What is a proper name? Proper names: examples. Names of church services and their parts

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Names that have become words - the transition of proper names into common nouns The work was done by a student of the 6th grade "B" Konstantinova Sofia http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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The relevance of my work: by learning the etymology of names, we study more deeply the history and culture of our people and the peoples of other countries. The novelty of the work: a study of the transition of proper nouns into common nouns in cooking, clothing and some other areas. Purpose of the work: to study the ways of transition of proper nouns into the category of common nouns. Subject of research: proper and common nouns http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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We don't often think about how the words we use originated and how their meaning may have changed over time. Meanwhile, words are quite living beings. New words appear literally every day. Some do not stay in the language, while others remain. Words, like people, have their own history, their own destiny. A word can tell us about its nationality, its parents, its origin. The most interesting science that studies the history of the origin of words is etymology (from the Greek “etymon” - the true meaning of the word and “logos” - teaching). But another science is studying proper names - onomastics (from the Greek “ὀνομαστική” - the art of giving names). http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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In my work, I will tell you about the fate of some proper nouns, which, for a number of reasons, have become common nouns. More precisely, I will tell you about several amazing eponyms (Greek: “name giver”). So, let's begin.. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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OLIVIER SALAD This is a popular salad in Russia, considered festive and traditionally New Year's. This salad got its name in honor of its creator, the French chef Lucien Olivier, who in the early 60s of the 19th century ran the Hermitage restaurant of Parisian cuisine on Trubnaya Square almost in the center of Moscow. The main attraction of the cuisine of this restaurant was precisely the salad of unusually delicate taste invented by the owner, which was called “Olivier Salad,” the method of preparation of which he kept secret. Many chefs tried to prepare this salad, but no one succeeded. Years have passed, the French chef Olivier has long died, but his name still lives on. True, now we write the name of the salad with a small letter. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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CHARLOTTE Where this name came from is difficult to say now. There are several versions. According to one, the name “charlotte” comes from the Old English word charlyt, spoiled by the French, which means “a dish with sweet cream.” It was probably named so because it is based on a cream similar to that used in creme brulee, only with fruit additives. According to the second, this recipe was proposed by Queen Charlotte, wife of King George III of Great Britain. The third version is the most romantic. She talks about the love of one cook for a poor girl, Charlotte. He named this dish in her honor. But the most likely second version is that the name of this dish is given in honor of Queen Charlotte, who was a big fan of apples. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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POLOMBIERE The name of this variety of everyone's favorite ice cream, which existed back in the era of Napoleon III, has “geographical” roots: it comes from the name of the French city of Plombiere-les-Biens. HERCULES We call oatmeal Hercules. Why oatmeal? The answer is simple. For a long time, in Russia there was an attitude towards oats as a food that gives a lot of strength, since it served as the main food for horses, which were the main means of transportation. Therefore, porridge cooked from oats was considered a source of strength for people as well. The name for the porridge “Hercules” arose in the Soviet era due to its similarity with the name of the ancient Greek hero Hercules (in Rome - Hercules). He was also a strong man, a strong and healthy man. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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BEEF STROGANOV Two words “coexist” in the name of this dish. The first is English beef (beef). The second part is a famous Russian surname - Stroganov. It literally turns out to be beef Stroganoff. The fact is that the chef who invented this recipe worked for the Russian diplomat, Count P.A. Stroganov, a representative of one of the greatest and noblest families in Russia. Legend has it that the count was missing teeth and had great difficulty chewing meat. Then the cook, in order to make it easier for the master to eat, cut the meat into small pieces. The chef subsequently presented the recipe for this dish at a culinary competition in 1890 in St. Petersburg and won a prize. Since then, the glory of meat Stroganoff or beef Stroganoff began. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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SANDWICH The word “sandwich” was first heard in 1762 in an English cafe: two gentlemen were discussing their recent dinner at a men’s club, where they were served this simple cold appetizer with meat. Why “sandwich”? Who owes this dish its name? The now popular sandwich was invented by John Montagu, the fourth Earl of Sandwich, British Foreign Secretary and a great fan of card games. One day, while playing bridge, Sandwich felt that he was hungry, but he did not want to interrupt the game because of hunger. The count called a servant and ordered him to bring some cold beef and bread, and then put the beef between two pieces of bread (so as not to get his hands dirty with grease). His fellow players really liked this way of eating without interrupting the game, and they also ordered sandwich bread. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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TATYANKA To this day, the tatyanka skirt does not lose its popularity. But hardly anyone knows where the name “Tatyanka” came from. It is possible that once upon a time this model was developed by a woman named Tatyana, who introduced a new direction into the world of fashion, which has not left fashion pedestals for many centuries. Such skirts were worn by both court ladies and simple peasant women. Even in Pushkin's years, all the fashionistas shone at balls in chic outfits, the skirts of which were tightly gathered at the waist. To make them seem even more magnificent, court beauties wore several of the same skirts underneath them. All skirts had fluffy frills, with the help of which the outfit took on a bell shape. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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PANTALONTS Today, pantaloons are called long men's trousers (in the past, by the way, they were always white) or, on the contrary, elegant women's underpants. If we ask where the word came from in the Russian language, we will certainly find out that from French, where it looked like this - pantalon, which translates as “clown, clown.” And this word came to France from Italy. This clothing has been known there since the 40s. 17th century after the comic character of the Italian mask theater Pantaleone, who wore tight trousers with lace. Breeches Breeches got their name from the name of the famous French general Gaston Breeches (1830 - 1909), who actually invented them specifically for cavalrymen. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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MACINTOSH Today, few people know what a Macintosh is. And this is a raincoat made of waterproof rubberized fabric, as well as a summer (usually gabardine) men's coat (made like such a raincoat), which was in fashion in the 40-50s. XX century. The raincoat got its name from the Scottish chemist Charles Mackintosh, who in 1823 invented a way to make fabric waterproof by impregnating it with a rubber solution. HEMINGWAY Quite recently, many people liked a men's knitted sweatshirt, similar to the one worn by the famous writer Ernest Hemingway. This sweatshirt was named Hemingway in honor of the great writer. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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SWEATSHIRT Look at any portrait of Leo Tolstoy: he is wearing a wide, long shirt with long sleeves and a belt. Ordinary clothes of a Russian peasant. It doesn't look like a modern sweatshirt at all. At the end of the 19th century, populist revolutionaries dressed in such shirts, imitating not the peasants, but precisely Count Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy. That’s why shirts got a second name – sweatshirt. And Tolstoyans wore them. There was such a word. FRENCH The French jacket is a military jacket at the waist, with four large patch pockets and a tab at the back. This jacket was worn by the English Field Marshal John French. It received this name in his honor. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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NARCISSUS According to mythology, there once lived a young man who loved only himself, and as punishment for this, the gods made him fall in love with his reflection in the water. He couldn’t stop looking at him, stopped eating, sleeping and died from such torment, and his body turned into a beautiful narcissus flower. Today we call selfish narcissists, people who love only themselves. MUNCHAUSEN Anecdotal stories about the German Baron Munchausen and his incredible adventures have been known for a long time. They were collected and published in 1785 by R.E. Raspé entitled "Stories of Baron Munchausen". Today, we call a Munchausen a person who shamelessly lies and brags, like his literary “parent” Munchausen. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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BOYCOTT Once upon a time a certain gloomy captain named Charles Cunnigham Boycott was working in the country of Ireland. He worked as a hired manager. His responsibility was to collect money from the tenants who rented his master's houses. This gentleman was a strict and ruthless manager, so he was never interested in whether the residents could pay the owner or whether they had money. And so, one September day in 1880, Mr. Boycott categorically refused to grant a deferment in payments to a group of residents and kicked the unfortunate people out of their houses with noise and noise. Once on the street, the poor began to take revenge on their offender for his cruel treatment of them and used a new method of struggle against the manager, calling him part of the offender - a boycott. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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HOOLIGAN Everyone associates the word hooligan with the bad behavior of excessively naughty children or teenagers. However, it did not always have this meaning. In the 18th or 19th centuries, it is not precisely established, in the town of Southwark, near London, there lived a family of Hooligans, who had a very bad reputation. This “cheerful” family ran an inn, but got its wealth from robberies and murders of guests. All members of the household, led by Patrick Hooligan, became rowdy and took part in pogroms. Even the Londoners themselves often suffered from the raids of the Southwark family. The notoriety of the Hooligans spread throughout England. Soon the surname of robbers entered the vocabulary of Londoners and became a household name: the English began to call all city mischief-makers and all those who rebelled against the established order hooligans. http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

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Sources poiskslov.com/word/narcissus www.megaslov.ru/html/n/narciss.html slovoborg.su/definition/ mirfactov.com/ otvet.mail.ru/question/40081292 4stor.ru/.../11843- proishozhdenie-slova-huligan.html www.megaslov.ru/html/b/boykot.html www.bolshoyvopros.ru www.adme.ru/russkij.../imena-stavshie-slovami-466605/ www.e-reading. co.uk/book.php?book=129623 plombaural.ru/stat_i/istoriya_slova www.apreleva.ru/nazvania-blud.htm www.rg.ru/2013/10/24/koroleva.htm otvet.mail.ru/ question/15203263 www.vokrugsveta.ru/quiz/375/ http://ku4mina.ucoz.ru/

In language it happens that in a short time a fact of reality - for example, a person - becomes a fact of language. This happens when own name becomes a common noun, expanding its meaning or adding new shades of meaning. Such transitions are called antonomasia. It’s not difficult to recall a couple of such examples: this and x-ray, named after the discoverer of this type of radiation - Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen(yes, yes, exactly through “e”); And Colt, And Mauser, And camellia and much more.

Very often, the qualities inherent in a person - real or mythical - are so strong that they “overlap” the name itself, making it universal. For example, now a very rich person is often called Croesus- by name the fabulously rich Lydian king. A traitor, a person with a corrupt soul, an earphone is often called Judas: Judas Iscariot, according to the gospel legend, betrayed his teacher for 30 pieces of silver. The image of Judas is found not only in everyday life, but also in literature and history: Saltykov-Shchedrin nicknamed his Porfiry Golovlev Judas, A Lenin called Trotsky Judas.

What do we call arrogant, arrogant person? Right! Jupiter- by name the supreme god of the ancient Romans. We call a narcissist a narcissistic person who has elevated his appearance to a cult. And the “progenitor” of this is mythological Narcissus, in love with his reflection. We name something or someone terrible "Gog and Magog". According to one version, Gog- this is the prince of a cruel people Magog. According to another version, Gog And Magog- these are two wild northern tribes. According to legend, the Great conqueror Alexander the Great defeated these tribes, but, horrified by their ferocity, drove them into distant caves and locked them there forever.

Sometimes in English literature you can find the name John Bull. AND Boule- not a historian at all, not a famous writer, not an outstanding scientist, not an artist, not an artist. This - collective image. John Bull was called a typical English bourgeois – wealthy, physically strong, but narrow-minded and stubborn. Why John Bull? John is the most common name in England, and Bull means "bull". Such an ironic designation English-bourgeois flew from the pen of the pamphlet D. Arbstnot(XVIII century).

Word "hooligan"- as unexpected as it may seem - is also the result of antonomasia. Lived in 18th century England innkeeper Hooligan. Everything would be fine, but Hooligan and his family terrorized the entire area, thanks to which it “got” into the language. Since then, the bully is a daring street mischief who blatantly flouts generally accepted norms of behavior. In the 20th century in Russia, the word “hooligan” became a term of jurisprudence and legal proceedings.

Often deceived people say: “ Again he insulted and tricked me?" Are all Egors and Kuzmas such swindlers? No.

Burn- Means to deceive, to deceive. Give a hint- means d leave trouble, put in a difficult position. These expressions go back to the names of saints Yegor (George, Yuri) and Kuzma and the holidays organized in their honor. November 25, on the day Saint Yegoriy - patron saint of farmers and guardian of livestock, – in Rus' it was customary to produce settlements between owner and employee for summer work. In the southern regions, calculations were timed to about the day of Saint Kuzma and his brother Domian(Nov. 1). Each side, trying to protect its interests, was cunning in every possible way, sometimes resorting to deception, i.e. tried to bully each other and undercut each other.

Libel- This an essay that contains slander, malicious attacks, insults with the aim of discrediting the addressee. There is also a specific person behind the word “libel” – Roman shoemaker Pasquino, wit and mocker. Not far from Pasquino's house, a statue was found, to which the residents gave the name of the shoemaker. Soon, anonymous, angry notes began to appear on the statue, ridiculing the authorities, neighbors, and friends. These notes became known as pasquinadalia . In Russia during the time of Fonvizin - not without the help of the German language - such cruel “writing” was called pashkvilem, and then the word was transformed into what we are familiar with - libel.

Nonsense, nonsense, nonsense, incoherence, nonsense often called nonsense. According to the first version, the impetus for the emergence of the word was... typical theft. In Paris with a peasant Matthias stolen rooster. The victim went to court and hired a lawyer. According to the traditions of that time, the lawyer had to deliver his indictment speech on Latin; Unfortunately. Matthias's lawyer was not strong on this subject. As a result, the lawyer at the trial so often repeated the words "Matthias" And "hallus"(rooster) that he confused everyone and himself - and got lost: so "Mathias Galli"(Matthias' rooster) became "Gally Mathias"(Mathias the rooster). That's how the word was born "nonsense". According to another version, the “ancestor” of the word is considered to be a Parisian doctor Galli Mathieu- a resourceful and witty person. The doctor practiced laughter therapy: he accompanied all his medical recommendations with jokes to cheer up the patient. Later, the doctor, unable to visit all his patients, began sending them notes with puns; they were nicknamed nonsense.

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3.1. General rules

3.1.1. Assigning capital letters

A capital (capital) letter is used: 1) to highlight the beginning of text segments; 2) to highlight individual words, regardless of the structure of the text.

The highlighting of words in the text is used to contrast proper and common nouns: common nouns are written with a lowercase letter, proper ones with a capital letter; cf., eg: lion - Leo, Neva banks - Alexander Nevsky, little red riding hood - Little Red Riding Hood (fairy-tale character), health - Health magazine.

In addition, a capital letter may indicate a special stylistic use of the word: You (in letters, documents) when addressing one person; capitalization of some words that express high concepts, as well as those associated with certain stylistic varieties of text. The names of sacred concepts in religion are characterized by peculiarities in the use of capital letters.

