2 obsolete words and their meaning. Outdated Russian words and their meanings

Russian language

Archaisms and historicisms - what is the difference between them?

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Cultural, economic, and social changes occur in the life of society: science develops, technology appears, life improves, and political transformations occur.

This leads to the fact that words cease to be used, become obsolete, and are replaced by new words. let's consider illustrative examples What are historicisms and archaisms? Two layers of vocabulary coexist. The first is words that native speakers know and use (active vocabulary).

The other layer is words that do not sound in speech, the majority of language users do not know them, require additional explanations, or understandable names that have ceased to function in speech - passive vocabulary.

The passive dictionary includes obsolete words. They differ in the level of obsolescence and the reasons why they became so.

The difference between historicisms and archaisms

Historicisms are not used in speech; the objects and concepts that they named do not exist. Archaisms denote objects and phenomena that still exist today, but have been replaced by other phrases. The difference between the two groups is that archaisms have synonyms, this is important.

Examples: ramena (shoulders), tuga (sadness), destruction (death)

Historicisms have been in use for a very long time. Words that were once popular under Soviet rule have already become forgotten - pioneer, communist, Soviet authority, Politburo. Sometimes words become common vocabulary: lyceum, gymnasium, police, governor, department

It also happens that outdated words return to speech in a new understanding. For example, the word squad in Ancient Rus' it meant “princely army.” In vocabulary, its meaning is “a voluntary community of people formed for a specific purpose” - people's squad.

Historicisms - how did they appear?

Society is developing at a rapid pace, and therefore changing cultural values, some things become obsolete, new ones appear. Fashion moves forward and the previously popular kaftan is now just an outdated word. Such clothes are not worn, and many outdated names can be found in ancient books or historical films.

For modern man Historicisms are part of history, they can be studied for development, but there is no need to use them in speech, others will not be able to understand their meaning. Misunderstandings will arise.
To understand historicisms, consider examples and interpretation of words.

Among the reasons for the formation of historicisms: improvement of tools, complication production processes, cultural development, political transformations.

The abolition of the dependence of the peasant on the landowner in Russia left the words: master, quitrent, corvee, tax, serf in the past. The main thing is that historicisms remain in the history of mankind and do not return to speech, therefore they do not matter. No one will wear a caftan now or there will be no corvée and serfdom.

Historicisms can be divided into groups to understand the meaning of words:

• old clothes and shoes – salop, armyak, camisole, hose, shoe, bast shoes;
• names of social life phenomena – duel, Comintern member, farm laborer, collective farmer, kulak, self-destructive;
• craft and professions of people: squire, buffoon, journeyman, water-carrier, cooper;
• monetary units – half, imperial, five-altyn;
• measures of weight and length - verst, vershok, span, pound, fathom, pud;
• titles and positions - excellency, driver, highness, mayor, hussar, orderly;
• military household items - mace, chain mail, axe, flail, aventail, squeal;
• names of administrative units – district, parish, province;
• letters of the ancient alphabet - beeches, yat, lead.

Outdated phrases may appear in scientific style to designate phenomena in an epoch-making period, to give expressiveness to heroes and images in an artistic style.
In modern language one cannot find a synonym for historicism. What is remarkable is the fact that historicisms can date back several centuries.

Archaisms - what are they?

These are outdated names of objects and concepts that have been replaced with other words that are familiar modern society. The world is changing, people are changing along with it, and the language is expanding with new concepts, and new words are being invented for the old ones.

Archaisms have taken on a new look, therefore they can be classified as synonyms of modern words, but still their use in the Russian language will be strange rather than a common occurrence. To understand ancient objects, for in-depth study the cultures of ancient people, archaisms and their meaning can play a role.

To figure it out, let's look at the table where the interpretations of old words are written. It is not necessary to know them, but it will be a godsend for a historian.

Archaisms are divided into groups. Sometimes it is not the whole word that becomes obsolete, but only part of it. Let's take meanings that are completely outdated: verses (verses). Some words have outdated morphemes - prejudice.
The process of formation of archaisms is uneven. Thematic groups of archaisms are different:

• person's character - word sower(chatterbox, idle talker), lover of words(scientist, expert), wordsmith(flatterer), fusser(idle talker);
• profession - jump rope(gymnast), cattle feeder(cattle breeder), warehouseman(writer), skoroposolnik(messenger, messenger);
• social relations - coverb(companion), friend(friend, companion), suvrazhnik(enemy);
• family relations - sister(sister), kindred, kindred(relative);
• objects of surrounding reality - Selina(a. dwelling, building; b. crevice), sennitsa(tent, tent);
• natural phenomena - arrow(lightning), students(cold, cold);
• things - saddle(chair, armchair), Servet(napkin), scramble(peel, skin, shell), screenshot(chest, casket), standing(stand);
• abstract concepts - literature(eloquence), cleverness(inference), laughing(mockery), commonwealth(acquaintance, friendship).

Archaisms are rarely used in literature. If the writer is literate enough and speaks not only modern, but also ancient language, then such words will add a special “zest” to the speech. The reader will ponder and delve deeper into the reading, trying to understand and unravel what the author meant. It will always be interesting and informative.

Archaisms perform this function in rhetoric, judicial debates, and fiction.

Types of archaisms

Archaisms in literature and social activities People are usually divided into species. For a deeper understanding of the language, it historical development. No novel based on historical events, cannot do without mentioning outdated words.

1. Semantic archaisms

Words that previously had a different meaning, but in modern language they have a new meaning. We understand the word “housing” as a kind of real estate where a person lives. But earlier the word had a different meaning: he feels so bad as if he was walking to the fifth building; (housing - floor).

2. Phonetic archaisms

They differ from modern ones in one or two letters, even the spelling can be similar, as if one letter was removed or added. It may even seem like a mistake, but it's just an outdated expression.
For example: poet - drink, fire - fire, dishonest - dishonored.

