Did the Arab Caliphate border on India? Arab conquests and the Arab caliphate
He became the founder of a new state, known in history as the Arab Caliphate. This state was absolutely theocratic.
Muhammad and the caliphs who succeeded him came from the Meccan Quraish tribe.
Muhammad (prophet) d. 632
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the Muslim community was successively led by elected rulers - caliphs (“successors”). All of them were old companions of Muhammad.
Elected (Righteous) Caliphs, 632-661.
Hasan ibn Ali 661
It is believed that there were four elected caliphs, but in fact there was a fifth - in Kufa, after the murder of Ali, his son Hassan was proclaimed caliph. But the Syrian governor Muawiya opposed him. Realizing that he did not have enough strength to resist, Hasan renounced his rights by concluding an agreement with Muawiya.
Umayyad Dynasty, 661-750.
Muawiyah was the son of Abu Sufiyan, the leader of the Meccan Quraish community, a contemporary of the Prophet Muhammad. Abu Sufiyan's eldest son Yazid commanded the Arab forces in Syria. After his death from plague in 639, his brother Muawiyah became Syrian governor.
Muawiyah did not recognize the fourth elected caliph Ali and fought with him. At this time, a conspiracy matured in the caliphate, the participants of which decided to physically eliminate the perpetrators of the split in the Muslim community. The conspirators killed Ali, but only managed to wound Muawiya. Having a battle-hardened army at his disposal, Muawiya quickly seized power, dealing with all opponents.
The dynasty of caliphs founded by him was divided into two branches: Suffianids(the first three caliphs) and Marwanids(other).
Yazid I 680-683
Muawiyah II 683-684
Marwan I 684-685
Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr (anti-caliph, in Mecca) 684-692
al-Walid I 705-715
Yazid II 720-724
Hisham 724-743
al-Walid II 743-744
Yazid III 744
Ibrahim 744
Marwan II 744-750
In the eastern provinces of the caliphate, a powerful movement arose against the Umayyads, in which a variety of forces united for a time. It was headed by Abu Muslim, a skilled organizer and an excellent speaker. The Umayyad troops were defeated, the dynasty was overthrown and almost completely exterminated. Marwan II fled to Egypt but was killed in Gaza. Only one Umayyad prince, Abd ar-Rahman, the grandson of Caliph Hisham, managed to escape. He fled to the Iberian Peninsula, where he founded a state independent of the caliph.
Abbasid Dynasty, 750-1258
The Abbasids traced their origins to the uncle of the prophet al-Abbas (d. 653). Unlike the Alids, they did not have any special rights to supremacy in the Muslim community. Therefore, not very shy about the means in the fight against the Umayyads, the Abbasids tried to attract a variety of forces to their side - the Kharijites, new Muslims, especially in Iran and other eastern provinces of the caliphate. But after coming to power, they quickly tried to get rid of their former allies. By order of the second caliph al-Mansur, Abu Muslim, who ensured their victory, was killed, many other prominent Shiites were executed or expelled, and Alid speeches were mercilessly suppressed.
al-Mahdi 775-785
al-Hadi 785-786
Harun 786-809
al-Amin 809-813
al-Mamun 813-833
Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi (in Baghdad) 817-819
al-Mustasim 833-842
al-Wasiq 842-847
al-Mutawakkil 1 847-861
al-Mustansir 861-862
al-Musta'in 862-866
al-Mutazz 866-869
al-Muhtadi 869-870
al-Mutamid 870-892
al-Mu'tadid 892-902
al-Muqtafi 902-908
al-Muqtadir 908-932
al-Qahir 932-934
al-Radi 934-940
al-Muttaqi 940-944
al-Mustaqfi 944-946
al-Muti 946-976
at-Tai 976-991
al-Qadir 991-1031
al-Qaim 1031-1075
al-Muqtadi 1075-1094
al-Mustazhir 1094-1118
al-Mustarshid 1118-1135
ar-Rashid 1135-1136
al-Muqtafi 1136-1160
al-Mustanjid 1160-1170
al-Mustadi 1170-1180
an-Nasir 1180-1225
Az-Zahir 1225-1226
al-Mustansir 1226-1242
al-Mustasim 1242-1258
The power of the caliphs gradually weakened, and the outskirts were separated from the state. In 945, the Daylemite Buyids captured the capital of the caliphate, Baghdad, and turned the caliphs into their puppets, leaving them only with spiritual leadership.