3.1.2. Types of proper names

Among the words highlighted with a capital letter, there are: 1) proper names in the narrow sense of the word and 2) names.

Proper names in the narrow sense include names and nicknames of people and animals, geographical and astronomical names.

All words in proper names, except for function words and generic terms, are written with a capital letter, for example: Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol, Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov-on-Don, Russian Federation, Polar Star, East European Plain, Palace Square.

Names include the names of institutions, organizations, associations, historical eras and events, holidays, public events, orders, architectural monuments, as well as the names of newspapers, magazines, awards, works of art, societies, enterprises, industrial products, etc., highlighted in quotation marks. If a proper name - the name consists of several words, then only the first word is written with a capital letter (except for cases when the name includes other proper names), for example: World Federation of Trade Unions, Museum of History and Reconstruction of Moscow, Peter the Great's era, Battle of Kulikovo, newspaper "Moscow News", novel "War and Peace", medal "Veteran of Labor", perfume "Red Moscow".

3.1.3. Transition of proper names into common nouns

Proper names are often used to generically designate homogeneous objects, becoming common nouns, with the capital letter in many cases being replaced by a lowercase one. Thus, they are common nouns and are always written with a lowercase letter, the names of objects, products (types of clothing, weapons, fabrics, drinks, etc.), formed from personal names, names of companies, geogr. names ( Macintosh, Colt, Winchester, Boston, Bordeaux, Khokhloma, Adidas), as well as names of units of quantities formed from the names of scientists ( ampere, volt, pascal, roentgen). Much less often the names of people are written with a lowercase letter, generalized by character traits and behavior associated with this or that history. face, lit. or a mythological character, which is determined by the tradition of use. Yes, words Don Quixote, Don Juan, Robinson, Derzhimorda, Judas, philanthropist, Hercules, Cerberus, used in in a common sense, are written with a lowercase letter, and Oblomov, Manilov, Plyushkin, Mitrofanushka, Apollo, Juvenal, Napoleon and many others retain the capital letter. The same applies to the generalized (figurative) use of geogr. names: so, they are written with a lowercase letter Sodom(total disorder, chaos), walker(mass crush of people in the crowd), Kamchatka(back rows in the hall, in the classroom), but retain the capital letter in figurative meanings Mecca, Vendée, Klondike, Hiroshima, Chernobyl etc. The use of similar names in the plural form in the common sense. h. does not require replacing a capital letter with a lowercase one, for example: Ivans, who do not remember their kinship; galloping across Europe; We all look at Napoleons (Pushkin); Soviet Sharikovs.

3.1.4. Integrated, hyphenated, separate spelling of names

The use of personal names and geographical names. names are associated with continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling. The choice of spelling and the use of capital letters in these names also depend on the meaning of the name (for example: Saltykov-Shchedrin- surname, Erich Maria- name), and on the origin and spelling of words in the source language (for example: Charles De Coster, Saint-Just, Park Soo-yeon, Omar al-Sharif), and from the position at the beginning or in the middle of the name (for example: Las Vegas, Frankfurt am Main).

Below (see 3.2 - 3.31.) the rules for using uppercase and lowercase letters are discussed in more detail for individual groups of names.

3.2. First names, patronymics, last names, nicknames, nicknames

3.2.1. General rule

In the names, etc. of persons, all words included in them are written with a capital letter. Eg: first names, last names, patronymics, nicknames: Maxim Gorky (Alexey Peshkov), Franz Liszt, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, Isaac Newton, William Shakespeare, Albert Einstein; nicknames: Catherine the Great, Vsevolod the Big Nest, Yuri Dolgoruky, Vladimir the Red Sun, Richard the Lionheart, Vladimir Monomakh, Alexander Nevsky, Peter the Great (Peter I), Helen the Beautiful, Henry the Birdcatcher, Cato the Elder, Fedka Wash Yourself with Mud.

Wed: Dumas the father, Dumas the son, Petrov the elder etc., where the words father, son, elder etc. have not become nicknames and are common nouns.

Proper names in the plural are written with a capital letter. h. For example: two Natashas, ​​several Kuznetsovs, the Zhemchuzhnikov brothers, the Morozov merchants, the Tolstoy spouses.

3.2.2. Names that have lost their proper meaning and are used in the sense of common nouns

3.2.3. Proper names in the plural in a contemptuous, derogatory meaning

Hitlers, Quislings, Azefs, latter-day Goebbels. Such writing is allowed as an expressive and stylistic device.

3.2.4. Individual names used as common nouns, but not losing their individual meaning

We... were firmly convinced that we had our own Byrons, Shakespeares, Schillers, Walter Scotts (Belinsky). Wed. (acceptable spelling): Surrounded by wild boars, wild animals and feclushes, Katerina’s freedom-loving character developed.

3.2.5. Names of units of quantities formed from the names of persons

Written with a lowercase letter without quotation marks. Eg: ampere, coulomb, newton, ohm, pascal, x-ray. However, abbreviations for the same units are written with a capital letter. For example: A - ampere, Kl - coulomb, N - newton, Ohm - ohm, Pa - pascal.

3.2.6. Names of household items, etc., formed from the names of persons

Written with a lowercase letter without quotation marks. Eg: riding breeches, mackintosh, napoleon(cake), Remington, sweatshirt, French.

3.2.7. Weapon names derived from the names of persons

Written with a lowercase letter without quotation marks. Eg: browning, katyusha, colt, maxim, revolver, kalashnikov(colloquial: Kalashnikov assault rifle).

3.2.8. Russian double, triple surnames and pseudonyms

Each part of a double, triple surname or nickname begins with a capital letter, with a hyphen placed between them. Eg: Mamin-Sibiryak, Melnikov-Pechersky, Nemirovich-Danchenko, Novikov-Priboy, Ovchina-Obolensky-Telepnev, Rimsky-Korsakov.

3.2.9. Non-Russian double, triple surnames and pseudonyms

Each part of a double, triple surname or pseudonym is written with a capital letter, regardless of whether they are spelled separately or hyphenated. Eg: Garcia Lorca, Andersen-Nexo, Castro Rus, Sklodowska-Curie, Toulouse-Lautrec, Sholom Aleichem.

3.2.10. Non-Russian double, triple, etc. names

Such European, American, Australian names are written with a capital letter each, regardless of their separate or hyphenated spelling. Eg: George Noel Gordon Byron, John Desmond Bernal, Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais, Charles Robert Darwin, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Stuart Mill, Antoine Francois Prevost, Catharine Susanna Pritchard, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Jean Paul Sartre, Robert Lewis Stevenson, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Thorbern Olaf Bergman, Bela Ivan Grünwald, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Niccolo Ugo Foscolo, Pedro Ortega Diaz, Jose Raul Capablanca, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Hans Christian Andersen, Peter Powel Rubens, Bronislaw Wojciech Linke, Michal Kleofas Oginski, Karel Jaromir Erben, Quintus Horace Flaccus, Marcus Fabius Quintilian, Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Tullius Cicero, Marie Antoinette.

Note. There is no uniformity regarding the separate or hyphenated spelling of foreign names. Linguistic articles argue for hyphenation of all multi-part names. The press either focuses on the separate spelling of all names, adopted in encyclopedias (for example, in TSB, “Big Encyclopedic Dictionary”), or allows a hyphenated spelling of some. French names, as a rule, enshrined in tradition (for example: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Marie Antoinette), in accordance with the recommendations of reference publications on the Russian language (for example: Rosenthal D. E. Handbook on spelling, pronunciation, literary editing. M ., 1994, III, § 13). It is recommended to adopt one of the solutions used in printing and consistently adhere to it in all publications.

3.2.11. Chinese personal names

In Chinese two-part proper names, both parts are written with a capital letter. Eg: Li Bo, Liu Huaqing, Song Yu, Sun Yat-sen, Deng Xiaoping, Liu Shaoqi.

3.2.12. Burmese, Vietnamese, Indonesian, Korean, Ceylonese, Japanese personal names

All parts of personal names are written with a capital letter. Eg: Kim Il Sung, Le Duan, Pham Van Dong, Ho Chi Minh, Mang Reng Sai, San Yu, U Ne Win, U Taung Kyi, Park Soo Yeon, U Dau Ma, Kattorge Publis Silva, Akira Kurosawa, Satsuo Yamamoto, Kim Jong Ir.

3.3. Complex non-Russian names and surnames with articles, prepositions, particles, etc.

3.3.1. Articles, prepositions, particles van, yes, das, de, del, der, di, dos, du, la, le, von, etc. in Western European surnames and given names

They are written with a lowercase letter and separately from other components. Eg: Ludwig van Beethoven, Leonardo da Vinci, Honoré de Balzac, Lope de Vega, Alfred de Musset, Juana Ines de la Cruz, Lucca della Robbia, Andrea del Sarto, Roger Martin du Tart, Jenny von Westphalen, Max von der Grün, Perez de Cuellar Javier.

Exception 1. The indicated articles, prepositions, particles at the beginning of the surname are written with a capital letter:

a) if they merged with another part of the surname into one word (written together or with a hyphen): Van Gogh, Van der Waals, Vandervelde, Descartes, Delavigne, Dubois, Ducersault, La Bruyère, Lamarck, Lamartine, La Mettrie, Lamont-le-Vaye, Laplace, La Rochefoucauld, Lafayette, Lafontaine, Fonvizin;

b) if in the source language they are written with a capital letter: D'Alembert, Charles De Coster, Eduardo De Filippo, De Sica, Di Vittorio, Etienne La Boesie, Le Corbusier, Henri Louis Le Chatelier, El Greco.

Exception 2. If you hesitate between the combined and separate spelling of function words, preference should be given to the combined spelling.

3.3.2. Truncated particle De (de) in Western European surnames

Attached to another part of the surname or given name through an apostrophe. Eg: Gabriele D'Annunzio, Joan of Arc, Agrippa d'Aubigne, Giscard d'Estaing, d'Etaples. Whether it is written with an uppercase or lowercase letter depends on the spelling in the source language.

3.3.3. Particle ABOUT before Irish surnames

It is written with a capital letter, followed by an apostrophe: Frank O'Connor, O'Neal.

3.3.4. Particles Mac, San, Saint, Saint before Western European surnames

McGregor, McMachen, Jose San Martin, Sant Elia, Saint Just, Saint Saens, Saint Simon, Saint Beuve, Antoine de Saint Exupéry.

3.3.5. Component in non-Russian surnames

It is written with a lowercase letter and appended with a hyphen. Eg: José Ortega y Gaset, Riego y Nunez.

3.3.6. Words don, donna, dona, donya in combinations with Spanish, Italian, Portuguese names and surnames

These words, meaning “Mr,” “Madam,” are written with a lowercase letter, separately and in indirect cases, declined. Eg: Don Lope Melendeo de Almecdares, Don Fernando, Donna Maria, Dona Clementa, Don Lope, Don Fernando, Dona Clementa.

Exception. Word Don capitalized in two names: Don Quixote(Cervantes hero) and Don Juan(Byron's hero). The names of the heroes of Cervantes and Byron, used in a common noun, are written with a lowercase letter and together: village Don Juan, quixotes.

3.3.7. Components of Arabic, Turkic, Persian and other eastern personal names

Components of such names, denoting social status, family relationships, etc., as well as function words ( aga, al, al, ar, as, ash, bey, bek, ben, zade, zul, kyzy, ogly, ol, pasha, ul, khan, shah, ed, el etc.) are usually written with a lowercase letter and are attached to the name with a hyphen. Eg: Kerim Agha, Zayn al-Abi-din, al-Biruni, al-Jahm, Rashid Selim al-Khouri, Harun al-Rashid, Sabah al-Salem al-Sabah, Omar al-Sharif, Ibrahim Bey, Hasan Bey , Tursun-zade, Salah zul-Fikar, Kor-ogly, Mamed-ogly, Abil Pasha, Seif ul-Islam, Mirza Khan, Melik Shah, ed-Din, el-Kuni, es-Zayat.

3.3.8. Initial part Ibn, Khan, Ben Arabic, Turkic and other eastern names; Ter in Armenian surnames

It is written with a capital letter and is attached to the subsequent part, usually with a hyphen. Eg: Ibn Yasir, Khan Pira, Shah Ja Khan, but: Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, Ben Ali; cf: Ali ibn Abd Rahman.

It is recommended to check the spelling of specific proper names of this group using the encyclopedic dictionary of the Great Russian Encyclopedia publishing house of the latest year of publication.

Always written with a capital letter and the initial part separated by a hyphen Ter- in Armenian surnames. Eg: Ter-Gabrielyan, Ter-Petrosyan.

3.3.9. Particle san in Japanese personal names

Attached to names with a hyphen and written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Komiyama-san, Cio-Cio-san.

3.4. Mythological and religious names, conventional proper names, names of characters

3.4.1. Individual religious and mythological names

Written with a capital letter. Eg: Atlas, Pallas Athena, Mother of God, Brahma, Buddha, Venus, Hercules, Zeus the Thunderer, Jesus Christ, Mohammed, Perun.

For other names related to religion, see

3.4.2. Generic names of mythological creatures

angel, valkyrie, demon, brownie, devil, goblin, nymph, mermaid, satyr, siren, faun, cherub.

3.4.3. Names of characters in works of fiction (fairy tales, fables, plays, etc.)

They are usually written with a capital letter, even if these names have a common meaning. Eg: The naughty Monkey, the Donkey, the Goat and the club-footed Bear decided to play a quartet (Krylov), Falcon (Gorky), Sugar, Bread, Milk, Dog, Cat (Maeterlinck), Santa Claus(But: Father Frost- toy), Serpent Gorynych, Little Red Riding Hood, Foundbird, Rike the Tuft, Snow Maiden, Bluebeard(heroes of fairy tales). But: Ivanushka the Fool, Masha the Confused, Little Thumb, Brugnon the Fidget in combinations of a name with a common noun; Also Baron Munchausen, grandfather Mazai, the Frog Princess, Lady Macbeth, King Lear, Doctor Aibolit.

3.4.4. Attachments and components type cinema, television before proper names

Such prefixes and components are written with a hyphen. Eg: non-Gogol, false Christ, pseudo-Pushkin, cinema-Ostap, television-Pechorin, neo-Robinson; But: False Dmitry(traditional spelling).