3. Derivatives

Obsolescence occurs only in part of a word and usually in a suffix. It is easy to guess the meaning for understanding, but it is more common to recognize archaisms if you already know which letters have been replaced, removed or added.

• The rubber ball bounces off the floor (rubber - rubber).
• What a wonderful pencil drawing (pencil - pencil).
• The entire audience, competing with each other, shouted out different phrases (competing - competing).
• This nervous person is simply terrible (nervous - nervous).

4. Phraseological

When we talk about this type of archaism, we understand entire sayings, flying expressions, a special ancient combination of words that was previously in use.
Among set expressions The following examples can be given: I’ll buy myself a farm; wifey makes a nice profit from coke and juice; stuck it to whoever it should be.

5. Grammar

Such words remain in modern speech, but their gender has changed. Examples include tulle and coffee. Our coffee is masculine, but they want to make it mean. The word tulle is masculine, but sometimes it is confused and people want to make it feminine.
Examples of words: swan - was previously feminine, now has a masculine gender. Previously, poets wrote that a lonely swan floats.

The importance of obsolete words

Outdated vocabulary is valuable material for forming knowledge about the history of a people, introducing it to national origins. These are tangible threads that connect us to history. Its study allows us to restore information about the historical, social, economic activity ancestors, gain knowledge about the way of life of the people.

Outdated words are a means that allows you to diversify speech, add emotionality to it, and express the author’s attitude to reality.

Obsolete words include words that are no longer used in standard speech. To determine whether a certain word is obsolete, lexicographic analysis is used. It must show that now this word is rarely used in speech.

One type of obsolete words are historicisms, that is, designations of concepts that no longer exist. There are quite a lot of similar words among the designations of professions or social positions of a person that have ceased to be relevant, for example, odnodvorets, profos, moskatelschik, provision master, postilion, potter. Great amount Historicisms denote objects of material culture that have gone out of use - horse-drawn horse, torch, britzka, bast shoes. The meaning of some words belonging to this category is known to at least some native speakers who recognize them without effort, but there are no historicisms in the active dictionary.

Archaisms are words that indicate concepts that continue to exist in the language, for which another word is now used. Instead of “so that” they say “so that”, instead of “from time immemorial” - “from time immemorial, always”, and instead of “eye” - “eye”. Some of these words are completely unrecognizable by those who encounter them, and thus they fall out of the passive vocabulary. For example, few people recognize the word “in vain” as a synonym for “in vain.” At the same time, its root has been preserved in the words “vanity”, “in vain”, which are still included, at least, in the passive dictionary of the Russian language.
Some archaisms have remained in modern Russian speech as components of phraseological units. In particular, the expression “to cherish like the apple of your eye” contains two archaisms, including “zenitsa”, which means “pupil”. This word, in contrast to the word “eye,” is unknown to the vast majority of native speakers, even educated ones.

Words leave active use and enter the passive vocabulary gradually. Among other things, the change in their status occurs due to changes in society. But the role of direct linguistic factors is also significant. An important point is the number of connections of this word with the others. A word with a rich set of systemic connections of a different nature will be noticeably slower to disappear into the passive dictionary.
Obsolete words do not have to be ancient. Relatively recently coined words can quickly fall out of use. This applies to many terms that appeared in the early Soviet time. At the same time, both originally Russian words and borrowings, such as “bataliya” (battle), “victory” (in the meaning of “victory”, but not female name), "fortecia" (victory).

Archaisms are divided into a number of categories depending on the nature of their obsolescence. The main option is actual lexical archaisms; such words are completely outdated. For example, this is “izhe”, meaning “which” or “eye”, that is, eye. It is considered a lexical-semantic archaism ambiguous word, obsolete in one or more meanings. For example, the word “shame” still exists, but it no longer means “spectacle.” In lexico-phonetic archaisms, the spelling and pronunciation of the word has changed, but the meaning has remained the same. "Gishpanskiy" (now Spanish) belongs to this category of archaisms. The lexical and word-formative type of archaisms contains prefixes or suffixes that make this form obsolete. For example, previously there was a variant of the verb “to fall”, but now only “to fall” is possible.

Obsolete words in modern written and spoken speech can be used for different purposes. Particularly when writing historical novels, their presence is necessary for stylization. In modern oral speech, their function may be to enhance the expressiveness of what is spoken. Archaisms are capable of giving statements both a solemn, sublime and ironic character.

You can look at outdated, rare and forgotten words in ours.

Return to the main page of the big one.

Nurullaev Rubin and Duysenova Dinara.

Every person has their own small homeland- the place where we were born, where our ancestors lived, where our roots are. For some it is Big city, others have a small village, others have a small village. Unfortunately, now these roots are completely forgotten, but this is a whole cultural “layer” of past generations. “Without knowledge of the past, there is no present.” IN Lately However, interest in the past began to awaken. But history is inexorable. Nowadays, small settlements that sometimes existed for 300 - 400 years are disappearing. Documents, home archives, and outdated words that have acquired new meaning over time are perishing. For example: belly is a farm animal, belly is part of the body. Lesson - damage, evil eye, lesson at school. And the new generation knows them under a new meaning. Some words have multiple meanings. For example: Pechera is a cave, Pechera is a river. Ore is blood, ore is a mineral. This could have happened due to the large number of nationalities and their subsequent displacement. And along with all this, the gap between the past and the future is deepening. It is extremely difficult to trace this gap. The current generation of schoolchildren and their grandparents use different colloquial speech.

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Regional scientific and practical conference “Step into the future”

Research work on Russian language

on this topic

"Using Outdated Words in Everyday Life"

The work was completed by 10th grade students

MKOU "Osypnobugorskaya Secondary School"

Privolzhsky district, village. Osypnoy Hill

Nurullaev Rubin and

Duisenova Dinara.