In 1055, Baghdad was conquered by the Seljuk Turks. Political power passed to their sultans. At the end of the 12th century, the Seljuk state collapsed, and the caliphs gradually regained their power. But in 1258, the caliphate was destroyed by the Mongol Khan Hulagu, who ordered the execution of Caliph al-Mustasim. As a result, the devout Sunnis lost their spiritual leader. At the same time, among the fugitives from Baghdad, one appeared in Cairo who called himself the uncle of the last caliph. Although his origins were in doubt, the Mamluks who ruled Egypt found it advantageous to believe him. He was proclaimed caliph, and after his early death his brother became caliph. Neither they nor their descendants had any real power. The Mamluk sultans kept caliphs at their court as the main clerics. The caliphs strengthened the power of the sultans with their authority.
Abbasid caliphs in Cairo, 1261-1517.
al-Mustansir 1261
al-Hakim I 1261-1302
al-Mustaqfi I 1302-1340
al-Wasiq I 1340-1341
al-Hakim II 1341-1352
al-Mu'tadid I 1352-1362
al-Mutawakkil I 1362-1377
al-Mutasim 1377
al-Mutawakkil I (secondary) 1377-1383
al-Wasiq II 1383-1386
al-Mu'tasim (secondary) 1386-1389
al-Mutawakkil I (for the third time) 1389-1406
al-Musta'in 1406-1414
al-Mu'tadid II 1414-1441
al-Mustaqfi II 1441-1451
al-Qaim 1451-1455
al-Mustanjid 1455-1479
al-Mutawakkil II 1479-1497
al-Mustamsiq 1497-1508
al-Mutawakkil III 1508-1516
al-Mustamsiq (secondary) 1516-1517
al-Mutawakkil III (secondary) 1517
In 1517, Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquered Egypt. The last Mamluk sultan was executed on his orders. The Abbasid caliph Mutawakkil III lived further at the court of Selim I, who assumed the title of Caliph of the Faithful.
1. List the main provisions of the Muslim faith.
The creed of Islam is based on the “five pillars”. All Muslims must believe in one God - Allah and in the prophetic mission of Muhammad; daily prayer five times a day and weekly prayer in the mosque on Fridays are obligatory for them; Every Muslim must fast during the holy month of Ramadan and at least once in his life make a pilgrimage to Mecca - Hajj. These duties are complemented by another duty - if necessary, to participate in the holy war for faith - jihad.
2. What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs?
The reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs were: rivalry and mutual weakening of Byzantium and Iran, religious militancy of the Arabs, and the weakness of the barbarian states in North Africa.
3. How were the relations between the Muslim conquerors and people belonging to other religions?
Muslim conquerors did not At first the Arabs did not force Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians (adherents ancient religion Iran) convert to Islam; they were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, paying a special poll tax. But Muslims were extremely intolerant of pagans. People who converted to Islam were exempt from taxes.
4. Why, despite the unrest and schisms, the Islamic state for a long time managed to maintain unity?
Because the ruler - the caliph had not only secular, but also spiritual power over all Muslims, which ensured unity.
5. What were the reasons for the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate?
The reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate were the revolts of the nobility, the lack of ability to control a vast state, the emergence of independent rulers who did not obey the caliph, and the deprivation of the caliph of secular power.
6. Using a map, list the states of antiquity and early Middle Ages, whose territories became part of the Arab Caliphate.
Sassanid State (Persia), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Khorezm, Kerman, Sistan, Tokharistan, Syria, Phenicia, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Kingdom of the Visigoths (Spain).
7. They say that Islam is the only world religion that arose “in the full light of history.” How do you understand these words?
These words can be understood to mean that Islam arose in an era that is well covered by historical sources and described by medieval historians. Therefore, historians have a very good idea of the conditions in which the new religion arose.
8. The author of the work “Kabus-Name” (11th century) talks about wisdom and knowledge: “Do not consider an ignorant person a man, but do not consider a wise person, but devoid of virtue, a sage, do not consider a cautious person, but devoid of knowledge, as an ascetic, but with the ignorant. Don’t mess around, especially with those ignoramuses who consider themselves wise and are satisfied with their ignorance. Communicate only with wise people, for from communicating with good people they gain good reputation. Do not be ungrateful for communicating with the good and do good deeds and do not forget the one who needs you, do not push away, for through this pushing away suffering and need will increase. Try to be kind and humane, avoid unpraiseworthy morals and do not be wasteful, for the fruit of wastefulness is care, and the fruit of care is need, and the fruit of need is humiliation. Try to be praised by the wise, and be careful that the ignorant do not praise you, for the one whom the mob praises is condemned by the nobles, as I heard... They say that once Iflatun (as the Muslims called the ancient Greek philosopher Plato) was sitting with the nobles of that city. A man came to bow to him, sat down and led different speeches. In the middle of his speeches, he said: “O sage, today I saw such and such, and he spoke about you and glorified and glorified you: Iflatun, they say, is a very great sage, and there has never been and never will be one like him. I wanted to convey his praise to you.”