3.5. Adjectives and adverbs formed from names of persons

3.5.1. Adjectives formed from individual names of persons, mythological creatures, etc. using a suffix -ov- (-ev-) or -in-

Written with a capital letter. Eg: Van Dykov's Madonna, Dalev's dictionary, Marx's Capital, Odysseus's wanderings, Tanya's doll.

Also uncles-Vasin, aunts-Valin, women-Dusin.

3.5.2. Adjectives formed from individual names of persons using a suffix -sk- (-ovsk-, -evsk-, -insk-)

3.5.3. Adjectives with suffix -sk- in the meaning of a proper name, including those having the meaning of “the name of so-and-so”, “in memory of so-and-so”

Written with a capital letter. Eg: Habsburg dynasty, Peter's reforms, Stroganov School, Nobel Prize, Lomonosov Readings, Bulgakov Conference, Vakhtangov Theater, Pushkin Poetry Festival.

3.5.4. Adjectives included in frozen phraseological expressions and compound terms

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Augean stables, Ariadne's thread, Achilles' heel, pillars of Hercules, Gordian knot, Sisyphus's work, Aesopian language, Ariel's weightlessness, Archimedes' lever, Filkin's letter, Voltaic arc, Graves' disease, Bickford's cord, Witt's dance. Wed. 3.5.1.

3.5.5. Adjectives formed from combinations of first and last names, first names and nicknames

Written with a hyphen and lowercase. Eg: Walter Scott(from Walter Scott) Jules-Vernovsky, Romain-Rolandovsky, Childe-Haroldovsky, Kozma-Prutkovsky; but according to tradition: Mao Zedong(from: Mao Zedong).

3.5.6. Adverbs formed from proper names

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Suvorov style, tannin style, Kostya style.

3.6. Astronomical names

3.6.1. General rule

Proper astronomical names are written with a capital letter. In two- and multi-word astronomical names, all words except generic words are written with a capital letter ( star, comet, constellation etc.), ordinal designations of luminaries ( alpha, beta, gamma etc.) and except for function words. Eg: Alpha Ursa Minor, Canes Venatici, Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy, Archduke Charles star, Capella Auriga, Milky Way, Bird of Paradise, Canis Major constellation, Sagittarius, Andromeda nebula, Corona Southern, Southern Cross. See p.

3.6.2. Words Sun, Moon, Earth and so on.

They are written with a capital letter only if they are used in the meaning of astronomical names: planet Earth with satellite Moon; distance from Earth to Sun. However, in a non-terminological sense: sunset, cultivation of the land, moonlight. Wed. Also: Universe [There is no doubt that over time man will begin to remake the Universe(TSB)] and Universe [In the desert, stunted and stingy, / On the ground, hot with heat, / Anchar, like a formidable sentinel, / Stands alone in the whole universe(Pushkin)].

3.6.3. Names of places on cosmic bodies

All words are written with a capital letter. Eg: Swamp of Rot, Rainbow Bay, Sea of ​​Rain, Sea of ​​Clarity, Ocean of Storms(on the moon).

3.7. Geographic names (names of continents, seas, lakes, rivers, hills, countries, regions, settlements, etc.) and words derived from them

3.7.1. General rule

All words included in the geogr. are written with a capital letter. names, with the exception of generic geogr. terms ( island, sea, mountain, lake etc.), used in their literal meaning, and function words, as well as words years, years. Eg: Alps, America, Eurasia, Arctic, Volga, Europe, Caucasus, Ural; Eastern Siberia, New Zealand, North America, Central Europe; Great Bahama Bank, Kivach Falls, West Karelian Upland, Kanin Kamen(elevation), Vesuvius volcano, Kara Bay, Tamashlyk Valley, Blagopoluchiya Bay, Great Australian Gulf, Great Lakes Basin, Northern Engilchek Glacier, Dnieper Estuary, Cape Serdtse-Kamen, Cape Chelyuskin, Cape of Four Winds, Cape of Good Hope, Abyssinian Highlands, Lake Baikal, Golodnaya Lip(lake), Arctic Ocean, Novaya Zemlya Island, Pioneer Peak, Ustyurt Plateau, Central Siberian Plateau, Caucasian Coast, Taimyr Peninsula, South Pole, Great Sandy Desert, Blue Nile(river), Moscow River, Great Barrier Reef, Western Wind Current, Tropic of Cancer, Academy of Sciences Ridge, Main Caucasus Ridge, Valle de la Serena, Rostov-on-Don.

3.7.2. Adjectives formed from proper geographical names

They are written with a capital letter if they are part of complex geographies. names or as nicknames, surnames as part of complex ind. names ( Moscow region, Indian Ocean, Neva Bay, Perekop division), and with lowercase, if they are not part of a complex own geogr. names ( Asian countries, Moscow school, Pacific herring).

3.7.3. Geographical names with a generic concept that has lost its direct meaning (such as forest, clearing, horn, church)

Such nouns are written with a capital letter if they are not used in a literal sense and name the object conventionally. Eg: Golden Gate(strait), Sovetskaya Gavan(city), Tierra del Fuego(island), Czech Forest(mountains), Golden Horn(bay), Krivoy Rog(city), Vyatsky Uval(elevation), White church(city), Pushkinskie Gory(village).

3.7.4. Names of positions, ranks, titles, etc. in compound geographical names

Written with a capital letter. Eg: Prince Olav Coast, Princess Charlotte Bay, Dronning Maud Land(island), Queen Charlotte Islands.

3.7.5. The word Saint in geographical names

It is written with a capital letter. Eg: Saint Elias Mountains, Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Saint Helena Island.

3.7.6. Complex geographical names spelled with a hyphen

Through a hyphen (each part with a capital letter) the following is written:

1. Toponyms (nouns or adjectives), consisting of two equal components. Eg: Ilinskoye-Khovanskoye, LikinoDulevo, Orekhovo-Zuevo, Port Arthur, Cape Serdtse-Kamen, Brus-Kamen Hill.

2. Names that are a combination of a noun followed by an adjective. Eg: Gus-Khrustalny, Dmitriev-Lgovsky, Novgorod-Seversky, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Strugi-Krasnye, Moscow-Tovarnaya(station).

3. Names that are combinations of two equal proper names, having a connecting vowel o or e in the first part. Eg: Nikolo-Berezovka, Trinity-Lykovo, Troitsko-Pechorsk. By tradition, the following names are written together: Borisoglebsk, Petropavlovsk, Kozmodemyansk.

4. Names in the form of adjectives, formed from a first and last name, or from a surname written with a hyphen. Eg: Lev-Tolstovsky district, settlements Mikhailo-Kotsyubinskoye, Vorontsovo-Dashkovskoye.

5. Names starting with words East-, West-, North-(North-), South-(South-), Central-. Eg: East Siberian Sea, West Karelian Upland, North Chuisky Range, North-Eastern Cape, South Golostepsky Canal, Yugo-Kama settlement, Central Andean Highlands, Central Yakut Lowland.

Note. In the names of settlements beginning with the words North-, South-, both continuous and hyphenated spelling is possible, for example: Severo-Kurilsk, Yuzhno-Kurilsk, Severodvinsk, Severomorye.

6. Names of settlements with the first component Top-, Sol-, Ust-. Eg: Verkh-Neyvinsky, Sol-Iletsk, Ust-Ishim, Ust-Kamenogorsk, But: Solvychegodsk(according to established tradition).

7. Foreign language geographies transmitted in Russian. names that are written separately or with a hyphen in the original. Eg: Salt Lake City, New York, Stara Zagora, Buenos Aires, Port Kennedy, Zielona Gora.

Note. Names of residents derived from complex geographies. names whose parts are connected by a hyphen are written together. Eg: Almaty residents, New Yorkers, Orekhozuevites, Ust-Kamenogorsk residents.

3.7.7. Generic foreign words as part of geographical names

These words, which are not used in Russian as common nouns, are written with a capital letter and a hyphen. Eg: Yoshkar-Ola (ola- city), Rio Colorado (Rio- river), Arakan Yoma (Yoma- ridge), Issyk-Kul (cul- lake). However, foreign-language generic names used in Russian as common nouns are written with a lowercase letter, for example: Varangerfjord, Berkeley Square, Wall Street, Michigan Avenue, Fifth Avenue, Hyde Park; Wed: Moscow River, Bear Mountain.

3.7.8. Function words (prepositions, articles, particles) at the beginning of foreign geographical names

They are written with a capital letter and appended with a hyphen. Eg: De Ridder, La Asuncion, La Martre, Las Vegas, Le Creusot, De Long Islands; also: Santa Cruz, San Francisco, Saint Gotthard, Saint-Etienne.

3.7.9. Function words (prepositions, articles, particles) in the middle of complex Russian and foreign geographical names

They are written with a lowercase letter and connected by two hyphens. Eg: Ain el Hadjel, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Pinar del Rio, Puer to de Chorrera, Puy de Dome, Rio de Janeiro, Rostov-on-Don, Santa Maria di Leuca, Frankfurt am Main, Chatillon-sur-Indre, Choisy-le-Roi, Abruzzo-et-Molise, Dar es Salaam.

3.7.10. Complex geographical names written together

Names with first component New-, Old-, White-, Red, Black-, Large-, Great-, Small-, Upper-, Upper-, Lower-, Middle- etc. For example: Novokuznetsk, Starobelsk, Krasnoperekopsk, Beloka-mensk, Chernogolovka, Lower Yisei Upland, Middle Amur Plain, Gornozavodsk, Verkhnedneprovsk.

3.7.11. Complex geographical names written separately

Written separately:

1. Names that are a combination of a noun with a preceding adjective or numeral. Eg: South America, Belarusian Polesie, Veliky Novgorod, Sergiev Posad, Tsarskoe Selo, Yasnaya Polyana, Second Kuril Strait.

2. Names that include the same combination as indicated above in paragraph 1. For example: Cape of Good Hope, Saint Helena, Cape of the Four Winds, Eighth Degree Strait.

3.7.12. Countries of light

The names of the countries of the world (simple and compound) are written with a capital letter when they are used instead of geographies. titles. Eg: peoples of the East(i.e. eastern countries), Far East, Western countries, Far North, War of the North and South(in USA).

In the literal sense, the names of the countries of the world and directions in space are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: east, west, south, north. The steamer headed south and then turned southeast.

3.7.13 Parts of the world

Written with a capital letter: Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.

3.7.14. Unofficial names of geographical units, parts of countries

In these names all words except generic ones ( shore, coast, mainland, continent Asian continent, Atlantic coast, Upper Volga region, Eastern Siberia, East coast of the USA, European continent, Transbaikalia, Transcaucasia, Western Siberia, Arctic, Lower Volga region, New World, Orenburg region, Moscow region, Poltava region, Cis-Urals, Amur region, Baltic states, Transnistria, Primorye, Northern Caucasus, Northern Urals, Smolensk region, Central Asia, Stavropol region, Old World, Central Tien Shan, Black Sea coast, Southeast Asia, Southern coast of Crimea, Southern Urals.

3.7.15. Geographical areas and zones

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: forest-steppe zone, forest-tundra zone, coastal region.

3.7.16. Zoogeographical and floristic regions and subregions

They are written with a capital letter, except for provinces. Eg: Australian region, New Zealand sub-region, But: Guinean province.

3.7.17. Geological basins, fossil deposits, river basins

In such names, all words except generic ones are written with a capital letter. Eg: Volga basin, Volga-Ural oil and gas basin, Vyatsko-Kama phosphorite deposit, Illinois coal basin, Kursk magnetic anomaly, Mediterranean basin.

3.7.18. River flow areas and reaches

Such names are written with lowercase letters unless they are part of complex proper names. Eg: upper Pripyat, lower Berezina, middle reach of the Volga; but: Upper Tura, Lower Tunguska(name of the river).

3.7.19. Sea routes

Northern Sea Route, Volga Trade Route.

3.8. Names of states. Administrative-territorial names

3.8.1. Official names of states

In them, all words, except service words, are written with a capital letter. Eg: Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, State of Bahrain, Principality of Liechtenstein, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Kingdom of Belgium, United Mexican States, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Commonwealth of the Bahamas, French Republic, Russian Federation, Republic of Ukraine , Republic of Estonia.

Note. For the use of capital letters in the names of ancient states, principalities, and empires, see

3.8.2. Names of subjects of the Russian Federation

In the names of the republics of the Russian Federation, all words are written with a capital letter. Eg: Altai Republic, Bashkortostan Republic, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, North Ossetia Republic.

In the names of territories, regions, districts, the generic or specific concept is written with a lowercase letter, and words denoting an individual name are written with a capital letter. Eg: Primorsky Territory, Stavropol Territory, Volgograd Region, Moscow Region, Jewish Autonomous Region, Aginsky Buryat Autonomous District, Ust-Ordynsky Buryat Autonomous District.

3.8.3. Groups, unions and associations of states of a political nature

In their names, the first word is capitalized, as well as proper names. Eg: Asia-Pacific Council (AZPAC), Entente, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Benelux, European Association Free Trade (EFTA), European Economic Community (EEC), League of Arab States (LAS), Organization of American States (OAS), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), Colombo Plan, Holy Alliance, Northern Council, Council of Concord, Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC), Triple Alliance; But: Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

3.8.4. Groups of states by their geographical location

The first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: Balkan countries, Transcaucasian republics, Baltic countries, Scandinavian countries. But: Danube countries, northern countries, southern countries(there is no fixed composition of states).

3.8.5. Unofficial common names of countries and their parts

All words in them, except generic ones ( shore, coast, mainland, continent, center, zone, empire etc.) are written with a capital letter. Eg: Albion, English Empire, England, Inner and Outer Mongolia, European Turkey, Northern Italy, United Kingdom, Left Bank Ukraine, Western Belarus.

3.8.6. Figurative names of states and cities

Either the first word or a word emphasizing a characteristic feature of the named object is written with a capital letter. Eg: Liberty Island(about Cuba), Land of the Rising Sun(about Japan) Land of morning freshness(about Korea), Maple Leaf Country(about Canada), Northern Palmyra(about St. Petersburg), but: Foggy Albion(about England).