Scientific supervisor: Kirichenko

Svetlana Georgievna,

teacher of Russian language and literature

2013

Routing

Subject scientific work– “Using obsolete words in everyday life”

School: MKOU "Osypnobugorsk Secondary School"

Information about scientific supervisors – Svetlana Georgievna Kirichenko

Information about the submitted work:

Type of work – abstract and research

Presence in the introduction of an object, subject, goals, objectives of the study - +

Availability of a work plan - +

Number of sources in the bibliographic list –

Preliminary testing of work - school conference

Study period: October-January

Scientific supervisor: Kirichenko S.G.

Head of the institution: G. A. Khalmetova

Plan research work

1. Research plan. page 3
2. Introduction. page 5
3. Purpose of work p.5
4. Hypothesis.p. 5
5. Relevance and significance of the work.p. 5
6. Tasks p.5
7. Introduction. page 6.
8. Chapter I “Historical information of the Volga region.” page 6.

Chapter II “Why are there so many different languages?” page 7.

1. Chapter II “Outdated words.” page 8.
2. Sociological survey. page 11
3. Knowledge of outdated words. Page 12
4. Usage of words taking into account different age categories. p. 13
5. Dependence of the use of words taking into account age characteristics.p. 15
6. Lists of people by recognition category.p. 16
7. .List of words with other meanings.p. 17
8. Competition “The best expert on obsolete words.” p. 19
9. Conclusion. page 20
10. Bibliography. page 21
11. Appendix.page 22

Introduction

Each person has his own small homeland - the place where we were born, where our ancestors lived, where our roots are. For some it is a big city, for others it is a small village, for others it is a small village. Unfortunately, now these roots are completely forgotten, but this is a whole cultural “layer” of past generations. “Without knowledge of the past, there is no present.” Recently, however, interest in the past has begun to awaken. But history is inexorable. Nowadays, small settlements that sometimes existed for 300 - 400 years are disappearing. Documents, home archives, and outdated words that have acquired new meaning over time are perishing. For example: belly is a farm animal, belly is part of the body. Lesson - damage, evil eye, lesson at school. And the new generation knows them under a new meaning. Some words have multiple meanings. For example: Pechera is a cave, Pechera is a river. Ore is blood, ore is a mineral. This could have happened due to the large number of nationalities and their subsequent displacement. And along with all this, the gap between the past and the future is deepening. It is extremely difficult to trace this gap. The current generation of schoolchildren and their grandparents use different colloquial speech.

Goal of the work: Find out how outdated words are used in everyday life.

Hypothesis: We assumed that the words are used, but less every year.

Relevance and significance of the work:Without knowledge of the past, there is no present.

Novelty of the work: preserving obsolete words as history, memory of one’s small homeland.

Tasks: 1) Study the literature on this topic.

2) Carry out sociological survey.

3) Find out the degree of use of words in the form of graphs and

Table

Introduction. Historical information of the Volga region

Privolzhsky district - municipality in the southeastern partAstrakhan regionRussia.

Privolzhsky district is located in the southeastern partAstrakhan regionin the delta of the Volga River and borders on the north withNarimanovsky And Krasnoyarsk districts, in the east with Volodarsky districtand the city areaAstrakhan. The area of ​​the district is 840.9 km².

Based on the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR “On the formation of the Volga region in Astrakhan region» fromThe 20th of October1980- Privolzhsky district was formed in the Astrakhan region, with the center in the villageNachalovo, due to part of the territoryNarimanovsky districtAstrakhan region. 39 rural settlements.

The population is 40.1 thousand people.

Why are there so many different languages?

The development of language as a means of communication is regulated by two opposing trends: divergence (divergence)

convergence (convergence). These trends are closely related to each other and each individual segment of the historical development of language gives way to each other in the conditions of communication. This is manifested in the fact that the collapse of a once unified linguistic community causes linguistic divergence: new linguistic features that appear in the speech of one of the separated tribes do not spread to the language of the remaining separated groups, and this leads to the accumulation of linguistic differences between them. This is how dialects are formed, varieties of a once common language.

A dialect is the smallest unit of dialect division of a language. In all dialects, the linguistic landscape is considered. Dialects are combined into adverbs, larger territorial units.

Unfamiliar words, but each locality has its own, special words. These are regional or dialect words. They are not included national language, but are used only in dialects, and not everywhere, but only in a certain territory. That's why everyone modern languages in different territories of their distribution they are represented by local dialects (in our time - only in rural areas), reflecting the ancient fragmentation of the population of different regions.

Over a long period of isolated development, so many differences can accumulate that different dialects can develop into different languages. On the contrary, in the case of a unification of tribes, the integration of dialects inevitably begins, which is expressed in the smoothing out of linguistic differences, the spread of new linguistic features to the speech of all population groups included in such a union. Due to the large number of nationalities, words have acquired different meanings.

For example: trouble - very, trouble - hard, difficult.

Bereznik - birch forest, bereznik - boletus mushroom.

A lyapa is a slow person, a lyapa is to leave quickly, a lyapa is a small fish.

Outdated words

The words in our vocabulary can be very different in terms of the time of their appearance in the language. The overwhelming majority of old words are included in the active vocabulary, are used by us often and, due to their constant functioning in speech, are not recognized by the old (cf. the words of proto-Slavic origin father, white, carry, when, himself, house, sky, etc.) . Moreover, they form the basis of modern modern vocabulary, although it is replenished with new words very intensively. At the same time, among words that are old in terms of their appearance (even relatively recent), there is also a generally very significant group of words that are used rarely, under certain conditions, in other words, are outdated.

Outdated wordscan be divided into two groups: 1) historicisms; 2) archaisms.

Historicisms (from the Greek historia - a story about past events) - these are words denoting the names of such objects and phenomena that ceased to exist as a result of the development of society. For example:

"Now they were petitioners..."