The sage Iflatun, hearing these words, bowed his head and began to sob, and was very sad. This man asked: “O sage, what offense have I caused you to make you so sad?” The sage Iflatun replied: “You have not offended me, O Khoja, but can there be a greater disaster than that an ignoramus praises me and my deeds seem worthy of approval to him? I don’t know what kind of stupid thing I did that pleased him and gave him pleasure, so he praised me, otherwise I would have repented of this act. My sadness is because I am still ignorant, for those whom the ignorant praise are themselves ignorant.”
What should a person’s social circle be, according to the author?
Why should such communication be beneficial?
Why was Plato upset?
What does the mention of his name in the story indicate?
You should communicate only with reasonable people
Such communication is beneficial because... from communicating with good people they gain good fame
Plato was upset that he was praised by an ignorant person, which means that Plato himself was compared to an ignorant person, because... “those whom the ignorant praise are themselves ignorant”
This indicates that the Arabs not only knew ancient philosophy, but largely preserved it in the early Middle Ages.
Caliphate as a medieval state formed as a result of the unification of Arab tribes, the center of settlement of which was the Arabian Peninsula (located between Iran and North-East Africa).
A characteristic feature of the emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the 7th century. there was a religious connotation to this process, which was accompanied by the formation of a new world religion - Islam (Islam translated from Arabic means “surrendering oneself” to God). The political movement for the unification of tribes under the slogans of renouncing paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the trends in the emergence of a new system, was called "Hanif".
The Hanif preachers' search for a new truth and a new god, which took place under the strong influence of Judaism and Christianity, is associated primarily with the name of Muhammad. Muhammad (about 570-632), a shepherd who became rich as a result of a successful marriage, an orphan from Mecca, to whom “revelations descended”, later recorded in the Koran, proclaimed the need to establish the cult of a single god - Allah and a new social order that excluded tribal strife. The head of the Arabs was to be a prophet - “the messenger of Allah on earth.”
Early Islam's calls for social justice (limiting usury, establishing alms for the poor, freeing slaves, fair trade) caused dissatisfaction among the tribal merchant nobility with the "revelations" of Muhammad, which forced him to flee with a group of close companions in 622 from Mecca to Yathrib (later Medina). , "city of the Prophet"). Here he managed to enlist the support of various social groups, including Bedouin nomads. The first mosque was built here, and the order of Muslim worship was determined. From the moment of this migration and separate existence, which received the name “Hijra” (621-629), the summer reckoning according to the Muslim calendar begins.
Muhammad argued that Islamic teachings do not contradict the two previously widespread monotheistic religions - Judaism and Christianity, but only confirm and clarify them. However, already at that time it became clear that Islam also contained something new. His rigidity and, at times, fanatical intolerance in some matters, especially in matters of power and authority, were quite clearly evident. According to the doctrine of Islam, religious power is inseparable from secular power and is the basis of the latter, and therefore Islam demanded equally unconditional obedience to God, the prophet and “those who have power.”
For ten years, in the 20-30s. VII century The organizational restructuring of the Muslim community in Medina was completed in public education. Muhammad himself was its spiritual, military leader and judge. With the help of the new religion and military units of the community, the struggle against opponents of the new socio-political structure began.
Muhammad's closest relatives and associates gradually consolidated into a privileged group that received the exclusive right to power. From its ranks, after the death of the prophet, they began to choose new individual leaders of Muslims - caliphs ("deputies of the prophet"). Some groups of Islamic tribal nobility formed an opposition group of Shiites, which recognized the right to power only by inheritance and only by the descendants (and not the companions) of the prophet.
The first four caliphs, the so-called "righteously guided" caliphs, quelled discontent with Islam among certain sections and completed the political unification of Arabia. In the 7th - first half of the 8th century. Vast territories were conquered from the former Byzantine and Persian possessions, including the Middle East, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa and Spain. The Arab army entered French territory, but was defeated by the knights of Charles Martell at the Battle of Poitiers in 732.
In the history of the medieval empire, called the Arab Caliphate, they usually distinguish two periods, which correspond to the main stages of development of Arab medieval society and state:
- Damascus, or the period of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750);
- Baghdad, or the period of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258).
Umayyad dynasty(from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the next one after them Abbasid dynasty(from the descendants of a prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the 10th century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.