3.8.7. Administrative-territorial units of foreign states

In their names, all words are written with a capital letter, except for generic designations ( department, province, state etc.), as well as function words. Eg: counties East Sussex, North Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, West Yorkshire(Great Britain); cantons Valais, Grisons(Switzerland); West Bengal state(India); area of ​​Valle d'Aosta, Emilia-Romagna(Italy); departments Bouches-du-Rhone, Hautes-Pyrenees, Loire-Atlantique, Côte-d'Or, Côtes-du-Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Seine-Maritime, Seine-Saint-Denis(France); provinces of Sichuan, Gansu, Hunan(PRC); states South Carolina, West Virginia, Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, Rhode Island(USA); Baden-Württemberg(Germany); Hokkaido prefecture(Japan).

3.9. Streets, alleys, city landmarks

3.9.1. Avenues, streets, squares, alleys, dead ends, bridges, etc.

In these names all words except generic ones ( alley, boulevard, line, embankment, lane, square, passage, clearing, avenue, descent, dead end, street, highway), it is recommended to write with a capital letter according to the general rule for writing geogr. titles. Eg: Komsomolsky Avenue, Mira Avenue; Butyrsky Val street, Karetny Ryad street, Kuznetsky Most street, Likhoborskie Bugry street, Pushkinskaya street, People's Militia street, Serpukhovskaya Zastava street, Sivtsev Vrazhek street, Teply Stan street, Tyufeleva Roshcha street, Champs Elysees(street in Paris); Peasant Outpost Square, Nikitsky Gate, Revolution Square; Bolshoi Kozikhinsky Lane, Krivokolenny Lane; Sytinsky dead end; Big Stone Bridge, Bridge of Sighs; Rostov embankment; Entuziastov Highway.

3.9.2. Street names, etc., starting with a number

Words following a number are written with a capital letter, except for words years And of the year. Eg: st. 26 Baku Commissioners, st. 1905, 40 Years of October Square.

3.9.3. Composite street names, including names of military, scientific and other ranks, professions, etc.

In these names, all words except generic ones are capitalized. Eg: Admiral Makarov Street, Academician Korolev Street, Architect Vlasov Street, General Belov Street, Cosmonaut Volkov Street, Pilot Babushkin Street, Pilot Nesterov Street, Marshal Zhukov Avenue, Sailor Zheleznyak Boulevard; Also: Lieutenant Schmidt Bridge.

3.9.4. Names of city landmarks

In such names, all words, except generic common nouns, are used in their literal meaning ( palace, castle, cemetery etc.) are written with a capital letter. Eg: Grand Kremlin Palace, Winter Palace, Engineering Castle, Novodevichy Cemetery, Peter and Paul Fortress, Arc de Triomphe, Eiffel Tower, Tsar Bell, Tsar Cannon, Bronze Horseman(monument), The Colossus of Rhodes; But: Wall of Tears(in Jerusalem) Walk of Fame, Mound of Immortality, Tomb of the Unknown Soldier(as expressing sacred concepts).

3.9.5. Kremlin

This name is capitalized when it is the proper name of a part of the city. Eg: In the center of Moscow there is the Kremlin, surrounded by stone walls, the second ring is Kitai-Gorod, the third is Zemlyanoy Gorod (wall). But: In Novgorod, Kazan, Pskov and other cities there are kremlins, that is, ancient fortresses; Novgorod Kremlin.

3.10. Railway stations, railway stations, airports, metro stations, ground transport stops

3.10.1. Railway stations, train stations, airports

In these names, all words are written with a capital letter, except for generic designations. Eg: Vnukovo air terminal, Domodedovo airport, Orly airport, Kursky station, Leningrad-Passenger, Moscow-Sortirovochnaya, Moscow-Tovarnaya, Peredelkino, Catullus airport.

3.10.2. Metro stations, ground transport stops

They are enclosed in quotation marks and written with a capital letter (the first word). Eg: metro stations "Arbatskaya", "Okhotny Ryad" “Izmailovsky Park”, “Alexandrovsky Garden”, “Oktyabrskoye Pole”(second word from the name of the street), “Preobrazhenskaya Square”, “Ryazansky Prospekt”, “Prospekt Mira”; stops “Nikitskiye Vorota”, “Children’s Clinic”, “Tallinskaya Street”, “10th Microdistrict”.

3.11. Authorities, institutions and organizations

H.11.1. General rule

There is a difference in the spelling of higher state and international organizations, in which all words are written with a capital letter, and other institutions and organizations of an individual nature, in which the first word, as well as the proper names included in the name, are written with a capital letter. Eg: United Nations, Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, But: World Peace Council, Security Council of the Russian Federation.

3.11.2. Supreme state bodies and organizations of the Russian Federation

In the state In official documents, all words in such names are written in capital letters. Eg: Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, State Duma, Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Government of the Russian Federation.

Note. In printing practice, there is a tendency, supported by linguists, to use a capital letter only in the first word of a name. Yes, academician “Russian Spelling Dictionary” (M., 1999) recommends writing according to the general rule: State Duma (Duma), Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Navy of the Russian Federation.

3.11.3. Major international organizations

In their names, all words except service words are capitalized. Eg: Red Cross and Red Crescent Society, United Nations (UN), UN Security Council, League of Nations.

3.11.4. Government bodies, ministries, committees, public and other organizations and institutions of the Russian Federation of a single nature

In their compound names, the first word is capitalized, as well as the proper names included in them. Eg: State Assembly of the Republic of Bashkortostan, People's Khural of the Republic of Buryatia, Legislative Assembly of the Republic of Karelia, State Council of the Komi Republic, Parliament of the Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, Altai Regional Legislative Assembly, State Duma of the Stavropol Territory, Moscow City Duma; Information Telegraph Agency of Russia (ITAR-TASS), Association of Indigenous Minorities of the North and Far East, Interregional Association for Economic Cooperation of the Subjects of the Federation of the Far East and Transbaikalia, Bank for Foreign Trade (Vneshtorgbank), Central Bank of the Russian Federation, Russian Commodity and Raw Materials Exchange, Morozov Children's Clinical Hospital, Central Bureau for Animal Search, Bureau of Information Technology, Guild of Film Directors of Russia, Department of External relations of the city of Moscow, Administrative Department of the Government of the Russian Federation, Central Chess Club, Commission on International Humanitarian and Technical Assistance under the Government of the Russian Federation, Russian Tripartite Commission for the Regulation of Social and Labor Relations, Russian Olympic Committee, Russian State Insurance Company, All-Russian Confederation of Labor, State investment corporation, Russian Professional Boxing League, Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, Federal Supervision of Russia for Nuclear and Radiation Safety, Society for the Protection of Consumer Rights, Russian Red Cross Society, Russian Defense Sports and Technical Organization, Russian State Archive of Literature and Art, Russian Book Chamber, Commerce -Chamber of Industry of the Russian Federation, General Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation, Council on Agrarian Policy under the Government of the Russian Federation, Union of Artists of Russia, Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation, Main Directorate of the Federal Treasury of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia, State Employment Fund of the Russian Federation, Pension Fund of the Russian Federation, Glasnost Defense Fund, Flight Control Center, Headquarters for Civil Defense and Emergency Situations of Moscow.

Note. Incomplete names instead of full ones when repeated may begin with a capital letter, but if the full name of the word is not in the text department, main department, administration, ministry etc. are written with a lowercase letter.

3.11.5. Names of institutions in the plural and not as proper names

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: ministries of the Russian Federation, main departments of ministries, committees and commissions of the State Duma, agencies, federal services.

3.11.6. Institutions and organizations of a non-individual nature

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: city ​​accident bureau, housing exchange bureau, regional liaison office, board of a housing construction cooperative, deputy commission, conciliation commission, clinic No. 140 of the Gagarinsky district.

3.11.7. Names of institutions and organizations with a conventional name in quotation marks

1. The first word of the name in quotation marks is written with a capital letter. The text preceding the conventional name is written with a lowercase letter if it does not begin with the word All-Russian, Russian, State, Central. Eg: Interfax news agency, Renaissance association, Knowledge humanitarian foundation; but: Russian News Agency “Novosti”, Russian Charitable Foundation “Intellect”, Interstate TV and Radio Company “Mir”.

2. In names starting with geogr. definitions, geogr. the definition is written with a capital letter if it is part of the full official name, and with a lowercase letter if it is not part of it. Eg: Kaliningrad publishing house "Business World"; But: Moscow publishing house "Sovremennik"(the official name is used without a geographical definition).

3.11.8. Parts and departments of institutions and organizations

Names of parts and departments of institutions, organizations, other than those indicated above, as well as words like presidium, academic council, artistic council, faculty, department, division, sector, group are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: on Faculty of Philology, at the editorial and publishing department, in the educational and methodological department, the Russian language department, the personnel department, the dialectology sector, the electronic system control group.

3.11.9. International and foreign central organizations and institutions

The first word, as well as proper names, are written with a capital letter. Eg: World Health Organization, World Federation of Trade Unions, International Monetary Fund, European Economic Community, European Union, International Court of Justice, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Labor Organization, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Commission of the European Communities, Organization of African Unity, National Congress of the Argentine Republic. Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Inter-Parliamentary Union, Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, General Secretariat of the Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, European Parliament, International Bureau of Weights and Measures, International League for the Defense of Culture, UN Commission on Human Rights , European Consortium for Political Research, Society of Ethnology and Folklore of Europe, Federal Bureau of Investigation, US National Aeronautics and Space Administration, US Supreme Court, Polish Sejm, French National Assembly, State Great Khural of Mongolia, Legislative Assembly of Bulgaria. see also

3.11.10. Names of CIS bodies and organizations

Council of Heads of the CIS, Executive Secretariat of the CIS, Council of Ministers of Internal Affairs of the CIS Member States, Legal Advisory Council of the CIS Member States, Headquarters for Coordination of Military Cooperation of the CIS Member States, Interparliamentary Assembly of the CIS Member States, Economic Court of the CIS, Standing Commission on Problems Environment, Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine.

3.11.11. State elected institutions of foreign countries

They are usually written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Congress, Majlis, Lower House, House of Deputies, House of Lords, House of Commons(In Great Britain), Senate and House of Representatives(in USA), Parliament, Reichstag, Storting.

3.11.12. Elective institutions of a temporary or individual nature in historical literature

Capitalize the first word. Eg: Provisional Government(1917 in Russia), Estates General, State Duma, III Duma(But: city ​​council), Convention, Pre-Parliament.

3.11.13. Foreign news agencies

In their names, all words, except the generic one, are written with a capital letter, and the name is not enclosed in quotation marks. Eg: Agence France-Presse, agency United Press International (UPI), agency Union Française d'Enformation, Associated Press (USA).

3.12. Research institutions, academies, educational institutions

3.12.1. General rule

In the proper names of academies, research institutions, educational institutions, only the first word is written with a capital letter (even if it is a generic name or a name indicating a specialty), as well as proper names included in a complex name. Eg: Russian Academy of Sciences, Academy of Natural Sciences, Air Force Academy named after. Yu. A. Gagarina, International Academy of Entrepreneurship, Moscow State University Press, Diplomatic Academy, Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow State Linguistic University, Orthodox Theological University. Ioann Bogoslova, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Institute of International Business, Institute of Acoustics named after. N. N. Andreeva, Electromechanical Research Institute, All-American Institute of Business and Economics, Literary Institute named after. A. M. Gorky, Russian Scientific Center "Kurchatov Institute", Russian Center for International and Cultural Cooperation, Pushchino Research Center, Computing Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

3.12.2. Secondary educational institutions (schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, colleges, technical schools, schools) of a non-unit nature

Their names are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: medical school No. 1, technical school No. 2 in Moscow, shift school for cooks, pharmaceutical school No. 266, evening school, secondary school No. 59 named after. N.V. Gogol, Moscow secondary school No. 266, children's music school No. 3 named after. N. Ya. Myaskovsky, professional lyceum No. 319, experimental gymnasium No. 20, auto-mechanical technical school.

However, if the name includes a geogr. the definition or name is singular in nature and is equated to the highest educational institution, then it is written with a capital letter. Eg: Russian Republican Medical School, Theater School named after. M. S. Shchepkina, Music College named after. Ippolitov-Ivanov, Novosibirsk Theater School, Moscow Art School in Memory of 1905, State Music School of Wind Art, Moscow Humanitarian Acting Lyceum, Zhukovsky Aviation College.

3.13. Entertainment enterprises and institutions (theatres, museums, parks, ensembles, choirs, etc.)

3.13.1. General rule

Only the first word, as well as proper names included in the name, are written with a capital letter. Eg: State Academic Bolshoi Theater of Russia, Central Academic Theater of the Russian Army, Moscow Taganka Theater, Musical Academic Theater named after. K. S. Stanislavsky and Vl. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, Peoples' Friendship Theater(Moscow), Theater of Nations(Paris), Moscow State Conservatory named after. P. I. Tchaikovsky, Concert Hall named after P. I. Tchaikovsky, State Central Concert Hall "Russia", Rachmaninoff Hall of the Conservatory, St. George's Hall of the Grand Kremlin Palace(in the first of the last two names the word Conservatory is written with capital as a substitute for the full name - see), Column Hall of the House of Unions, Academic Large Concert Orchestra, Russian State Symphony Orchestra of Cinematography, State Armory Chamber, State Russian Museum, Hermitage, Museum of Oriental Art, Museum of V. A. Tropinin and Moscow Artists of His Time, Museum of Ancient Russian Literature and Art. Andrei Rublev, Metropolitan Museum of Art, International Slavic Cultural Center, Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, Royal Ballet of Great Britain, State Academic Choir of Russia named after A. A. Yurlov, State Academic Folk Dance Ensemble under the direction of Igor Moiseev, Voronezh Russian Folk Choir, Russian State Library , State public historical library, Central City Library named after. N. A. Nekrasova, Central Sports Club of the Army (CSKA), Central Park of Culture and Leisure named after. M. Gorky, Summer garden (in St. Petersburg), Botanical Garden of Moscow State University, Victory Park on Poklonnaya Hill, Kunstkamera(St. Petersburg).

