded.
As a reward for the capture of Ochakov G.A. Potemkin received the Order of St. George, 1st class, a diamond-studded sword and 60 thousand rubles. The officers of his army were awarded gold medals; the soldiers who participated in the capture of the Turkish fortress received silver medals on a St. George ribbon to wear in their buttonholes.
Battle of the Rymnik River
Rymnik is a river in Wallachia (on the territory of modern Romania), on the right bank of which a battle took place between Russian-Austrian and Turkish troops.
At the beginning of September 1789, the Turkish army under the command of the Grand Vizier Yusuf Pasha (about 100 thousand people, with 80 guns) launched an offensive against the Austrian corps of Prince F.I. Saxe-Coburg (18 thousand people, with 43 guns), located in the Focshan region. Having learned about the Turkish offensive, Chief General A.V., who was in Birlad. Suvorov with a detachment of 7 thousand people made a quick march and, having covered 100 km in 2.5 days, united with the allies on the eve of the approach of the Turkish troops. At dawn on September 11, 1789, the Russian-Austrian army attacked the Turks, who outnumbered the enemy many times and were located in four camps. The Turkish troops did not expect such a bold and rapid offensive by the allied Russian-Austrian troops and were not ready for battle. First, Russian troops advancing on the right flank captured the Turkish camp of Tyrgo-Kukli in a fierce battle. The Russians then moved towards Yusuf Pasha's main camp. At this time, Austrian troops advancing to the left repelled the attack of a Turkish cavalry detachment. Having repulsed several more Turkish attacks, the Russians and Austrians united to storm the main Turkish camp, located near the Kryngu Meylor forest. Having assessed the disposition and fortifications of the Turks, Suvorov decided to attack the camp with cavalry supported by infantry. The cavalry broke through the Turkish defenses, and the infantry put the Janissaries to flight with a bayonet strike.
In the battle of Rymnik, Turkish troops lost about 15–20 thousand people. (10 thousand people killed), all the artillery and convoy. Russian and Austrian troops lost about 700 people.
Assault on Izmail
Located on the left bank of the Kiliya branch of the river. Danube Turkish fortress Izmail (Turkish name Ordukalesi - “army fortress”) at the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1787–1791. was reconstructed by European military engineers De Lafite-Clavet and Richter. The line of fortifications they built stretched for 6 km and included a rampart 6–8 m high, a ditch 6–10 m deep and 12 m wide, 7 earthen and stone bastions. The interior of the fortress was planned taking into account the long-term defense of each stone structure. The Turkish garrison numbered 35 thousand people, with 265 guns. It was commanded by Seraskir Aidos Mehmet Pasha.
In November 1790, Izmail was besieged by Russian troops under the command of Lieutenant General I.V. Gudovich (31 thousand people, over 500 guns). But the siege was unsuccessful. At the military council convened on November 26, 1790 by Lieutenant General A.N. Samoilov, who replaced Gudovich, decided to lift the siege and retreat to winter quarters. Even before this decision, on November 25, 1790, the commander-in-chief of the united Southern Army G.A. Potemkin ordered Chief General Suvorov, who was near Galati, to immediately go to Izmail and take command of the troops there.
On December 2, 1790, Suvorov arrived to the troops and began active preparations for the assault. On December 7, they sent an official letter to the command of the Turkish garrison demanding surrender. A handwritten note from Suvorov was attached to the letter: “To Seraskir, the elders and the whole society: I arrived here with the troops. 24 hours of reflection for surrender and will; My first shots are already bondage, the assault is death, which I leave to you to consider.” The Russian officer who delivered these proposals was given the answer of Aydos Mehmet Pasha: “It is more likely that the Danube will stop in its flow and the sky will fall to the ground than Ishmael will surrender.”
At the military council on December 9, 1790, Suvorov scheduled the assault for December 11, dividing his troops into 3 detachments of 3 columns each. Detachment of General P.S. Potemkin was supposed to storm the western front of the fortress, a detachment of General A.N. Samoilov - the eastern front, and the detachment of General O.M. Deribasa, landed from the ships of the Diman military flotilla, are the southern fortifications that covered the city from the Danube. On the same day, a two-day bombardment of Izmail began. On December 11, 1790, at 5:30 a.m., Russian troops stormed the fortress.
The first to climb the ramparts of the fortress at 6 o'clock in the morning were the rangers from the 2-1 column of General Lassi. Next, the grenadiers of the 1st column of General Lvov captured the Khotyn Gate and opened it for the cavalry. The 3rd column of General Meknob stormed part of the northern bastion, but the depth of the ditch and the height of the rampart were so great that the prepared eleven-meter ladders had to be tied together in two pieces under enemy fire. The 6th column of General M.I. also entered into a difficult battle. Kutuzov, which was counterattacked by the Turks. However, Kutuzov personally led his infantry into the attack and managed to capture the Izmail fortifications.