The most famous of the Abbasids were the caliph Harun al-Rashid, who was included in the characters of the Arabian Nights, as well as his son al-Mamun. These were enlightened autocrats who combined concerns for spiritual and secular enlightenment. Naturally, in their role as caliphs, they were also occupied with the problems of spreading the new faith, which they themselves and their subjects perceived as a commandment to live in equality and universal brotherhood of all true believers. The duties of the ruler in this case were to be a fair, wise and merciful ruler. Enlightened caliphs combined concerns about administration, finance, justice and the army with support for education, art, literature, science, as well as trade and commerce.
Organization of power and administration in the Arab Caliphate
The Muslim state for some time after Mohammed remained a theocracy in the sense of recognizing it as the true possession of God (state property was called God's property) and in the sense of striving to govern the state according to the commandments of God and the example of his Messenger (the prophet was also called rasul, that is, messenger).
The first entourage of the prophet-ruler consisted of mujahirs(exiles who fled with the prophet from Mecca) and Ansar(assistants).
Characteristic features of the Muslim social system:
- the dominant position of state ownership of land with the widespread use of slave labor in the state economy (irrigation, mines, workshops);
- state exploitation of peasants through rent-tax in favor of the ruling elite;
- religious-state regulation of all spheres of public life;
- the absence of clearly defined class groups, special status for cities, any freedoms and privileges.
The Arabian Peninsula has been inhabited by Arab tribes since ancient times. Traditionally, the overwhelming majority of the peninsula's population were Bedouins - nomadic pastoralists. Agriculture, which was of an oasis nature, was developed to a lesser extent here. Some areas (Yemen, the Mecca region) specialized in intermediary trade with the countries of North and North-East Africa, the Mediterranean, and India.
The Kaaba is the main shrine of Islam. It is a stone building in the center of the Al-Haram Mosque in Mecca. The Kaaba, with a black stone embedded in it, supposedly sent by Allah from heaven, is the main object of pilgrimage for Muslims around the world. Pilgrims walk around the Kaaba 7 times and kiss the black stone encased in a silver frame.
Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. Built under Caliph Walid I (705-712). In the Middle Ages, this mosque, called the Great, was considered a wonder of the world. It was repeatedly subjected to robberies and fires, but even today it is considered one of the magnificent examples of architectural art.
Ancient gate of Baghdad.
The 50-meter minaret of the Ap-Malviyya mosque in the form of a truncated cone with an external spiral staircase in Samarra (Iraq).
Bukhara. Mausoleum of Ismail Samani. IX-X centuries
Conquests of the Arabs in the 7th-4th centuries.
In the 7th century In Arabia, processes of decomposition of the primitive communal system and class formation took place, social stratification intensified, tribal nobility emerged, taking possession of vast lands, large herds, and slaves. In the most developed areas, slaveholding and, in some places, early feudal relations had already emerged. Formed favorable conditions for the state unification of the Arabs. It was largely facilitated by the emergence and spread of the monotheistic teachings of Islam, the main idea of which was the unity of all Muslims (see Religion). The Muslim community became the core of the country's political unification.
In the early 30s. VII century The Arabs began military campaigns that ended with the conquest of the countries of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and Egypt. A vast state was created - the Arab Caliphate, in which secular and spiritual power was concentrated in the hands of the caliph (“the successor and deputy of the Messenger of Allah, the Prophet Muhammad”).
During military campaigns, the Arabs faced two powerful powers of the time - Byzantium and Sassanian Iran. Weakened by a long struggle with each other and the aggravation of internal political contradictions, they suffered a series of defeats from the Arabs and ceded to them significant territories in Western Asia and North Africa.
In the 30-40s. VII century The Arabs conquered Syria and Palestine, Mesopotamia, Egypt, almost all of North Africa (including Barka, Tripolitania, Ifriqiya), and Cyprus. By 651 the conquest of Iran was completed. Byzantine Asia Minor was subjected to numerous predatory raids by the Arabs, who undertook several unsuccessful attempts take Constantinople. At the beginning of the 8th century. The Arab state included Transcaucasia and regions of Central Asia (Maverannahr - the territory between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers). In 712, the Arabs invaded India and conquered Sindh (the region along the lower Indus), in 711-714, having defeated the Visigothic state, they captured most of the Iberian Peninsula.