3.13.2. Names from the generic name and names in quotation marks

1. The first word of the name in quotation marks is written with a capital letter, and the generic name is written with a lowercase letter, if it does not begin with the words International, All-Russian, Russian, Central, State. Eg: theater "Commonwealth of Taganka Actors", exhibition hall "Belyaevo", Russian State Theater "Satyricon" named after. A.I. Raikin, young sailors' club "Brigantine", leisure center "Fantasy", exhibition "Gold of the Scythians", cinema "Khudozhestvenny", but: Central Exhibition Hall "Manege", All-Russian Museum Association "State Tretyakov Gallery".

2. In names starting with geogr. definitions, geogr. the definition is written with a capital letter if it is part of the official name, and with a lowercase letter if it is not part of the name. Eg: Moscow Sovremennik Theater, But: Moscow theater named after. Evg. Vakhtangov(full official name - State Academic Theater named after. Evg. Vakhtangov), Moscow circus "Luch".

3.14. Cultural institutions (palaces, houses, etc.)

3.14.1. General rule

In the complex names of such institutions, the words House And Castle, beginning the name, are written with a capital letter. Eg: House of Friendship with the Peoples of Foreign Countries, House of Culture named after. S. P. Gorbunova, House of Schoolchildren’s Creativity, Palace of Youth Creativity. However, if according to house And castle preceded by words such as those included in the official name All-Union, Central or geogr. definition, then only the first word of the name is written with a capital letter. Eg: Central House of Writers, Central House of Scientists of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow House of Composers, Moscow House of Models, Zelenograd Palace of Children and Youth Creativity, State Russian House of Folk Arts, State House of Radio Broadcasting and Sound Recording, White House; But: Pushkin House, Printing Yard(traditionally).

Wed. Also orphanage, mother and child home, rest home, maternity hospital, Winter Palace(words here house, palace- common nouns) Peredelkinsky House of Creativity(geographical definition is not included in the official name).

3.14.2. Incomplete name replacing the full one

The first (or only) word of the truncated name is written with a capital letter. Eg: State Literary Museum - Literary Museum, Central House of Artists - House of Artists, Great Hall of the Moscow Conservatory - Great Hall of the Conservatory, Moscow Theater of Satire - Theater of Satire, State Kremlin Palace - Kremlin Palace, but: Sovremennik Theater.

3.15. Enterprises, firms, trusts, associations

3.15.1. Names of companies, joint stock companies, plants, factories, etc. with a conventional name in quotation marks

3.15.2. Titles with words of so-and-so's name or number

The generic name and the name indicating the profile of the enterprise are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: sewing studio No. 2, metallurgical plant named after. A.I. Serov, pencil factory named after. L. B. Krasin, printing house No. 5, dry cleaning factory No. 3, tram depot named after. P. L. Apakova. Cm. ,

3.15.3. Complex names starting with words State, Russian and so on.

The first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: State Aviation Corporation "Tupolev", Russian State Concern "Cement".

3.15.4. Complex names starting with a geographical definition

They are written with a capital letter if this definition is part of the official name, and with a lowercase letter if the geogr. the definition is not part of the name, but only indicates the location. Eg: Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works, Moscow Mechanical Plant "Red Path", Oryol Machine-Building Plant named after. Medvedev, but: the Stavropol industrial and trading shoe association "Caucasus", the Vologda breeding plant "Zarya", the Moscow Hotel Metropol, the Yekaterinburg JSC "Ural Tire Plant"(full official name does not include geographical definitions).

3.15.5. Names of foreign firms, companies, concerns, banks, etc. from one or more words

They are transcribed in Russian letters and enclosed in quotation marks. The first word in quotation marks and proper names are written with a capital letter in these names. Eg: United States Steel, General Motors, Peugeot, Rolls-Royce, Sony, Coca-Cola, United Fruit Company, Morgan Stanley Bank, and Volkswagen, Fiat.

Note. It is undesirable to print the names of foreign companies in their national language. or state accessories. In scientific publications, the title in the source language may be given in brackets.

3.15.6. Names of foreign firms, companies, etc. in the form of initial abbreviations

These names are not enclosed in quotation marks. Eg: companies AEG, IABG, MBB.

3.16. Abbreviated names of institutions, organizations, etc.

3.16.1. Abbreviated names made up of parts of words

They are written with a capital letter if they denote individual institutions, and with a lowercase letter if they serve as generic names. Eg: Goznak, Vnesheconombank, State Property Committee, But: Special Forces.

3.16.2. Abbreviated conventional names of departments, trusts, associations

3.16.3. Abbreviated mixed names of individual institutions, organizations, institutes (complex abbreviated words in combination with initial abbreviations)

They are written with a capital letter, together, without quotation marks, and initial abbreviations, which are usually written in capital letters, retain the spelling both at the beginning, and in the middle or end of the abbreviated designation. Eg: NIIstroykeramika, NIIpromstroy, NIIcement, TsNIIchermet, GiprodorNII, GlavAPU, But: Dneproges.

3.17. Political parties, social movements and organizations

3.17.1. Full official names of parties and movements

The first word and proper names are written in capital letters. Eg: All-Russian Confederation of Labor, Women's Union of Russia, Democratic Party of Russia, Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Peasant Party of Russia, People's Patriotic Union, Socialist Workers' Party of Russia, Indian national congress, Communist Party of Great Britain, Christian Democratic Union(Germany), Arab Socialist Renaissance Party(Syria), Austrian People's Party, Tunisian Popular Unity Movement, Confederation of Socialist Parties of the European Community, Algerian National Liberation Front, Congress of Jewish Religious Communities and Organizations of Russia, Armenian National Movement, Republican Party(USA), Democratic Party(USA), Labor Party.

3.17.2. Unofficial names

Written with a lowercase letter (including similar names of pre-revolutionary parties in Russia). Eg: conservative party(in the UK and other countries), Kuomintang, Dashnakiutiun, Seyukai, Menshevik Party, Cadet Party.

3.17.3. Symbolic names

They are enclosed in quotation marks and the first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: party "People's Will", "Black Panthers"(USA), "Fourth Force" party(Panama), “Democratic Choice of Russia”, the “Yabloko” association, the “Women of Russia” movement, “Our Home is Russia”, the Islamic movement “Taliban”, the “Unity” party.

3.17.4. Political clubs

In the names of political clubs, the first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: English Club, Cordeliers Club, Jacobin Club.

3.18. Positions, ranks, titles

3.18.1. Highest positions and highest honorary titles of the Russian Federation

They write with a capital letter. Eg: senior positions: President of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, President of the Republic of Tatarstan; honorary title Hero of the Russian Federation, as well as honorary titles former USSR: Hero of the Soviet Union, Hero of Socialist Labor.

Note 1. This spelling of senior positions is accepted only in official documents (laws, decrees, diplomatic documents), but: As the press service of the head of state reported, the president expressed satisfaction that...; The meeting was attended by the President of the Russian Federation, the Chairman of the State Duma, and ministers. see also

Note 2. The list of names of senior positions and their spelling is not established by linguists. Thus, in the Brief Guide to the Formulation of Acts of Federal Government Bodies (M, 1997), it is recommended, in addition to those mentioned above, to write in official documents with a capital letter Chairman of the Security Council of the Russian Federation, Head of the Administration of the President of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and many more etc.

3.18.2. Other positions and titles

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Chairman of the Council for foreign policy under the President of the Russian Federation, Assistant to the President of the Russian Federation, Actual State Advisor 1st Class, Head of the Legal Department of the Federation Council, Head of Administration, Governor, Mayor, Commander-in-Chief of the Ground Forces, Minister, Prime Minister, Academician, Corresponding Member, President of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Attaché , ambassador, marshal, general, major, honored cultural figure, Nobel Prize laureate, director, general director, leader, scientific secretary, collective farm chairman.

For the names of clergy titles and positions, see

3.18.3. Positions and titles of foreign countries

Names of higher and other state positions are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Emperor of Japan, Queen of the Netherlands, Pasha, Chairman of the People's Council of Syria Arab Republic, President of the French Republic, Prime Minister of India, Federal Chancellor of Germany, Khan, Sheikh.

In diplomatic documents and reports of summit meetings, the names of senior positions and titles are written in capital letters. Eg: President of the French Republic, President of Georgia, Prime Minister of India, Emperor of Japan, Queen of the Netherlands, Prime Minister of Great Britain.

3.18.4. Top positions in major international organizations

These job titles are written in lowercase letters. Eg: Secretary General of the League of Arab States, Secretary General of the UN, Chairman of the UN Security Council.

3.19. Historical eras and events, revolutions, popular uprisings and movements, congresses, congresses, conferences

3.19.1. Historical eras and periods

Renaissance, Renaissance, High Renaissance(Also: Early, Late Renaissance), Renaissance(But: Renaissance style), Reformation, Age of Enlightenment, Middle Ages, Peter's era(But: pre-Petrine era, post-Petrine era- like normal periods) Time of Troubles, Second Empire, June Monarchy, Paris Commune, Third Republic.

3.19.2. Revolutions, uprisings, riots, popular movements

The first word (except for generic concepts) and proper names are written with a capital letter. Eg: Great October Socialist Revolution (October), Great French Revolution, August Revolution(in Vietnam), English bourgeois revolution, February Revolution of 1917 (February), Bulavinsky uprising, December armed uprising of 1905.(But: December uprising of 1825- in this phrase December- only a designation of the time of the uprising, not part of the name), Jacquerie(specific historical event, but: jacquerie- meaning “peasant uprising”), Kronstadt Uprising, Lyon Uprising, Copper Riot, Salt Riot, Pugachev Uprising, September Uprising(1944, Bulgaria), Pugwash movement, resistance movement.

3.19.3. Congresses, conferences, conventions

In these names, the first word is capitalized, as well as proper names. Eg: World Congress of Trade Unions, All-Russian Congress of Soviets, Paris Peace Conference 1919-1920, Potsdam (Berlin) Conference 1945, San Francisco Conference (1945), Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian Federation, International Astronomical Congress, But: congress of entrepreneurs, congress "Teachers for Peace", plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, emergency session of the General National Congress.

3.19.4. Names of historical eras, events, etc. that are not proper names

Written with a lowercase letter: ancient world, Civil War(but as a proper name: Civil War in Russia 1918-1921), Napoleonic wars, feudalism.

3.20. Scientific and historical terms. Names of ancient states

3.20.1. Mounds, burial grounds, sites of ancient man

In these names, the first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: Baksilsky mound, Borkovsky burial ground, Velskoye fortification, Kirillovskaya site, Smolensk fortification, Shaitanov mound.

3.20.2. Centuries, cultures, geological periods

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: bronze age, stone Age, ice age, Mesozoic era, Cretaceous period, Tertiary period, Trypillian culture, Paleolithic era, Jurassic period.

3.20.3. Ancient states, principalities, empires, kingdoms

In these names, all words except generic concepts are capitalized. principality, empire, kingdom etc. For example: Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, Eastern Roman Empire, Principality of Galicia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient China, Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rus', Mughal Empire, Kievan Rus, Muscovite Rus, Russian land.

3.20.4. Names of monarchies

Usually these names are not official, so they are written in lowercase. Eg: Bourbon monarchy, German monarchy, Russian monarchy.

3.20.5. Dynasties

These names are written with a capital letter, with the exception of the word dynasty. Eg: Habsburg dynasty, Romanov dynasty, Merovingians, Han, Bourbons, Ptolemies, Great Mughals.

3.21. Significant dates, holidays, public events

3.21.1. General rule

In the names of significant dates, revolutionary holidays, large public events, the first word and proper names are written in capital letters. Eg: May Day, World Population Year, World Aviation and Space Day, Year of the Child (1979), Constitution Day of the Russian Federation, Day of Harmony and Reconciliation, Day of Remembrance and Sorrow, New Year, International Women's Day(March 8), Independence Day, National Uprising Day(Cuba), Victory Day, Defender of the Fatherland Day, Days Slavic writing and culture, International Writing Week, International Year of the Book, Peace Week.

The names of some political, cultural, sports and other events of national or international significance are also written. Eg: World Economic Forum, Peace March, World Festival of Youth and Students, 1980 Olympic Games, Football World Cup, Davis Cup, Goodwill Games, White Olympics.

For names of religious holidays, see

3.21.2. Names with an initial ordinal number in digital or verbal form

In such a complex name, the word following the number(s) is written with a capital letter: May 1, March 8, XI International Tchaikovsky Competition, Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets.

Words International, Worldwide, All-Russian etc. They are written with a capital letter, regardless of whether the serial number at the beginning of the name is indicated by a number or a word.

3.21.3. Names of regularly held public events (months, days, decades)

Written with a lowercase letter without quotation marks. Eg: alumni meeting day, deputy day, donor day, open day.

3.22. Names associated with religion

The writing of names associated with religion is subject to general rules, but the traditional ways of representing individual groups of names that have developed in church-religious and religious-philosophical texts are taken into account.

3.22.1. Names of gods, apostles, prophets, saints

The word is written with a capital letter God(in the meaning of a single supreme being) and the names of gods in all religions. Eg: Jehovah, Hosts, Yahweh, Jesus Christ, Allah, Shiva, Brahma, Vishnu, names of pagan gods, for example: Perun, Zeus, Moloch, Osiris, Ra, Astarte, Aurora, Bacchus, Dionysus. The proper names of the founders of religions are also written. Eg: Buddha(But: Buddha- religious teacher; a person who has achieved spiritual enlightenment) Muhammad (Mohammed, Magomed), Zarathushtra (Zarathustra); apostles, prophets, saints, e.g.: John the Baptist, John the Theologian, Nicholas the Wonderworker, St. George the Victorious.

All names of persons of the Holy Trinity are written with a capital letter ( God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit) and the word Mother of God, as well as all words used instead of the word God(eg: Lord, Savior, Creator, Almighty, Almighty, Creator, God-Man) and words Mother of God(eg: Queen of Heaven, Blessed Virgin, Mother of God), as well as adjectives formed from words God, Lord, eg: the grace of God, the Lord's will, the will of God for all, the temple of God, the Divine Trinity, Divine Liturgy (but in figurative meaning- lowercase letter, e.g.: divine voice, lady dandelion, ladybug).

Note 1. In church-religious texts (prayers, sermons, etc.) and religious-philosophical texts, pronouns replacing words are written in capital letters God, God's. Eg: Hallowed be your name, may His holy will be done.

Note 2: Word God in the meaning of one of many gods or in a figurative meaning, it is written with a lowercase letter. Eg: god Apollo, god of war, gods of Olympus.