The highlighted word is historicism. It has no synonyms in modern Russian. The meaning can only be explained by resorting to an encyclopedic description. This is exactly how they are presented in explanatory dictionaries:

1. Petition, -I, cf. 1. B ancient Rus': bow to the ground with the forehead touching the ground. 2. In ancient Rus': a written request.
2. Petitioner, -a, m. In ancient Rus': the one who filed a petition. Petition, oh, and. In ancient Rus': petition (in 2nd meaning), Stolnik, -a, m. In ancient Rus': a courtier, a degree lower than a boyar, originally a courtier who served at the princely or royal table).

The reason for the appearance of historicisms in the language is the change in life, customs, and the development of technology, science, and culture. One things and relationships are replaced by others. For example, with the disappearance of such types of clothing as the armyak, camisole, caftan, the names of these types of clothing disappeared from the Russian language; they can now only be found in historical descriptions. Gone forever, along with the corresponding concepts, are the words: serf, quitrent, corvee and others associated with serfdom in Russia.

Archaisms (from the Greek archaios - ancient) - these are words that have fallen out of use due to their replacement by new ones, for example: cheeks - cheeks, loins - lower back, right hand - right hand, tight - sadness, verses - poems, ramen - shoulders. All of them have synonyms in modern Russian.

Archaisms may differ from the modern synonymous word in various ways: a different lexical meaning(guest - merchant, belly - life), different grammatical design(perform - perform, at the ball - at the ball), with a different morphemic composition(friendship - friendship, fisherman - fisherman), other phonetic features(Gishpanish - Spanish, mirror - mirror). Some words are completely outdated, but have modern synonyms: so that - so that, destruction - destruction, harm, hope - hope and firmly believe. To clarify the meaning of such words when working with text work of art you need to use an explanatory dictionary or a dictionary of outdated words. This will help avoid mistakes in interpreting the text.

The reason for the appearance of archaisms is in the development of the language, in the updating of its vocabulary: one words are replaced by others.

Words forced out of use do not disappear without a trace: they are necessary in historical novels and essays - to recreate the life and linguistic flavor of the era.

Sometimes outdated words begin to be used in a new meaning. Thus, the word has returned to the modern Russian language dynasty . Previously, it could only be combined with such definitions as royal, monarchical. Now they talk and write about working dynasties, miner dynasties, meaning families with an “inherited” profession.

We became interested in the population living on the territory of the Osypnobugorsk village council, since during the study of the material it turned out that outdated words are made up of dialects different nations, their customs, way of life, with the development of technology. And this is due to the appearance of historicisms and archaisms in the language.

Having studied the nationalities of the population of our village, we displayed our research in a diagram:

From this diagram it can be seen that people of different nationalities live on the territory of the Osypnobugorsk village council, which amounts to 3,140 people. The Tatars occupy the largest number. From this it can be assumed that the obsolete words that were and are used in this territory were formed due to the merging and smoothing of linguistic differences, and the spread of new linguistic features that formed new words.

Sociological survey

The next stage of the research work was a sociological survey among residents of the village of Osypnoy Bugor, belonging to different age groups.

3 groups were identified. A total of 100 people were interviewed.

We included people under 11 years of age (4th grade) in the first group. A total of 53 people.It was interesting to find out whether the proposed words are used by this age category, because Basically, everything modern is valuable to them.

The second age category included people from 12 to 15 (grades 6 – 9) years. Total 33 people. A feature of this age is the transition of children's views to a more serious understanding of life.

The third age category included people 16-17 years old (grades 10-11). There are 17 people in total.At this age, people increasingly begin to appreciate the customs and traditions of their ancestors. They are increasingly remembering their past, assessing their actions with a new look.

Questionnaire questions were asked.

Questions:

1) Do they know the words presented?

2) What words are used?

3) How did you find out about them?

We gave each group different words.

See Appendix 1

Knowledge of obsolete words

Table 1

Usage of words taking into account different age categories.

table 2

Using the table, you can distribute the use of words in this way. 65% know words under 11 years of age

They know these words because...

1) We heard them from our parents.

2) Remember them.

55% of words are not used.

12 - 15 years old 75% actually do not use because... the words are old, but now it’s fashionable to use Western words: cool, awesome, super, O.K. etc., and old words are forgotten.

50% of 16-17 year olds know, heard from relatives and began to use these words. But they have a peculiar pronunciation. Rarely used.

Dependence of the use of words on age characteristics

The graph shows that the percentage of words used is decreasing and it can be assumed that the next generation will completely stop using these words, because they are not studied and are spoken quite rarely. Thus, a large layer of the cultural life of the village may disappear.

Lists of people by recognition category

Conclusion: The table shows that most people know the words from relatives. There are people who know words from books. A small percentage of people learned the words from village residents.

List of words with other meanings

During the study we examined additional information according to this list of words. It turned out that these words have different meanings. It depends on the territory and the cultural characteristics of the population and the area.

Bajit 1. Predict.

ObrosikhaIlyinsk.

2. Drive in the game.

MusonkinoKarag.

Say 1.Transfer. Interpret, narrate, tell something. Plishkari El.

2.Convene.

Berezovka Us.

Z. Scold.

N. Zalesnaya Os.

Wheatear 1. Blackberry.

VilvaSol.

2. A weed with regular yellow small flowers and bitter and sour juice, used as a medicinal product; celandine.

OsokinoSol.

Orel Us R. Romanovo Us.

Z.About a retarded young man.

RakinoCherd.

Lesson 1. Work assigned for a certain period. Gubdor Krasnov.

SvalovaSol.

2.Tax

Lensk Kungur..

In our village, many words have the same meaning and pronunciation. This suggests that the traditions and customs of the population of this territory are very closely intertwined. This also applies to language features.