The subjugation of foreign lands became for the Arab nobility important means enrichment. The Arabs received vast lands, war booty, captive slaves, and collected tribute from the conquered peoples. Initially, local orders and the old state apparatus were preserved in the occupied countries. The prevailing socio-economic relations did not undergo any significant changes. The existing system of exploitation of the peasantry, characteristic of early feudal society, was preserved; V agriculture and craft, the Arab nobility widely used the labor of slaves captured in military campaigns. Slave labor was used for government work - digging and cleaning canals, etc. (see Slavery, Slave trade).
In the conquered countries, the gradual Arabization of the local population began. This process was especially active in places where, long before the 7th century. Quite large groups of Arabs lived in Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Transcaucasia, Iran and Central Asia were never Arabized. The Arabs accepted many elements of the culture of the conquered peoples.
Along with the settlement of the Arabs, Islam spread across a vast territory. In all parts of the caliphate, the number of adherents of the Muslim religion grew rapidly. In relation to representatives of other religions and cults - Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians - the principle of religious tolerance was observed. Gentiles were not persecuted, but enjoyed limited rights compared to Muslims.
At the beginning of the 2nd half of the 7th century. The caliphate becomes the arena of intense internal political struggle between representatives of various noble Arab families. The internecine war marked the beginning of the split of Muslims into supporters of Ali (the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad) - Shiites and his opponents - Sunnis, and led to the emergence of the Kharijite movement.
After the murder of Ali, the Umayyad dynasty, representing one of the clans of the Qureish tribe, came to power. Damascus becomes the capital, Syria - the capital province of the caliphate. During the reign of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750), the state achieved great success in socio-economic development. The improvement of commodity-money relations is facilitated by the introduction of a unified monetary system throughout the caliphate; measures are being taken to streamline the tax system and centralize the state apparatus. The Arabic language, in which office work is conducted, is becoming widespread.
In the middle of the 8th century. The internal political struggle in the caliphate again intensified. This time, the Abbasids, wealthy Iraqi landowners, descendants of Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad, made claims to the throne. Under the Abbasids, it was decided to move the capital of the caliphate from Damascus. For this purpose, a new city was founded - Baghdad, officially called “Madinat al-Salam”, which means “city of peace”. The caliphate of the Abbasid period (750-1258) is called Baghdad. Under the first Abbasid caliphs, including Harun al-Rashid (786-809), the caliphate was a fairly strong and relatively centralized feudal-theocratic state. He continued to wage campaigns of conquest (Sicily, Malta, Crete were captured), and waged continuous wars with his old enemy - Byzantium. Processes of further improvement of feudal relations were underway in the Abbasid state. Increased oppression and exploitation of peasants, artisans, and the working population of cities, illegal exactions and oppression by the administration caused large popular movements, which often took place under religious slogans. Uprisings broke out in different corners caliphate. The uprising under the leadership of Mukanna (776-783) in Central Asia, the Babek uprising (816-837), which engulfed Southern Azerbaijan, Armenia and Western Iran, and the uprising of the Zinjs - dark-skinned slaves in Iraq, brought from Africa, who were initially supported artisans and Bedouins (869-883), Qarmatian religious movement that shook the caliphate in the 9th - early 10th centuries. and held under the slogans of social equality and justice.
In the 1st quarter of the 9th century. began the political disintegration of the Arab Caliphate, the unity of which was maintained only by military force. There is a rapid growth of large land ownership of individual feudal lords and families, strengthening of their positions in political life, which ultimately led to separatist aspirations, to the isolation of individual parts of the caliphate and their gradual transformation into independent states. For example, Khorasan, while maintaining nominal dependence on the Baghdad caliph, was actually ruled by members of the Tahirid dynasty (821-873), in Egypt the Turkic Tulunid dynasty (868-905) came to power, in the territory of modern Morocco - the Idrisids (788-974), Tunisia and Algeria - Aghlabids (800-909). In the 9th century. local feudal statehood was revived in Central Asia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The caliphate actually fell apart into separate parts, unable to subsequently restore its former power. Iraq became the stronghold of power of the Abbasid rulers. In 945, the Western Iranian Bund dynasty captured Baghdad, deprived the Abbasids of political power, retaining only spiritual power. The caliphate finally ceased to exist in the middle of the 13th century, when in 1258 its capital was conquered by the Mongol conquerors.