Note 3: Words apostle, prophet, saint, reverend, martyr, blessed etc. before proper names are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Apostle Paul, St. Sergius of Radonezh, Martyr Irenaeus, St. Basil the Great, Blessed Xenia of Petersburg, But: Most Holy Theotokos, Most Holy Trinity.

3.22.2. Stable combinations with the words god, lord

In numerous stable combinations that are constantly used in colloquial speech without direct connection with religion, one should write God(and lord) with a lowercase letter. These include: (not) God knows or (not) God knows (who, what, which)- about someone, something not very important, significant; god (lord) knows him- unknown, I don’t know; God be with him (her, you, you), (don’t) God forbid, for God’s sake, God kill me, as God puts it on my soul, God forbid (God), offended by God, forgotten by God, to God in heaven, not to believe neither God nor the devil, don’t drive God into the forest if he got into the hut, and etc.

Interjections should also not be capitalized. By God, God, my God, Lord, My God, My God, God forbid, God forbid, in contrast to those cases when the forms oh my god express an appeal to God.

In some cases, the choice of spelling depends on the context. Yes, it could be written God bless(if the context indicates that the speaker really thanks the Lord God) and God bless(if the context makes it clear that a common colloquial expression is used: That time, thank God, he came on time!

But in combination no thank god capital letter is not possible ( He's not doing well, thank God).

3.22.3. Words denoting the most important concepts for the Orthodox tradition

Such words are used in the meaning of proper names and are written with a capital letter. Eg: Heaven (Humility is a protective sword, with it you will safely pass through earth, hell and reach Heaven), the Cross of the Lord, the Last Judgment, the Holy Gifts, the Holy Spirit(But: holy spirit- unknown how).

3.22.4. Names of various faiths

The first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: Russian Orthodox Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church, Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, Roman Catholic Church, Armenian Apostolic Church.

3.22.5. Names of religious holidays

The first word and proper names are written with a capital letter. For example: in Christianity: Easter of Christ, Christmas, Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem, Trinity, Baptism of the Lord, Presentation, Exaltation of the Cross of the Lord, Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos, Elijah's Day; in other religions: Eid al-Adha, Ramadan (Ramadan), Navruz, Hanukkah, Shabbat and etc.

The names of fasts and weeks (weeks) are written with a capital letter: Lent, Petrov post, Bright Week, Holy Week, St. Thomas Week, as well as words Maslenitsa (Shrovetide Week, Cheese Week), Christmastide.

3.22.6. Names of church governing bodies

The first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: The Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, the Council of Bishops, the Local Council, the Moscow Patriarchate, the Central Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Russia and European CIS countries, the Higher Coordination Center of the Spiritual Administrations of Muslims of Russia.

3.22.7. Names of clergy titles and positions

All words, except official words and pronouns, in the official names of senior religious officials are written with a capital letter. Eg: Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus', Locum Tenens, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, Pope of Rome, but: During the conversation, the President and Patriarch...; During his visit to Cuba, dad visited...

The names of other clergy titles and positions are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Metropolitan of Volokolamsk and Yuryevsk, archbishop, cardinal, archimandrite, abbot, priest, deacon, protodeacon.

3.22.8. Names of churches, monasteries, icons

3.22.9. Titles of cult books

Written with a capital letter. Eg: Bible, Holy Scripture, Gospel, Old Testament, New Testament, Book of Hours, Menaion, Psalter, Koran, Torah, Talmud, Vedas; the same in the names of written monuments, for example: Ostromir Gospel, Ostroh Bible.

3.22.10. Names of church services and their parts

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Liturgy, Vespers, Matins, Mass, procession, all-night vigil, compline.

3.23. Titles related to military themes

3.23.1. The most important military names of the Russian Federation, types of troops

The first word, as well as proper names, are written with a capital letter. Eg: General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Strategic Missile Forces, Ground Forces, Air Defense Forces, Air Force, Military Space Forces, Airborne Forces, Railway Troops of the Russian Federation. But in the official documents: Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Navy.

3.23.2. Directorates and divisions of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation

The first word, as well as proper names, are written with a capital letter. Eg: Main Operations Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Main Headquarters of the Ground Forces.

3.23.3. Military districts, garrisons

The first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: Moscow Military District, North Caucasus Military District, Saratov Garrison.

3.23.4. Proper names of wars

The first word and proper names are written with a capital letter. Eg: Balkan Wars, Patriotic War of 1812, 1st Punic War, Seven Years' War, Thirty Years' War, War of the Roses, War of Independence(in North America 1775-1783), World War I, Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905, Civil War(in Russia 1918-1921), The Second World War, But: The Great Patriotic War(traditional spelling); korean war(1950-1953), Afghan war(1979-1989).

3.23.5. Battles, battles, directions, fronts

In these names, the first word is written with a capital letter (with a hyphen - both parts of the name). Eg: Berlin direction, Battle of Borodino, Battle of the Nations(near Leipzig 1814), Oryol-Bryansk operation, 1st Ukrainian Front, Battle of Sinai, Battle of Stalingrad, Steppe Front, Southwestern Front.

3.23.6. Military units, formations

Proper names are written with a capital letter. Eg: Belomorsky 35th Dragoon Regiment, Vyatka Regiment(But: first battalion, second company, engineer battalion), Red Banner Baltic Fleet, Life Guards Preobrazhensky Regiment, Life Guards Hussar Regiment, Siberian Cossack Army, Separate Primorsky Army, 1st Cavalry Army, Smolensk Infantry Division, 119th Kolomna Regiment, Kantemirovskaya Tank Division.

3.24. Orders, medals, insignia, prizes

3.24.1. Names of orders not highlighted in quotation marks

order. Eg: Order of Courage, Order of Friendship, Order of Honor, Order of the Patriotic War, 1st degree, Order of St. George, Order of Victory, Order of Nakhimov, Order of Suvorov, Order of Glory. Also: Medal of Motherhood.

Note. In the names of orders and insignia of the former USSR, according to tradition, all words are written with a capital letter, except the word order, eg: Order of the Red Banner of Labor, Order of the October Revolution.

3.24.2. Names of orders, medals and insignia, highlighted in quotation marks

The first word of the name in quotation marks and proper names are written with a capital letter. Eg: Order of "Mother's Glory" 1st degree, medal "Defender of a Free Russia", Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", anniversary medal "50 Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945", medal "In Memory of the 850th Anniversary of Moscow", medal “For Distinction in the Protection of the State Border”, insignia “For Impeccable Service”, badge “Marshal Star”.

3.24.3. Names of foreign orders and international medals

The first word of the name is written with a capital letter (except for the word order) and proper names. Eg: Iron Cross, Legion of Honor(France), Gold Medal of Peace named after. Joliot-Curie, Order of the Garter(England).

3.24.4. Awards

The first word except the word is written with a capital letter bonus. Eg: Goncourt Prize, Lomonosov Prize, Nobel Prize, International Peace Prize, Booker Prize, State Prize of the Russian Federation in the field of literature and art, Grand Prix, But: Prize named after Dimitrova, Golden Mask Award(with the name in quotation marks).

3.25. Documents, printed works, musical works, monuments of art and architecture

3.25.1. Titles of documents without a preceding generic word outside the title ( charter, instructions and so on.)

It is customary to not enclose such names in quotation marks and begin with a capital letter. Eg: Treaty of Versailles, UN Declaration, Decree on Peace, Erfurt Program, Constitution of the Russian Federation, Treaty of Social Accord, Founding Act of Russia and NATO, Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Man and Citizen, Law on the Fundamentals of the Tax System, Regulations on the Procedure for Considering Issues of Citizenship of the Russian Federation, Fundamentals of the Legislation of the Russian Federation on the Protection of Citizens' Health, Memorandum on Economic Policy, Regulations on Joint-Stock Companies, State Convention on Refugees.

Note. If the title of a document is incomplete or inaccurate, lowercase lettering is used, e.g.: At the next meeting, the law on pensions was not approved.

3.25.2. Titles of documents with a preceding generic word not included in the title

The generic word is written with a lowercase letter, and the name is enclosed in quotation marks and written with a capital letter. Eg: federal constitutional law “On the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation”, decree of the President of the Russian Federation “On measures to improve public finances”, law “On freedom of conscience and religious associations”, program “Partnership for Peace”, resolution of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation “On the formation of committees” State Duma» (the names of the documents are given in exact accordance with their spelling in government documents).

3.25.3. Literary works, magazines, newspapers and press organs

The first word and proper names are written with a capital letter in the names of books, newspapers, magazines, etc., highlighted in quotation marks. For example: comedy “Woe from Wit”, play “Marriage”, story “Singers”, novel “War and Peace”, newspaper “Arguments and Facts”, “Literary Newspaper”, magazine “New World”.

Note 1. The spelling of all words of the name with a capital letter, adopted in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. (up to the 20s), is not modern and is not preserved even in documents. texts, with rare exceptions.

Note 2. In the text, bibliogr. descriptions of the titles of printed works are not enclosed in quotation marks (see Chapter 31), but this does not affect the spelling of the titles themselves.

3.25.4. Alternative title of a literary work (publication)

The first word of the second part of the title after the conjunction is also written with a capital letter. or. Eg: "Crazy Day, or The Marriage of Figaro", "Twelfth Night, or Whatever".

3.25.5. Publication names

Do not enclose in quotation marks and write with a lowercase letter such names as collected works, selected works when these names are used to mean the type of publication: ...in all collected works of M. Yu. Lermontov...; It is planned to publish selected works of poets. But if we are talking about a specific publication that bears such a typical name, then it is written in capital letters without quotation marks. In the Complete Works of A. S. Pushkin, volume of Selected Works of A. N. Tolstoy.

3.25.6. Foreign books, newspapers and magazines

In the text of the publication in Russian, the names of newspapers and magazines are reproduced in Russian transcription (transliteration), the names of books are reproduced in Russian translation or transcription (untranslatable titles). Uppercase and lowercase letters are written according to the general rule for formatting names in quotation marks. Eg: “Al-Ahram”, “Washington Post and Times Herald”, “Zemedelsko Znamé”, “Corriere di Roma”, “Christian Science Monitor”, “France Nouvelle”, “Letras de Ecuador”, “New York Times”, “ Di Zeit", "Humanité", "United States News and Word Report", the novel "Les Miserables", "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius.

Note. Reproduction of the name of a magazine, newspaper, lit. works in the text in the original language are permissible only in cases where the mention of these names is simultaneously given and bibliogr. character. It is more expedient, however, in such cases in scientific. In publications, indicate next to the transcribed name the name in the original language in parentheses, or if names are frequently repeated, place a list of names in the original language, indicating the transcribed name next to each.

3.25.7. Musical works

These names are enclosed in quotation marks and written with a capital letter (the first word and proper names), if the gender or type of musical work is not included in the name itself. If the title of a musical work is a combination of a generic word ( symphony, sonata etc.) with a number or musical term, then it is written with a capital letter, but is not enclosed in quotation marks. Eg: ballet “The Bronze Horseman”, song “Russian Field”, opera “Queen of Spades”, oratorio “For the Ages in Tradition”, symphony “Jupiter”, sonata “Appassionata”, But: The Seventh Symphony of D. Shostakovich, the Leningrad Symphony, the First Concerto for Piano and Orchestra of P. I. Tchaikovsky, the Second Ballad of Chopin, Suite No. 3, Quartet in F major were performed.

Note. It is necessary to distinguish between the names of musical works that coincide with the name of the genre (they are written with a capital letter without quotation marks: The performer's program included the Concerto by A. Saint-Saëns and the Symphony-concert by A. Prokofiev; But: The composer worked for a long time on the piano concerto), and genre designations (written with a lowercase letter: march, elegy, serenade).

3.25.8. Ancient monuments

In the names of cathedrals, temples, etc., the first word (if this is not a generic concept) and proper names are written with a capital letter. Eg: St. Isaac's Cathedral, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Sistine Chapel, Notre Dame Cathedral, Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, St. Basil's Cathedral, Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, Church of St. Sophia, Church of the Savior Nereditsa.

3.25.9. Names of churches and cathedrals with elements San, Santa, Saint

Written with a capital letter and a hyphen. Eg: Cathedral of San Marco (Venice), Church of San Francisco, Church of Santa Croce, Sainte-Chapelle.

3.25.10. Titles of works of fine art

Proper names are written with a capital letter and the first word of the name is written in quotation marks. Eg: bust of Voltaire, monument of Glory, monument to A. S. Pushkin, statue of M. Yu. Lermontov, portrait of L. N. Tolstoy, monument “Mask of Sorrow”, “Last Judgment” by Michelangelo, painting “The Creation of Adam”, “Sistine Madonna” by Raphael , “Girl illuminated by the sun” by V. A. Serov.

In such names of memorial buildings and collections of documents as Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Wailing Wall, Mound of Immortality, Book of Remembrance, The first and subsequent words expressing high sacred concepts are written with a capital letter; but in combination Eternal flame- traditionally only the first word.

3.26. Musical terms

3.26.1. Keys

Those denoted by Russian letters are written with a lowercase letter separately ( C major, G minor), and adjectives formed from them - with a lowercase hyphen ( C major, G minor); denoted by Latin letters - variously: major ( dur) - capitalized (for example: D major), minor ( moll) - with lowercase (for example: es-moll). In Russian adjectives derived from the names of keys, indicated in Latin letters case endings are joined through an apostrophe. Eg: D-dur"ny, es-min"ny.

Note. The names of keys are not highlighted in the text, unlike the names of musical sounds (they are usually highlighted in italics: do, re, mi, h, fis).

3.26.2. Names of altered sounds and adjectives derived from them

Written with a lowercase letter and a hyphen. Eg: D-flat, G-sharp, G-sharp-minor.

3.27. Nicknames and names of animal and bird breeds

3.27.1. Nicknames of animals and birds (general rule)

They are written with a capital letter and are not separated by quotation marks. Eg: horses Farlaf, Shutter, Biryuk, Sivka, cows Oda, Pestrushka, Mashka, Nymph, bulls Ulov 2nd, Barin Young, Groza, dogs Fafik, Guess, Polkan, Kashtanka, pigs Novice, Khivrya, boar Tur, cat Murka, cat Barsik, tiger Pursh, elephant Sambo, parrot Screamer, magpie Chatterer.