The fortifications of the fortress fell by 8 o'clock in the morning, but the fighting in the city continued until 16 o'clock in the afternoon. Inside Izmail there were many stone buildings, each of which was a mini-fortress. The Turks defended themselves desperately, and Suvorov had to throw all his reserves into the battle for the city, as well as 20 light guns, to clear the streets of the defenders with grapeshot.
During the assault and in street battles, the Turks lost 26 thousand people killed and 9 thousand prisoners, the Russians - 4 thousand people. killed and 6 thousand people. wounded. Major General M.I. was appointed the first Russian commandant of Izmail. Kutuzov.
In honor of the victory, a special gold cross “For excellent courage” was issued to the officers participating in the assault, and the lower ranks received a special silver medal “For excellent courage in the capture of Izmail.”
Naval battle off Tendra Island
August 25, 1790 Black Sea Fleet (37 ships, frigates and other vessels) under the command of Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakova went to sea to search for the enemy. Three days later, on August 28, on the approach to the Dnieper-Bug estuary, Turkish ships were discovered anchored between the island of Tendra and Gadzhibey. The enemy numbered 14 battleships, 8 frigates and 23 miscellaneous vessels. Seeing the Russians, the Turkish ships, despite their superiority in strength, began to hastily cut the ropes and retreat to the Danube in disarray.
Admiral Ushakov immediately, without changing the marching formation of his fleet, attacked the enemy, and lined up the ships in a linear formation only on the approach to the Turks. At the same time, he withdrew three frigates from the line to provide a maneuverable reserve in case of a change in wind and a possible enemy attack from two sides. The battle lasted for several hours and, under powerful fire from Russian ships, the Turkish fleet fell into disarray. The enemy ships fled. And the Russian fleet pursued the Turks until late in the evening, until darkness and increased wind forced it to stop the pursuit and anchor.
At dawn on August 29, it suddenly turned out that the Turkish ships were in close proximity to the Russians. F.F. Ushakov gave the command to pursue the enemy. The Turkish 66-gun battleship "Meleki Bahri" ("Lord of the Seas"), having lost its commander, surrendered without a fight. Then the 74-gun flagship “Kapudanie” was hit and blown up by the fire of Russian naval cannons. Together with the Kapudanie, about 700 crew members and the treasury of the Turkish fleet went to the bottom. The fire and explosion of the huge admiral's ship, the death of hundreds of people in full view of everyone, made a stunning impression and completely broke the Turks. And only the intensified gusty wind, which also changed direction, did not allow the Russians to completely destroy the enemy. But as a result of the victory at Tendra, the dominant position of the Russian fleet in the northeastern part of the Black Sea was ensured.
Naval battle at Cape Kaliakria
July 31, 1791 Black Sea Fleet under the command of Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov, consisting of 16 battleships, 2 frigates, 2 bombardment ships, 17 cruising ships, 1 fire ship and a rehearsal ship (980 guns in total), on the approach to Cape Kaliakria (the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria) discovered Turkish ships at anchor. The Turkish fleet under the leadership of Kapudan Pasha Hussein consisted of 18 battleships, 17 frigates and 43 smaller ships (1,800 guns in total).
F.F. Ushakov decided to give a general naval battle, cutting off the Turkish ships from the coastal batteries covering them and pushing the Turks into the open sea. Despite the powerful fire from coastal batteries, Russian ships passed between the shore and the Turkish ships, and then attacked the enemy from a short distance. The Turks desperately resisted, but could not withstand the Russian fire and began to flee in disorder. The entire Turkish fleet was scattered across the sea, and as a result, 28 ships were lost, including 1 battleship, 4 frigates, 3 brigantines and 21 gunboats. All surviving battleships and frigates were seriously damaged. There is no information about the losses of Turkish sailors in this battle. On the Russian side, 17 sailors were killed, 3 officers and 25 sailors were wounded.
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As a result of the victory at Kaliakria, the Russian fleet gained complete dominance in the Black Sea, and Russia finally established itself as an influential Black Sea power. The defeat of the Turkish fleet in the battle of Cape Kaliakria largely contributed to the final defeat of Turkey in the war with Russia. On December 29, 1791, a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, according to which Russia secured Crimea, the entire northern coast of the Black Sea and freedom of passage through the Black Sea straits.
Bibliography
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