Each village of the Volga region has its own highlight. In this case, these are words that were used only in our village.

Competition “The best expert on obsolete words”

To preserve outdated words, we held a competition for the title of “The best expert on outdated words” that were used on the territory of the Osypnobugorsk village council.

Conclusion: not all students were interested in the competition. And since the younger generation is not interested in the past, the problem of connecting generations arises.

Conclusion

The following conclusions can be drawn from the research work:

1) The formation of the linguistic characteristics of village residents has gone through a long historical path.

2) The formation of traditions, customs and rituals occurred due to the development of several archaeological cultures in this territory.

H) Education modern peoples- is the result of the political and economic unification of tribes or population groups.

4) Due to the large number of nationalities, words have acquired different meanings.

5) The pronunciation and meaning of words are passed down from generation to generation from parents to children. Less commonly learned from books.

6) Depending on age, the use of these words decreases.

We believe that it is necessary to know the outdated words of our area, because this is our culture, our history.

The result of the work was the book “Outdated Words in Pictures”

Suggested methods for saving words:

1)Opening of a linguistic club at the school.

2) Holding school holidays using outdated words.

3) Holding events in the museum using antiques.

Bibliography

1.G.N.Chagin “Peoples and cultures of Astrakhan in the 19th - 20th centuries. "Astrakhan, 1986"

2. I.S. Kaptsugovich “Book for reading on the history of Astrakhan” Astrakhan book publishing house, 1992

3. Textbook “Modern Russian Language” Publishing House “Prosveshchenie” 2005

4. Internet resources.

5. Dictionary of dialects p. Scree Hill.

Application

Appendix 1. Sociological survey.

Vocabulary for 4th grade

Chest of drawers - low cabinet with drawers for linen or small items,

Azure – light – Blue colour, blue,

To convey from mouth to mouth - to communicate something to another person,

Bylitsa - a blade of grass, a stalk of grass,

Buried - hid,

If - if,

At the Lukomorye - at the sea bay,

Bright purple - red,

He's shivering - someone is shivering from the cold,

Printed gingerbread - gingerbread with printed drawings, letters,

Biryuk is a beast, a bear,

Tenetnik - cobweb, spider.

Dictionary for grades 6-9

Bayat - talk, talk,

Golik - broom,

Kamenka - a stove in a bathhouse,

Zenitsa - eye, pupil,

Alcohol - hunger

The little shooter is a fidget, a naughty boy,

Dol is the same as valley,

Bajit - to predict,

Altyn - a three-kopeck coin,

Arshin – measure of length (0.71 m)

Evening - evening,

Vya - neck,

Right hand - right hand,

Yesen - autumn

Otkul - from where,

Saden is pain,

Tyn - hedge,

Shaber is a neighbor.

Dictionary for grades 10-11

Knickers - trousers,

Bajit - to predict.

Bayat - talk, talk.

Venge - cry.

Veres - juniper.

Gasnik - lace.

Golik is a broom.

Yes - yes.

Kamenka is a stove in a bathhouse.

Swing - swing.

Nozem - manure.

Window - window.

Uglan is a boy

Run away - run away

Lesson - damage, evil eye.

Faishonka - headscarf,

Seine is a large fishing net,

Incense is a pleasant, aromatic smell.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Types of obsolete words in modern Russian language

§ 1. Obsolete words

§ 2. Archaisms

§ 3. Historicisms

§ 4. The use of obsolete words in works of art

Chapter 2. Outdated words in the work of A.S. Pushkin "The Bronze Horseman"

§ 1. The use of archaisms in the story “The Bronze Horseman”

§ 2. The use of historicisms in the story “The Bronze Horseman”

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Object our research are obsolete words (archaisms and historicisms).

The purpose of this work– consider the functioning of obsolete words in a literary text.

To achieve this goal it was necessary to complete a number of tasks:

study theoretical literature on this topic and define basic concepts;

highlight historicisms and archaisms in a literary text;

determine what types of obsolete words the author uses in his work.

Identify the functions of obsolete words in the analyzed work

Material for research served as a story by A.S. Pushkin "The Bronze Horseman".

Chapter 1. Types of obsolete words in modern Russian § 1. Obsolete words

The disappearance of words and their individual meanings from a language is a complex phenomenon that occurs slowly and does not immediately (and not always) lead to the loss of a word from the vocabulary of the language in general. The loss of a word or one or another of its meanings is the result of a straightforward process: in a number of cases, outdated words subsequently return again over a long process of archaization of the corresponding linguistic fact, when it, from a phenomenon of the active vocabulary, initially becomes the property of a passive dictionary and only then is gradually forgotten and completely disappears from the language .

Words fall out of use for various reasons. Many of them are forgotten as soon as some phenomenon or object disappears from life. Naturally, in this case, as a rule, there is a sharp change in their meaning (cf. the fate, for example, of such words as decree, soldier, ministry, etc.).

For example, new life for some of the words denoting military ranks, began when new military ranks were introduced in the Red Army. Outdated words soldier, corporal, lieutenant, captain, major, colonel, general, admiral and others acquired a new meaning and became commonly used words. In 1946 they found new life previously obsolete words minister, ministry in connection with the change in the name of the government of the USSR (Council people's commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers of the USSR).

Outdated words, the most common in works of art, are placed in explanatory dictionaries with the mark "outdated."(obsolete). From words found in written monuments of the past, scientists compile historical dictionaries, for example, the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th-17th Centuries” edited by S.G. Barkhudarov has now begun to be published.

Obsolete words, which together form the obsolete vocabulary of the Russian language, represent a complex and multi-layered system. The reason for this is their heterogeneity and diversity in terms of: 1) the degree of their obsolescence, 2) the reasons for their archaization and 3) the possibility and nature of their use.