3.27.2. Animal names assigned to their groups

They are written with lowercase letters, even if they are formed from proper names. Eg: Vaskas and murkas were rushing around the attics; All the mashkas, maruskas, and pestroskas walked along the streets of the village, leaving the smell of milk; sivkas and burkas; bears in Shishkin's painting; Teddy bear; Balls and bugs barked loudly.

3.27.3. Breeds of animals and birds

Their names are written in lowercase letters without quotation marks. Eg: cattle - Bushuevskiy, zebu-shaped, Simmental(breed), Swiss, Shorthorn; pigs - Alabuzinskaya(breed), Berkshire, Kemerovo tallow; sheep - Azerbaijani mountain merino, bal-baz, Gissar(breed), Caucasian fine-fleece; goats - Angora(breed), Mingrelian; horses - Akhal-Teke(breed), Percheron, Russian Trotter, Bityug; chickens - white leghorn, brahma, cochin(breed); geese - Arzamas; ducks - Indian runners; cows - Kholmogorka; dogs - lapdog, poodle.

3.28. Conventional names of goods and plant varieties

3.28.1. Product names

Conventional names of grocery, perfume, etc. products are enclosed in quotation marks and written in capital letters. Eg: "Russian" cheese, "Little Red Riding Hood" candies, "Inspiration" chocolate, "Children's" soap, "Marlboro" cigarettes.

The names of grocery products in household use are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: We bought Poshekhonsky cheese, sandwiches with amateur sausage, Borodino bread and Fanta.

3.28.2. Conventional names of species and varieties of plants, vegetables, etc.

They are highlighted in quotation marks and written with a lowercase letter. Eg: strawberries "Victoria", tomato "Joseph the Beautiful", apples "Pepin Lithuanian", plum "Nikolskaya", winter rye "Ulyanovka", cucumbers "Golden Cockerel", "Pirento", watermelon "Rose of the South-East", eggplant "Donetsk harvest" ».

Note. In special lit. The first word after the generic name and proper names are written without quotation marks and with a capital letter. Eg: early Grushovka apple tree, Michurinskaya beauty pear, Vladimirskaya cherry, Tula black ogiva, Marlboro raspberry, Nantes carrot, Epicurus potato, Dneprovskaya-521 wheat, Black Prince tulip, Parma violet.

3.28.3. Common plant names

Written with a lowercase letter without quotation marks. Eg: aloe, Antonovka, pansy, belladonna, white bud, valerian, Victoria regia, grapefruit, jute, Ivan da Marya, fireweed, china, watercress, long flax, tiger lily, marin root, oats, meadow fescue, papirovka, squash, rye, celery, tulip, lemon eucalyptus, barley.

3.29. Wines, mineral waters

3.29.1. Wine varieties

Written with a lowercase letter without quotation marks. For example: table wines: Bordeaux, Burgundy, Cabernet, Kakhetian, Mukuzani, Napareuli, Riesling, Tsinandali; dessert: Cahors, Madeira, Marsala, Muscat, port, Tokaj, sherry; sparkling: Don, Russian, champagne and etc.

3.29.2. Conventional brand names of wines

They are enclosed in quotation marks, the first word is written with a capital letter. Eg: wines “Bull's Blood”, “Sunny Valley”, port wine “Aige-shat”, champagne “Abrau-Durso”.

3.29.3. Mineral water

Written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Borjomi, Essentuki No. 17, Narzan, Slavyanovskaya.

3.30. Ships, trains, planes, cars

3.30.1. Conditional individual names

They are enclosed in quotation marks and written with a capital letter. Eg: armored train "Death to the Enemy", cruiser "Aurora", icebreaker "Admiral Makarov", aircraft "Maxim Gorky", schooner "Running on the Waves", express "Red Arrow".

3.30.2. Conventional names denoting production brands of machines

They are enclosed in quotation marks and written with a capital letter. Eg: cars - "Volga", "Zhiguli", "Moskvich-412"; combines - "Sibiryak", "Khersonets-7"; washing machines - "Vyatka", "Eureka"; tractor "Belarus"; refrigerators - Biryusa, Saratov.

3.30.3. Official serial names of aircraft and machines of foreign companies

They are written with a capital letter and enclosed in quotation marks. Eg: Boeing-707, Caravel, Leopard-2, Messerschmitt-109, Phantom, Focke-Wulf-18, Heinkel-111, Junkers-88, Opel Omega ", "Rolls-Royce", "Jaguar", "Skoda 1000NB", "Mercedes E430".

3.30.4. Unofficial names of aircraft, cars

These names without digital designations in a non-terminological meaning, conveying colloquial speech in writing, are usually written with a lowercase letter in quotation marks. Eg: “Moskvich”, “Toyota”, “Mercedes”, “Boeing”, “Phantom”, “Cadillac”, “Ford”, But: "Volga", "Oka", "Lada", "Tavria"(coincide with proper names - personal and geographical), with the exception of the name "Zhiguli".

Note. In everyday use, car names can be used without quotation marks, for example: arrived in an old Muscovite, a luxurious Cadillac. Colloquial names of cars with diminutive suffixes are also written without quotation marks, for example: Muscovite, Zhiguli, Ford.

3.30.5. Serial designations of vehicles in the form of initial abbreviations combined with numbers, or without numbers

Such designations are written without quotation marks. Eg: An-22, BelAZ, V-52, V-1, ZIL-114, GAZ-51, Il-18, KamAZ, MAZ-500, HTZ tractor, Tu-104, Yak-9, Su-30.

3.30.6. Means of space exploration

Conventional names are enclosed in quotation marks and written with a capital letter. Eg: geophysical rocket "Vertical-4", artificial satellite Earth "Cosmos-1443", spacecraft "Vostok-2", "Apollo-12", "Shuttle", interplanetary stations "Luna-3", "Venera-7", orbital station "Mir", "Gemini", satellite communications "Molniya-2".

3.30.7. Lists of conventional serial designations

If the text lists several conventional serial designations of vehicles in a row, differing only in numbers, then it is permissible to use a hanging hyphen. Eg: “Mars-5 and -6”, “Mars-1, -2, -4, -6”, “Apollo-11 and -12”, MAZ-500, -503, -504.

3.31. Capital letters in special stylistic use

3.31.1. Names in the texts of official documents, contracts, etc.

In a special stylistic use, nek is written with a capital letter. common nouns, when they strive to convey the special high meaning attributed to them. Eg: Homeland, Fatherland, Man, Master, Honor and etc.

3.31.2. Pronouns You And Your

Written with a capital letter as a form of polite address to one person in official documents and personal letters. Eg: I ask you..., We inform you...

When addressing several persons, these pronouns are written with a lowercase letter. Eg: Dear colleagues, your letter...

The indicated pronouns are also written with a capital letter in the questionnaires. Eg: Where did you live before? Composition of your family.

ALL-RUSSIAN STUDENT ABSTRACT COMPETITION “KRUGOZOR”

TRANSITION OF PROPER NAMES OF NOUNS INTO DENIALS

1. The interesting science of onomastics………………………………………….....3

2. Transition of proper names into common nouns…………………...………7

2.1 Proper names – parents of common nouns……………….……7

2.2 Transition of proper names into common nouns in cooking... .......9

2.3 Transition of proper names into common nouns in units of measurement and measuring instruments………………………..…………………12

2.4 Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of chemical elements of the periodic table…………………………........13

2.5 Transition of proper names into common nouns in botany…….....16

2.6 Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of weapons…………………………………………………………………………………...18

2.7 Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of clothes…………………………………………………………………………………..19

2.8 Transition of proper names into common nouns in the attributes of school life……………………………………………………………..21

3. Proper names and character of a person……………………………..22

4. Conclusion……………………………..……………………………..26

5. List of references……………………………………………………..28

1. Interesting science of onomastics

Let's try to answer the question: “How many geographical objects and place names are there on planet Earth?” Difficult. And it is not surprising, since their number cannot be counted: after all, on our planet great amount cities, and even more villages and hamlets that have names. In populated areas there are squares, streets, alleys, which also have their own name. Numerous rivers, lakes, mountains, ravines, forests, and groves are also not nameless. No, it’s impossible to count all the geographical names! It’s easier to take some small country with a sparse population, for example Sweden, and try to count the geographical names on its territory. Scientists did just that. It turned out that Sweden alone has 12 million place names!

How many first and last names are there in the world? If we consider that more than five billion people now live on Earth and some of the names are repeated in each country, it is easy to calculate that there will be approximately 4 billion names in total.

Is it good or bad when in one country there are many identical names for cities, streets, and people? On the one hand, it seems good: you need to remember less names, but on the other hand, it’s bad, since in this case it will be difficult to find the desired object. After all, bearers of names are separate, different objects that have nothing in common with each other.

“Let us imagine for a moment that all geographical names have disappeared from our planet - cities, villages, rivers, seas, mountains, countries, streets. All postal work immediately stopped. Fire trucks and ambulances rush around in vain searches - there are no addresses. Transport is paralyzed: no one knows where they are going, where to change trains, and where to get off; cargo goes to Novgorod instead of Moscow. World economy disintegrated, humanity was thrown back to a primitive state. And all because of such a little thing as names,” writes in the book “Introduction to Toponymy.”

It is impossible to remove the names, because they are firmly connected with the life of modern society. The most that can be done is to replace one name with another.

For example, the city of St. Petersburg, named after its founder Peter the Great, was called Petrograd during the October Socialist Revolution. It was subsequently renamed the city of Leningrad, named after the famous organizer and leader of the October Revolution. In the mid-90s of the 20th century, the city returned to its former name with the addition of the particle st., i.e. it began to be called St. Petersburg. For example, the city of Tsaritsyn was renamed Stalingrad, after the Great Patriotic War the city began to be called Volgograd.

Cases of repeated changes in the names of large geographical features are rare. Just as it is undesirable to unjustifiably change the names of geographical objects, it is also undesirable (with rare exceptions) to change the names and surnames of persons. It's not hard to imagine the confusion that massive name changes can lead to.

Proper names have long attracted the attention of scientists. Their origin, history, various transformations, distribution, purpose are studied by historians, literary critics, psychologists, ethnographers, geographers, but most of all by linguists.

In linguistics, there is a special section - onomastics (Greek, onomastike - “the art of giving names”; onomastikos - “relating to a name”), which deals with the study of proper names. The totality of all proper names is also called onomastics. These include personal names, patronymics, surnames, nicknames of people, names of animals, names of cities, rivers, seas, natural disasters, celestial bodies and etc.

Proper names related to people are called anthroponyms, and the science that studies them is called anthroponymy (from the gr. anthropos - “man” and entanglement - “name”). Geographical names - toponyms - are dealt with by toponymy (Greek topos - “place, area” and entanglement - “name”).

Toponyms and anthroponyms are primarily nouns that serve as names of individual objects, isolated from a number of homogeneous ones. Such nouns are called proper names: Petya, Sidorov, Vera Alexandrovna, Jules Verne, Tolstoy; Moscow, Rostov-on-Don, Black Sea, Karakum; in contrast to common nouns, which are generalized names of homogeneous objects: pioneer, carpenter, teacher, writer; city, sea, lake, mountain, desert.

Questions of onomastics are of interest to many scientists both in Russia and in foreign countries. Many books have been written about proper names, and yet not all general and specific questions related to proper names have satisfactory answers. For example, the origin of the word is still unknown Moscow, it is not possible to establish whether it belongs to a particular language.

Scientists involved in the study of proper names share their achievements in the field of toponymy and anthroponymy at conferences and congresses. Proper names, like common nouns, exist to be used to name something, to designate something. The difference between a proper name and a common noun also lies in the fact that a common noun serves as the name of both a specific object and the whole class to which this object belongs. A proper name, in contrast to a common noun, is usually given to one object and is, as it were, its property, its belonging.

Relevance of work on this topic: By learning the etymology of names, we study more deeply the history and culture of our people and the peoples of other countries.

Target: trace the difference between proper and common nouns, how proper names are related to common nouns; expand theoretical knowledge on onomastics;

Tasks: study special literature on the problem under study, systematize it; generalize the conditions for the transition of proper names into common nouns.

2. Transition of proper names into common nouns

What is the difference between proper and common nouns? How are proper words related to common nouns? How does a proper name differ from a common noun? What are the conditions for the transition of proper names into common nouns?

The correct answer to the question posed largely depends on understanding the essence of proper names and their specificity. Let's try to understand these issues.

Proper names, like common nouns, exist to be used to name something, to designate something. The difference between a proper name and a common noun also lies in the fact that a common noun serves as the name of both a specific object and the whole class to which this object belongs. For example, birch- the name of the birch that grows near our house, on your street and all the birches of any park, grove, forest. A proper name, in contrast to a common noun, is usually given to one object and is, as it were, its property, its belonging. Yes, in a sentence Astrakhan, Saratov- cities on the Volga, not on the Don or Kama the proper names of specific cities and rivers on the territory of Russia are given. Therefore, proper names have a closer connection with the object than common nouns.

2.1. Proper names - parents of common nouns

Words are transformed, moving from a proper name to a common noun.

For example, here is the word hooligan. They call it a person who violates public order. But this word comes from a proper name. It came to us from the English capital, near which in the 18th century there was an inn that belonged to the Irishman Hooligan, a rather scandalous man who, like his entire family, caused trouble not only for the guests, but also for the neighbors. After his name, hooligans began to be called mischievous people who violate the norms of behavior in society.

Now they are ordinary common nouns denoting various objects, and their counterparts remain proper names. Among them: Berlin- a type of four-seater carriage, named after the city of Berlin, where they stopped making it at the beginning of the 19th century. The carriage is no longer there, but its name is in the explanatory dictionaries; Damascus- steel obtained by forge welding of numerous thin steel strips or wires with different carbon content woven into a bundle. This type of welding Damascus (Damascus steel) is named after the Syrian city of Damascus, where it was produced in large quantities in the Middle Ages; open hearth- a furnace in which steel is produced. Otherwise - open hearth furnace. Named after the French metallurgist Martin; shrew- an angry, grumpy woman. Named after Megaera, who personified anger and vengeance, one of the Erinyes (in Greek mythology, the goddesses of vengeance); she was depicted as a disgusting old woman with snakes instead of hair, a long tongue, with a torch and a whip in her hand.