During the period of the Arab Caliphate, culture reached a high level of development. The consequence of the long cultural interaction of the Arabs with the peoples they conquered was the interpenetration of elements of different cultures, their mutual enrichment. On this basis, the richest medieval Arab culture arose. The names of remarkable Arab medieval poets and writers are known - Abu Nuwas (762-815), Omar ibn Abi Rabia (644-712), Abu Tammam (c. 796-843), Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (897-967) , al-Mutanabbi (915-965), Abu Firas (932-967) and others. Based on the revised plots of Persian, Indian and other fairy tales, the popular collection of fascinating fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” began to take shape. The mature classical literary Arabic language and writing based on the Arabic alphabet became widespread. Scientific knowledge was accumulated and improved, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, medicine, geography, philosophy, historical and philological disciplines developed. Many cities became major scientific and cultural centers. A special institution even arose in Baghdad - “Bayt al-Hikma” (“House of Wisdom”), which had a rich library and an observatory. Baghdad became a center of translation activity; scientific and literary monuments antiquities.
Many cities of the caliphate were famous throughout the world as the largest centers of handicraft production and trade, famous for the magnificent monuments of medieval Arab architecture. These are Baghdad and Basra, Damascus and Jerusalem, Mecca and Medina, Kufa and Nishapur, Bukhara and Samarkand, Alexandria, Kairouan and Cordoba and many other cities.
§ 9. Conquests of the Arabs and the creation of the Arab Caliphate
The beginning of the conquest of the Arabs
The death of Muhammad led to uprisings by opponents of the Islamic State that broke out in different ends Arabia. However, these protests were quickly suppressed, and the Muslims began to conquer other countries. The main opponents of the Arabs were the Byzantine Empire and Iran.
Arabian warrior
Muhammad also sent a message to the Byzantine emperor calling on him to accept Islam. It said: “Submit (accept Islam) and you will be saved. Allah will give you double reward. O people of the Book! Unite around the Word that is common to us and you!” The ruler of Constantinople did not consider it necessary to answer the prophet, but he soon felt the power of the Muslim weapons. The Byzantine army was unable to withstand the onslaught of the Arab cavalry, inspired by the new religion. Muslims joyfully accepted death, hoping to taste the heavenly bliss promised by the prophet.
Muslim military successes
During the campaigns of conquest, the army of Arabs led by the caliphs subjugated richest countries Middle East. Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia were taken by him from the Byzantines. The Arabs captured the largest city in Syria, Damascus, and the holy city of Christians and Jews, Jerusalem. After several defeats, the Iranian state ceased to exist. In Africa, the Arabs captured Egypt. The Byzantine army was unable to resist the conquerors here either. The largest city in Egypt, Alexandria, surrendered to the Muslims without a fight, who promised not to touch Christian churches for a rich ransom. Of their eastern possessions, the Byzantine emperors managed to retain only Asia Minor. The Arabs besieged Constantinople more than once, but were unable to take it.
Muslims storm a fortress in Syria. Medieval drawing
Having subjugated North Africa, the Arabs crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and landed in Spain at the beginning of the 8th century. A small army of Arabs defeated the army of the Visigothic king. Despite stubborn resistance, the Visigothic cities fell one after another. By 718, all of Spain, except for a small area in the north of the country, was in Arab hands. They then invaded the Frankish kingdom and were stopped only by Charles Martell at the Battle of Poitiers.
Remember in what era and by whom the city of Alexandria was founded.
By the middle of the 8th century, as a result of the conquests, a huge Muslim state arose - the Arab Caliphate. It included lands with fertile soils - Egypt and Mesopotamia, which used to be granaries Ancient Rome and Byzantium. The Arabs captured all the gold deposits known at that time. They took control of sea and land trade routes that connected Mediterranean markets with countries Far East, Central Asia, inland Africa. All this made the caliphate the richest state in the world.
Campaigns and conquests of the Arabs. Arab Caliphate
The first caliphs and the schism in Islam
The first caliphs in their way of life were not much different from ordinary Muslims. Like the Prophet Muhammad, they had temporal and spiritual power. During the period of conquest, the caliphs had to be military leaders. Caliph Omar (634–644) became famous for his talent as a commander. He was known as a stern but fair ruler who did not strive for personal enrichment, although the Arab army took possession of enormous treasures.
Mosque of Omar in Jerusalem
After Omar's death, Osman (644–656) was elected caliph. The new caliph came from a family that was initially hostile to Muhammad, but then converted to Islam. When distributing wealth captured during campaigns and appointing him to important positions, Osman gave preference to his relatives. The governors of the conquered regions, who possessed real military power, listened less and less to the caliph who lived in Medina. The Muslim nobility organized a conspiracy against Osman, and the caliph was killed on the doorstep own home. At the same time, the ruler’s blood got on the list of the Koran, which he was holding in his hands.
Even more dramatic events unfolded under Caliph Ali (656–661). The internecine war and the subsequent murder of Ali led to the split of Muslims into warring factions - Sunnis And Shiites. After the death of Ali in 661, the governor of Syria declared himself caliph. He did not go to Mecca or Medina, but remained in Damascus, founding the Umayyad dynasty.