According to the degree of obsolescence, we primarily distinguish a group of words that are currently completely unknown to ordinary speakers of the modern Russian literary language and are therefore incomprehensible without appropriate references. These include:

a) words that have completely disappeared from the language, not currently found in it even as part of derivative words ( locks- puddle, which- argument, prosinets- February, strict- paternal uncle, netiy- sister's nephew cancer– grave, tomb, etc.);

b) words that are not used in the language as separate words, but are found as root parts of derived words: rope - rope, rug - ridicule (scold), lie – boil, (cook, ravine), beef - livestock (beef, beef), sleeping - skin (hangnails), bully - bone (booze), mzhura – darkness, haze (to squint), khudog – skilled (artist) soon– skin (weed), treacherous- blacksmith (cunning), publican– tax collector (ordeal), beg- give (alms), etc.

c) words that have disappeared from the language as separate meaningful units, but are still used as part of phraseological units: falcon - an old battering ram, a large ram (a head like a falcon); zga - road (cf. path; not visible); count – small area land (no stake, no yard), etc.

All these words have fallen out of the vocabulary of the language and are now firmly forgotten. All of them have nothing to do with the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language and are not even included in its passive vocabulary. All of them, finally, are facts of previous, generally distant eras in the development of the Russian language. Unlike obsolete words, they are best called ancient.

The question arises whether it makes sense to consider such facts when analyzing the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language, in which they really do not exist. It turns out there is. And this is explained by the fact that ancient words (or obsolete words of the second degree) are still occasionally used in necessary cases even now, naturally, in the form of special verbal inlays, external to the words surrounding them, and usually with the necessary explanations. Thus, such facts can still be found in individual speech works, and this is precisely what does not allow them to be excluded from consideration when analyzing modern vocabulary, despite the fact that they have nothing to do with the latter. Ancient words (for specific cases of their use, see below) are opposed in terms of the degree of obsolescence by a group of obsolete words, consisting of such lexical units that speakers of modern Russian literary language are known, but are part of its passive vocabulary and are used only for certain stylistic purposes.

These are already real units of language, although they have a limited scope of use and specific properties.

These types of outdated words include: verst, horse-drawn horse, vershok, student, policeman, bursa, ony (that), in vain (seeing), iroystvo, barber, just (only), verb (to speak), in order (to), cold (cold), etc.

It is natural that great importance The degree of obsolescence of a word and its individual meaning depends on the time it goes out of active use. To a large extent, however, it is also determined by: 1) the place of a given word with the corresponding meaning in the nominative system of the national language, 2) the initial prevalence of the word and the duration of use in the active vocabulary, 3) the presence or absence of a clear and direct connection with related words etc. Often a word that has long fallen out of active use is still not forgotten by speakers, although it appears sporadically in their speech, and vice versa, there are cases when a word that has moved into the passive vocabulary of the language relatively recently is forgotten and falls out of the language.

For example, words hunger, corvid, disaster left the active vocabulary of written speech (in spoken language they did not exist before) more than 100 years ago, but they are still understandable in their basic meanings to speakers of modern Russian. On the contrary, the words ukom(county committee), uninterrupted, existing in active use compared to previously noted hunger, corvid, disaster recently.

Since toponymy (names of rivers, lakes, settlements, etc.) and anthroponymy (personal and family names) are the most stable facts in the dictionary material, much of what has already left the language as common nouns is preserved in toponymy and anthroponymy as proper names: river Shuya(shuya-left), station Bologoe(bologoe-good, kind, beautiful), Academician L.V.Shcherba(chap-crack, notch), city Gorodets(gorodets-gorodok, with the suffix – ets), city Mytishchi(Mytishche - place where they collected myto), village Chervlenaya(scarlet-red), cook Smury(gloomy-gloomy, cf. cloudy), etc.

Since the lexical system develops in each language according to its own internal laws, unique to it, obsolete or even ancient words that have completely disappeared from the Russian language can be preserved in other closely related Slavic languages ​​as lexical units of the active vocabulary. Wed. words Velmi– in Belarusian, fuska – in Polish (Russian luska lives as part of the production luska), krak – in Bulgarian (cf. Russian production ham), ul – in Czech (in Russian it comes out as a root in the word hive, street, etc.), bаz – in Bulgarian (cf. Russian production elderberry), etc.

In addition to the fact that obsolete words differ in the degree of their archaism, they also differ from each other in what led them to become part of the obsolete vocabulary (in the broad sense of the word). This difference is the most serious and fundamental.

Most of the words used in modern texts appeared in the Russian language in different eras - from ancient to modern, but they seem to us to be equally modern, necessary, and mastered by the language: eight, time, talk, collective farm, combine, our, new, revolution, plane, Soviet, telephone etc. For example, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, before the advent of the tram, there was a city Railway with horse traction. This road, as well as the carriage, was called such a road horse-drawn. With the advent of the tram, and then other types of transport, the need for horse traction disappeared, and the word horse-drawn outdated and therefore out of use. Other words are forgotten if new words appear to name that object, attribute, or action. For example: in the Old Russian language there was a word here- “fat”. Over time, the word began to be used in this meaning fat, originally meaning “feed, food”, and the word here ceased to be used, the subject remained, but the word became obsolete.

In addition to words, individual meanings of polysemantic words became obsolete. Yes, word map has five meanings and two of them are outdated: 1) “a sheet with a list of foods and drinks in a restaurant” (now this sheet is called "menu"; 2) “postcard”.

So, words can go out of active use and pass into a passive dictionary (and then disappear altogether) both because the phenomena, objects, things, etc. they call disappear, and due to the fact that they, as designations of some phenomena, objects, things, etc. in the process of use in the language they can be replaced by other words. In one case, words become unnecessary in the active vocabulary of speakers because they are designations of disappeared phenomena of reality; in another case, words go out of active use for the reason that they are replaced by other words (with the same meanings), which turn out to be more acceptable for expression relevant concepts. In the first case we are dealing with historicisms, in the second - with archaisms.