The inner life of the Arab Caliphate
At the end of the 7th century, the caliphs from the “deputies” of the Prophet Muhammad turned into unlimited rulers, and their power from an elective one became hereditary. The untold wealth flowing from the conquered countries was concentrated in the hands of the caliphs. Every year, tons of silver and gold arrived in their capital in the form of tribute. The rulers could dispose of them at their own discretion. The Muslim nobility, which consisted not only of Arabs, but also of representatives of other peoples inhabiting the caliphate, had a great influence on the affairs of the state. Noble Muslims - generals and provincial governors - quickly forgot the calls of the Prophet Muhammad to despise wealth and share their property with the poor. Imitating the nobles of the conquered countries, they erected magnificent palaces filled with treasures.
Trade at the Muslim bazaar. Medieval drawing
The lands conquered by the Arabs were declared the property of the entire Muslim community. People living on these lands had to pay a land tax or convert to Islam. In the conquered lands, the Arabs did not at first force the local population to become Muslims. “People of the Book” - Christians and Jews who recognized one God, were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, but they had to pay a special poll tax. Muslims were intolerant of pagans: under pain of extermination, they were offered to convert to Islam. It was beneficial for the population of the conquered countries to convert to the new faith, since they were immediately exempt from taxes. Muslims paid only alms to the poor.
Why were Muslims tolerant of the faith of Christians and Jews?
However, after a few decades, the attitude of Muslims towards people of other religions changed, and their oppression began. One of the caliphs issued a decree in which he ordered Christians and Jews to “from now on wear a yellow dress; don't wear white dress, so as not to resemble Muslims; destroy newly built churches, double the poll tax; do not allow them to enter Muslim baths... do not take Muslims for personal services...” A Christian who dared to hit a Muslim was subject to the death penalty.
Caliph Harun al-Rashid with his entourage. Medieval miniature
What has changed in the attitude of Muslims towards representatives of other religions?
Collapse of the Arab Caliphate
The rule of the Umayyads caused discontent among the people, which was taken advantage of by the opponents of the caliphs. In 750, the power of the Umayyads was overthrown, and they themselves were exterminated. The Abbasids became the new rulers of the Muslim state, making the capital of the caliphate the city of Baghdad on the Tigris River in Mesopotamia. In the 8th–9th centuries, the Arab Caliphate reached the peak of its power. However, the decline of this power was already close. About 80 million people lived in the lands of the caliphate. The majority of the population were conquered peoples who converted to Islam. It was difficult to govern such a large state, and the caliphs maintained their power only by force of arms. Here and there, riots and uprisings broke out, which undermined the Islamic state. His strength was also undermined by the ongoing hostility between Sunnis and Shiites. The governors of remote provinces refused to submit to the authority of the Baghdad caliph and did not send him the due tribute. Gradually they created their own independent states.
Muslim warriors. Arabian miniature
Gradually, by the 10th century, the caliphate lost most of its possessions, retaining only the lands around Baghdad under its rule. Having become a mere toy in the hands of their army, the caliphs lost their secular power, retaining authority only in religious matters. In place of a huge power, many Muslim states arose in which Arabic was spoken. Despite the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, the faith of the Prophet Muhammad spread far beyond the borders of Arabia. It was carried to the countries of Asia, Africa, and Europe not only by warriors, but also by merchants and preachers.
Using the map, list the countries and peoples conquered by the Arabs. Name the places of the most important victories and greatest defeats of the Arabs.
Muslim culture
The culture of the Arab Caliphate and the states that formed in its place was closely connected with the Muslim religion.
Education in madrasah. Arabic drawing
Learning to read, write and arithmetic was considered necessary for understanding and mastering the Qur'an. His text was memorized, trying to apply the wisdom of this book in all life situations. Primary schools were created to educate children aged 5-10 years.
The state cared about the education of its subjects. By order of the caliphs, they were created madrasah, where teenagers and adults continued their education.
Muslim library. Medieval drawing
They gathered around the teacher, who read out ancient texts and works of scientists, explaining incomprehensible places. In the madrasah they studied the history and foundations of Islam, mathematics, medicine, geometry and other sciences.
Pages from an Arabic manuscript on medicine
The respect for knowledge that Muslims showed was combined with intolerance towards everything that, in their opinion, was contrary to Islam. Often during conquests, Muslims destroyed and destroyed what they considered alien to their faith. At the court of the caliphs in Baghdad and elsewhere major cities“Houses of Wisdom” arose - a kind of academies of sciences. Here scientists were engaged in translations into Arabic of works by authors from different countries and eras, including famous sages antiquity: Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes. It was the Arabs who introduced some of these works to medieval Europeans.
Remember what Plato, Aristotle, and Archimedes were famous for.
Trade and travel made the Arabs experts in geography. The maps and geographical works they compiled contained a description of all areas of the then Muslim world from Spain to India. Muslims knew about China, Korea, and Siberia. The works “Wonders of Countries”, “Wonders of the Earth”, in the “Book of Paths and States”, as well as in the “Book of Pictures of the Earth” contained detailed information about nature, peoples, cities, and occupations of the inhabitants of various lands.
Miniature from an Arabic book
From distant India, Arab scientists borrowed a convenient decimal counting system, adopting from the Indians the numbers that we now call Arabic. The science of algebra, which also appeared in India, became known in Europe under the Arabic name “al-jabr”.
Great Mosque in Damascus. 8th century
Far beyond the borders of the Muslim world, the name of the scientist Ibn Sina, who lived at the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries (in Europe his name was Avicenna), was known. He authored the medical works “The Book of Healing” and “The Canon of Medical Science.”
The fusion of various cultural streams led to the emergence of Muslim poetry. She glorified victories in battles, sublime feelings of love, and the joys of life.
Arabs loved to listen and tell tales. Wandering storytellers collected, composed and brought fantastic stories to different parts of the Muslim world. Gradually they compiled a huge collection called “A Thousand and One Nights.” It included tales of not only Arabs, but also Greeks, Persians, Indians and other peoples. The most famous stories are about the brave Baghdad merchant Sinbad the Sailor, who made his risky journeys to distant lands.
View of the city of Aleppo in Syria. Medieval drawing
The laws of the Muslim religion prohibit depicting God. Therefore, on the walls of buildings and in books you can only see intricate patterns and ornaments made up of Arabic letters forming words. Often these were quotes from the Koran or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. In the Muslim East it became widespread calligraphy. Arabic and Arabic writing were known in all countries whose inhabitants professed Islam.
Let's sum it up
Arab conquests led to the emergence of the huge Arab Caliphate. In the countries that were part of it, people's lives were organized in accordance with the requirements of the Islamic religion. Muslim Arabs sought to expand their knowledge of the world around them. They created a special world of culture that was closely connected with the Muslim religion. Many of the achievements of the scientists of the Arab Caliphate exceeded the level of science in European countries of that time.
Sunnis - supporters of one of the groups in Islam who revere not only the Koran, but also the oral tradition about the acts and sayings of Muhammad - the Sunnah.Shiites - supporters of one of the groups in Islam who recognize the Koran as the only holy book, considering only Ali and his descendants to be the legitimate caliph.
Madrasah – educational institution in Islamic countries.
Calligraphy – the art of beautiful and clear writing.
661 years Beginning of the Umayyad dynasty.750 year. Overthrow of the Umayyads, beginning of the Abbasid dynasty.
“All knowledge is ultimately related to religion and is acquired in the name of Allah.”Prophet Muhammad
1*. Tell us about the progress of the Arab conquests. Why did the Muslim Arabs manage to quickly conquer many countries of the East?
2. What was the attitude of the Arabs towards the conquered peoples? How did it change? Why?
3. What power did the caliphs have?
4. What changes took place in the Arab state by the 10th century compared to the time of the first caliphs?
5. Name the reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate.
6. What influence did Islam have on the culture of the Arab Caliphate?
7. What knowledge did Muslim scholars value most? Why do you think?
8. Which of scientific knowledge Europeans adopted from Muslims?
1. The famous book of fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” tells about a conversation between a caliph and a learned girl. “O Tawaddud, what sciences do you know well?” - asked the Caliph. The girl answered: “I know grammar, poetry, law, interpretation of the Koran and vocabulary, I am familiar with music and the science of shares of inheritance, and counting, and division, and land surveying, and the legends of the first people... I studied the exact sciences, and geometry, and philosophy , and healing, and logic, and rhetoric, and explanation, and remembered a lot of theology. I was committed to poetry and played the lute, I learned where the sounds are on it, and I know how to strike the strings so that they are in motion or at rest... In short, I reached a point that only people who have established themselves in science."
Name the sciences that were familiar to the Arab girl. Which of them are considered sciences today?
2. Using the text of the paragraph and illustrations, write a story about life in a medieval Muslim city, using the words: caliph, palace, mosque, minaret, madrasah, bazaar.
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