• Wolf ticket (wolf passport)
  In the 19th century, the name of the document that closed access to public service was educational institution etc. Today, phraseological units are used to mean a sharply negative characteristic of someone’s work.
  The origin of this turnover is usually explained by the fact that the person who received such a document was not allowed to live in one place for more than 2-3 days and had to wander like a wolf.
  In addition, in many combinations, wolf means “abnormal, inhuman, bestial,” which strengthens the contrast between the holder of the wolf card and other “normal” people.
• Lies like a gray gelding
  There are several options for the origin of phraseological units.
  1. The word gelding comes from the Mongolian morin "horse". In historical monuments, the horse siv and gelding siv are very typical; the adjective sivy “light gray, gray-haired” shows the old age of the animal. The verb to lie had a different meaning in the past - “to talk nonsense, talk idle talk; chatter.” The gray gelding here is gray from long work a stallion, and figuratively - a man who is already talking from old age and talking annoying nonsense.
  2. Gelding is a stallion, gray is old. The expression is explained by the usual boasting of old people about their strength, as if still preserved, like that of the young.
  3. The turnover is associated with the attitude towards the gray horse as a stupid creature. Russian peasants avoided, for example, laying the first furrow on a gray gelding, because he was “lying” - he was wrong, laying it incorrectly.
• Give oak- die
  The phrase is associated with the verb zudubet - “to cool down, lose sensitivity, become hard.” An oak coffin has always been a sign of special honor for the deceased. Peter I introduced a tax on oak coffins as a luxury item.
• Alive, smoking room!
  The origin of the expression is associated with the game "Smoking Room", popular in the 18th century in Russia at gatherings on winter evenings. The players sat in a circle and passed a burning torch to each other, saying “Alive, alive, Smoking Room, not dead, thin legs, short soul...”. The loser was the one whose torch went out and began to smoke or smoke. Later this game was replaced by "Burn, burn clearly so that it does not go out."
• Nick down
  In the old days, almost the entire population in Russian villages was illiterate. To record the bread handed over to the landowner, the work performed, etc., so-called tags were used - wooden sticks up to a fathom long (2 meters), on which notches were made with a knife. The tags were split into two parts so that the marks were on both: one remained with the employer, the other with the performer. The calculation was made based on the number of notches. Hence the expression “notch on the nose,” meaning: remember well, take into account for the future.
• Play spillikins
  In the old days, the game of “spillikins” was common in Rus'. It consisted of using a small hook to pull out, without touching the others, one from another pile all the spillikins - all kinds of small toy things: hatchets, glasses, baskets, barrels. This is how not only children, but also adults spent time on long winter evenings.
  Over time, the expression “playing spillikins” began to mean an empty pastime.
• Latem cabbage soup to slurp
  Lapti - woven shoes made of bast (the subcortical layer of linden trees), covering only the sole of the foot - in Rus' were the only affordable footwear for poor peasants, and shchi - a type of cabbage soup - was their simplest and favorite food. Depending on the wealth of the family and the time of year, the cabbage soup could be either green, that is, with sorrel, or sour, from sauerkraut, with meat or lean - without meat, which were eaten during fasting or in cases of extreme poverty.
  About a person who could not earn enough to buy boots and more refined food, they said that he “slurps on cabbage soup,” that is, he lives in terrible poverty and ignorance.
• Fawn
  The word “fawn” comes from the German phrase “Ich liebe sie” (I love you). Seeing the insincerity in the frequent repetition of this “swan zi,” the Russian people wittily formed from these german words Russian word“to fawn” means to curry favor, to flatter someone, to achieve someone’s favor or favor with flattery.
• Fishing in troubled waters
  Stunning has long been one of the prohibited methods of catching fish, especially during spawning. There is a well-known fable by the ancient Greek poet Aesop about a fisherman who muddied the water around his nets, driving blinded fish into them. Then the expression went beyond fishing and acquired a broader meaning - to take advantage of an unclear situation.
  There is also a well-known proverb: “Before you catch a fish, you [need] to muddy the waters,” that is, “deliberately create confusion for profit.”
• Small fry
  The expression came from peasant everyday life. In the Russian northern lands, a plow is a peasant community of 3 to 60 households. And small fry called a very poor community, and then its poor inhabitants. Later, officials occupying a low position in the government structure also began to be called small fry.
• The thief's hat is on fire
  The expression goes back to an old joke about how a thief was found in the market.
  After futile attempts to find the thief, people turned to the sorcerer for help; he shouted loudly: “Look! The thief’s hat is on fire!” And suddenly everyone saw how a man grabbed his hat. So the thief was discovered and convicted.
• Lather your head
  In the old days, a tsarist soldier served indefinitely - until death or complete disability. Since 1793, a 25-year term was introduced military service. The landowner had the right to give his serfs as soldiers for misconduct. Since recruits (recruits) had their hair shaved off and were referred to as “shaved”, “shaved their forehead”, “soaped their head”, the expression “I’ll soap my head” became synonymous with threat in the mouths of the rulers. IN figurative meaning"to lather one's head" means: to do severe reprimand, strongly scold.
• Neither fish nor fowl
  In Western and Central Europe XVI century, a new movement appeared in Christianity - Protestantism (lat. “to protest, object”). Protestants, unlike Catholics, opposed the Pope, denied holy angels and monasticism, arguing that each person himself can turn to God. Their rituals were simple and inexpensive. There was a bitter struggle between Catholics and Protestants. Some of them, in accordance with Christian commandments, ate modest meat, others preferred lean fish. If a person did not join any movement, then he was contemptuously called “neither fish nor fowl.” Over time, they began to talk about a person who does not have a clearly defined life position, incapable of active, independent actions.
• There is no place to put samples- disapprovingly about a depraved woman.
  An expression based on a comparison with a golden thing passing from one owner to another. Each new owner demanded that the product be checked by a jeweler and tested. When the product had been in many hands, there was no longer any room left for testing.
• If we don't wash, we'll ride
  Before the invention of electricity, a heavy cast iron iron was heated over a fire and, until it cooled down, they ironed clothes with it. But this process was difficult and required a certain skill, so the linen was often “rolled”. To do this, washed and almost dried laundry was fixed on a special rolling pin - a round piece of wood similar to the one used to roll out dough nowadays. Then, using a ruble - a curved corrugated board with a handle - the rolling pin, along with the laundry wound onto it, was rolled along a wide flat board. At the same time, the fabric was stretched and straightened. Professional laundresses knew that well-rolled linen has more fresh look, even if the washing was not entirely successful.
  This is how the expression “by washing, by rolling” appeared, that is, to achieve results in more than one way.
• Break a leg- wishing good luck in something.
  The expression was originally used as a “spell” designed to deceive evil spirits (this expression was used to admonish those going on a hunt; it was believed that with a direct wish for good luck one could “jinx” the prey).
  Answer "To hell!" should have further protected the hunter. To hell - this is not an expletive like “Go to hell!”, but a request to go to hell and tell him about it (so that the hunter does not get any fluff or feather). Then the unclean one will do the opposite, and what is needed will happen: the hunter will return “with down and feathers,” that is, with prey.
• Let's beat swords into ploughshares
  The expression goes back to the Old Testament, where it is said that “the time will come when the nations will beat swords into plowshares and spears into pruning hooks; nation will not lift up sword against nation, and they will no longer learn to fight.”
  IN Old Slavonic language"ploughshare" is a tool for cultivating land, something like a plow. The dream of establishing universal peace is figuratively expressed in the sculpture of the Soviet sculptor E.V. Vuchetich, depicting a blacksmith forging a sword into a plow, which is installed in front of the UN building in New York.
• Goof
  Prosak is a drum with teeth in a machine, with the help of which wool was carded. Getting into trouble meant being maimed and losing an arm. To get into trouble is to get into trouble, into an awkward position.
• Knock you down
  Confuse, confuse.
  Pantalik is a distorted version of Pantelik, a mountain in Attica (Greece) with a stalactite cave and grottoes in which it was easy to get lost.
• Straw Widow
  Among the Russians, Germans and a number of other peoples, a bundle of straw served as a symbol of a concluded agreement: marriage or purchase and sale. To break the straw meant to break the contract, to separate. There was also a custom of making the newlyweds’ bed on sheaves of rye. Wedding wreaths were also woven from straw flowers. A wreath (from the Sanskrit word “vene” - “bundle”, meaning a bundle of hair) was a symbol of marriage.
  If the husband left somewhere for a long time, they said that the woman was left with nothing but straw, which is how the expression “straw widow” appeared.
• Dance from the stove
  The expression became popular thanks to the novel by the 19th century Russian writer V.A. Sleptsova " Good man». Main character novel "Non-Servant Nobleman" Sergei Terebenev returns to Russia after long wanderings around Europe. He remembers how he was taught to dance as a child. Seryozha started all his movements from the stove, and if he made a mistake, the teacher told him: “Well, go to the stove, start over.” Terebenev realized that his life circle had closed: he started from the village, then Moscow, Europe, and, having reached the edge, he again returned to the village, to the stove.
• Grated kalach
  In Rus', kalach is wheat bread in the shape of a castle with a bow. Grated kalach was baked from hard kalach dough, which was kneaded and grated for a long time. This is where the proverb “Don’t grate, don’t crumple, there won’t be a kalach” came from, which in figuratively means: "troubles teach a man." And the words “grated kalach” have become popular - this is what they say about an experienced person who has seen a lot, who has “rubbed between people” a lot.
• Pull the gimp
  Gimp is a very thin, flattened, twisted gold or silver wire used for embroidery. Making gimp consists of pulling it out. This work, done manually, is tedious, monotonous and time-consuming. Therefore, the expression “pull the gimp” (or “spread the gimp”) in a figurative sense began to mean: to do something monotonous, tedious, causing an annoying loss of time.
• In the middle of nowhere
  In ancient times, clearings in dense forests were called kuligs. The pagans considered them bewitched. Later, people settled deep into the forest, looked for swarms, and settled there with their whole family. This is where the expression comes from: in the middle of nowhere, that is, very far away.
• Too
  IN Slavic mythology Chur or Shchur - ancestor, ancestor, god hearth and home- brownie.
  Initially, “chur” meant: limit, border.
  Hence the exclamation: “chur,” meaning a prohibition to touch something, to cross some line, beyond some limit (in spells against “ evil spirits", in games, etc.), a requirement to comply with some condition, agreement.
  From the word “too much” the word “too much” was born, meaning: to go beyond “too much”, to go beyond the limit. “Too much” means too much, too much, too much.
• Sherochka with a masherochka
  Until the 18th century, women were educated at home. In 1764 in St. Petersburg at the Resurrection Smolny convent The Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens was opened. The daughters of nobles studied there from the ages of 6 to 18. The subjects of study were the law of God, French, arithmetic, drawing, history, geography, literature, dancing, music, different kinds home economics, as well as items of "secular circulation". The usual address of college girls to each other was the French ma chere. From these French words The Russian words “sherochka” and “masherochka” appeared, which are currently used to name a couple consisting of two women.
• Walk trump
  In ancient Rus', boyars, unlike commoners, sewed a collar embroidered with silver, gold and pearls, which was called a trump card, to the collar of their ceremonial caftan. The trump card stuck out impressively, giving the boyars a proud posture. Walking as a trump card means walking is important, but trumping means showing off something.