Most toponyms and anthroponyms, before moving into the category of common nouns, acquire a certain suffix, with the help of which a new word is formed.

For example, harlequin(after the character of the Italian “comedy of masks”, playing the role of a witty servant and wearing a suit of silk multi-colored triangles and a black mask) is called a jester, a clown, and a small pantomime in which a harlequin and other characters participate is called harlequinade. Now the word harlequinade means buffoonery, buffoonery. Suffix -hell- helped form this word in French, from which it passed into Russian.

In school, for a long time, those who sit in the last desk, in “Kamchatka” (after the name of the Kamchatka Peninsula in Eastern Siberia), are called Kamchatka workers. In pre-revolutionary schools, the worst students were put there. We can read about the Kamchatka people in “Essays on Bursa”. When forming a word Kamchatnik suffix used -Nick.

Thus, many proper names, themselves born from common nouns, served as the basis for the formation of new common nouns with a new meaning, with a new sphere of use.

2.2. Transition of proper names into common nouns in cooking

The Irish writer Charles Leaver was the first to make liver sausage and named it after his own name, just as the ones he introduced into use were named after the English Lord Sandwich. sandwiches- two slices of bread folded together with some kind of snack between them. The English Earl of Sandwich was so addicted to gambling that he didn’t even want to leave to eat. He ordered slices of bread to be served with cold meat, which was named after the count. This is how the sandwich appeared in 1762. The Germans came up with a new name for it - “sandwich” (butter + bread) and put various sausages on the butter. And the French added pates with sauces as fillings and invented hot sandwiches. The Dutch put all sorts of fillings inside a long bun. In Europe, such a multi-layer sandwich is called “Dutch”, i.e. Dutch. And some sandwiches have already begun to be made according to strict recipes. For example, a “club” sandwich consists of three pieces of bread and two different snacks between them. So the “sandwich” (as the British still call it) became the most widespread and popular food. The opportunity to quickly have a meal in the city without going to restaurants turned out to be tempting for many people, and this demand was perfectly guessed and solved by McDonald's, founded on April 15, 1955 in the United States of America. We can say that every nation came up with its own type of sandwich, and the McDonald's company united them all, and even invented its signature Bic-Mac sandwich - the “Big Mac”. It means a multi-layered structure with meat, salad, and mayonnaise. The company quickly became a leader Catering in many countries of the world.

The dish is named after the Russian Count Stroganov, who introduced the meat dish of small pieces of meat in sauce. Beef Stroganoff.

Another important person whose name was associated with cooking is Charlotte (1744–1818), wife of the English King George III and grandmother of the famous Queen Victoria. Charlotte, or rather Sophia-Charlotte, was the daughter of the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. At the age of 17, she married the King of Great Britain and bore him 15 children. Only two of them died in childhood, and two of the survivors later became kings of Great Britain. Charlotte, as befits a royal wife, was a patron of the arts and botany. On her initiative, the Royal Botanical Garden was founded. Encouraging her subjects to grow healthy fruits - apples, she personally made sweet pie made from apples filled with butter cream. In the dictionary, such a pie is also respectfully called “Charlotte”, but in our time it has come to be called charlotte.

Common variety of plums "greengage" also bears the stamp of the royal name. It is named after Queen Claude of France. Claude was considered the richest bride in Europe. From her mother she inherited the region of Brittany in northern France, and her father, the French king Louis XII, added the newly conquered Milan to the hereditary counties in the Loire Valley. For quite a long time, Charles of Austria, who later became King Charles V of Spain, sought the favor (not so much of the young bride as of her parents). However, the strict parent decided differently, and 15-year-old Claude married Francis of Valois. A year later, under the name of Francis I, he became the king of France, and Claude, accordingly, became the queen. Historians say that their marriage was not very happy. It is difficult to judge from afar, especially since ideas about happiness in those days were definitely somewhat different from ours. Claude died very young, at 25, and Francis I outlived her by almost a quarter of a century. He ordered the sweet green plum to be named in honor of his wife, and this is how the name “Reine Claude” (Queen Claude) appeared. The plum came to France from the Apennine Peninsula during one of the Italian wars. The royal order was carried out, but the name of the variety took root not by the will of the king, but because Claude was known as a righteous and merciful ruler. Thanks to the efforts of French gardeners, Rencloud plums have become even sweeter and tastier. The variety spread throughout Europe, carrying with it the memory of the early deceased French queen.

Word cognac denotes a strong alcoholic drink, brandy, produced in the Cognac region of France; subsequently, any brandy in our country began to be called cognac.

Let's try to figure out why the type of cereal is called rolled oats.

Transferring the quality of Hercules to people like him, Hercules (Hercules) we will call a person of athletic build; Hercules We also call flattened oatmeal. When this name was given to cereals, it was meant that children who would eat it would become as strong as Hercules.

French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur proposed a method of preserving food by heating it to a temperature not exceeding 100°, which kills most bacteria and molds contained in food products. Very the right way! Now they use it everywhere and call it pasteurization.

Spicy sauce Kabul made from soybeans and various spices, it got its name from Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan.

Named after the region of Provence in France Provençalem spicy sauce made from egg yolks with vegetable oil, vinegar and spices.

Cake napoleon named after Emperor Napoleon, who loved this type of cake; cream(ice cream with various additives - chocolate, nuts, berries), named after the city of Plombir in France. Montpensier And landrin - two types of candy. The first is named after the French counts of Montpensier, and the second is named after the owner of the Landrin candy factory.

Among the cups, glasses, glasses there are wine glasses and lafitniks.

The most valuable and best type of crystal is called baccarat- named after the French city of Baccarat, where a crystal factory was built in 1766.

Wine glass- This is a large wide glass used for soft drinks. It is named after the city of Fougères in France, where glass was made for it.

2.3. Transition of proper names into common nouns in units of measurement and measuring instruments

Remarkable advances in physics and related sciences have led to the need to create new units that could not have existed before. These units also had to be given a name. And they were named after famous scientists: ampere- by name, watt- named D. Watt, volt- A. Voltas, joule- D. Prescott Joule, hertz- G. Hertz, pendant- Sh. Coulomb, pascal- B. Pascal, x-ray- V. X-ray, newton - I. Newton, ohm- S. Oma Let us remember the measuring instruments formed from proper names. Easily remembered ammeter(device for measuring electric current), voltmeter(a device for measuring voltage between two points in an electrical circuit), voltameter(a device for measuring the strength of electric current by its chemical effect), ohmmeter(a device for directly measuring resistance expressed in ohms),

The names of other measuring instruments do not contain the element -meter. These are proper names that have passed into the category of common nouns without changes: firstly, Breguet(pocket watch made in the workshop of the Frenchman Breguet). This clock chimed the minutes and even showed the dates of the month. Remember, in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”: The ringing of the Breguet tells them that a new ballet has begun. Secondly, these are the names for thermometers. You are very familiar with one of the thermometers. His name is Celsius. It has a scale of 100 degrees from the melting point of ice to the boiling point. Named after the inventor, the 18th century Swedish astronomer A. Celsius (denoted by the Latin letter C). Another thermometer is less known. It has a scale of 80° from the melting point of ice to the boiling point of water. He was named reaumur named after the 18th century French physicist. The third thermometer is named Fahrenheit named after the 18th century German physicist Fahrenheit, who first made a mercury thermometer. It has a scale on which the melting point of ice is indicated at 32 degrees, and the boiling point of water at 212 degrees. This thermometer is still used in England and the USA.

R. Diesel, a German engineer, directed his efforts elsewhere - in 1897 he invented the engine internal combustion, called diesel, which soon became widespread.

2.4. Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of chemical elements of the periodic table

When the great Russian scientist was 35 years old, he had already discovered one of the basic laws of natural science - the periodic law of chemical elements and formulated it as follows: “The properties of simple bodies, as well as the forms and properties of compounds of elements, are periodically dependent ... on the value of the atomic weights of the elements " Based on this law, he created the periodic system of chemical elements and predicted the existence and properties of several elements, later discovered by other scientists. These elements filled the cells that were empty in his table.

In the periodic table of elements, the first places are occupied by hydrogen and helium. As for the last places, 50 years ago the table ended with the 98th element - Californian. And when D. I. Mendeleev compiled his table, there were only 63 elements in it. This was in 1869.

Now the table contains 107 elements and it is unknown how many new ones will be discovered and what they will be named.

Here we come to the names of chemical elements. Every new chemical element, discovered by scientists or artificially created by them, needs to be given a name that distinguishes it from already known elements. This name must be such that it can be used to form a symbol that is different from the other symbols that fill the table in a strictly defined order. It would be very good if the name of the element did not cause difficulties in its pronunciation and spelling. Of course, it would not hurt to perpetuate the memory of those scientists who left a noticeable mark on world science in the name of the element.

The discoverers and creators of new chemical elements took this into account: the last elements of the table are named after world-famous scientists: Einstein, Fermi, the creator of the periodic table himself, Joliot Curie, Rutherford, Kurchatov and Niels Bohr.

The periodic table can tell not only about the chemical elements, their properties, their place in the periodic table, but also about the countries, cities, and people that are “hidden” in it.

Of the 107 elements, more than a third of the names (43) are formed either directly from proper names, or from such common nouns, which themselves are formed from proper names. These are the names:

formed from

from toponyms:

Americium

Germanium

educated

from anthroponyms

Kurchatovy

Mendelevium

Plutonium

Promethium

Einsteinium

Let's re-read the words of the first column carefully and determine which chemical elements are named after the country. Yes it americium, germanium, europium, californium, scandium, francium, which can be easily correlated with the toponyms America, Germany, Europe, California, Scandinavia, France.

If about the origin of names europium, francium and others were easy to guess, then perhaps some of you noticed that among the given names of chemical elements derived from the name of the country, there is no indium. This is no accident.

In honor of A. Einstein, the great physicist, the father of the theory of relativity, element No. 99 was named - einsteinium, first discovered in a thermonuclear explosion. The chemical and physical-mechanical properties of this element have not yet been sufficiently studied.

The hundredth element, discovered in 1952 also in the products of a thermonuclear explosion, was named fermium in honor of the greatest Italian physicist E. Fermi.

In early 1955, element 101 was discovered. It was discovered by five researchers at the University of California Radiation Laboratory and named after the creator of the periodic table of chemical elements. mendelevium.

The name of the element Nobelium is derived from the name of the inventor of dynamite and the founder of the International (Nobel) Prize Foundation, A Nobel. This element was at one time on the periodic table.

Element 104 was first synthesized at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna in 1964. It was received by a group of scientists led by an academician. The creators of the element suggested calling it Kurchatoviy- in honor of the outstanding Russian physicist.

2.5. Transition of proper names into common nouns in botany

Seeing a flying butterfly on the first warm days, we say: “Real spring. The butterflies are already flying!” The next day, a butterfly flew by again, different from yesterday. But we will also say about her: “What a beautiful butterfly!” And although butterflies are different, we (unlike entomologists) often do not know the name of each of their varieties, so in speech we use the common name - butterfly.

Here's a butterfly named Psyche. But once upon a time Psyche (in Greek mythology) was a royal daughter and was famous for her extraordinary beauty. The Greeks often depicted Psyche as a butterfly or a girl with butterfly wings. The butterfly that was named psyche, also stands out for its beauty. You can see it in illustrated special magazines, albums or in museums where collections of butterflies are exhibited.

A large beetle up to 15 centimeters long, living in South America, is called Hercules(named after the mythical Hercules, the strongest of the Greek heroes).

The names of mythological characters are ground beetles and various worms. Imagine a ground beetle that bravely rushes at its prey, even though it is much larger than it. This ground beetle was named Procrustes named after the robber Procrustes. Named after the goddess of beauty Aphrodite Aphrodite(sea worm). Another species of sea worm is named Nereid(named after one of the sea nymphs - the Nereids, daughters of Nereus), a tailed amphibian from the salamander family, similar to a lizard, is named triton(named after the sea deity Triton, depicted as an old man or a young man with a fish tail instead of legs).

No less famous small fish - sardines (sardines). They owe their name to the island of Sardinia in the Mediterranean Sea.

The flora of the earth is so rich and diverse that scientists are still finding more and more new plants. However, they not only find, but also develop new varieties. Where do you get the words to name them? Proper names are once again coming to the aid of scientists. It’s good that the language has a lot of words in stock that can be used to name a new object. Breeders have developed a new variety of wheat in the Kuban, and they did the same at the Stavropol Experimental Station, at the Mironovskaya State Breeding Station, located in Ukraine, and at the Novourenskaya station in the Ulyanovsk region. Naturally, these wheat varieties are named: Kubanka, Stavropol, Ukrainian, Ulyanovsk. They are named according to approximately the same principle. Vyatka(winter rye variety), Crimea(winter wheat variety), Kutuzovka(corn variety), Moscow(spring wheat variety), omka(a variety of winter rye) and other varieties of cereals.

And some plants get their names from the name of the place from which they were taken. The orange was exported from China (Dutch appelsien means "Chinese apple"), coffee - from the country of Caffa, located in Africa; peaches- from Persia.

The names of flowers also contain a lot of interesting things. Here is a flower with double colored inflorescences - Ivan-da-Marya, or maryannik In forest clearings, meadows, on the banks of rivers and rivulets, in the steppe you can also find flowers with the following names: Avdotka, Akulinka, Matryonka, Andreevka, Timofeevka, Ivan-tea. All these are popular names for herbs. We will not find these names in modern dictionaries of the Russian literary language, with the exception, perhaps, of the last two. But if you turn to dictionaries of various dialects of the Russian language, you can find such names of plants and flowers in them. For example, in Shansky’s “Etymological Dictionary” there are plant names: Akulinka, Annushka, Annushka's tears, Vanyusha curly or Vanya curly and others. Why are these plants called that? What relation do they have to the unknown to us Akulina, Avdotya, Annushka, Matryona, Ivan or Timofey? As for the name Ivan-da-Marya, then, if you believe the fairy tale, it arose like this. Fate separated brother Vanya from sister Mashenka in childhood. When they grew up and met, they fell in love, and Ivan married Marya. Having learned about their relationship, in order not to be separated, they turned into a flower with double color, which has since been called Ivan-da-Marya.

Trees with large evergreen leathery leaves and large white fragrant flowers are magnolia. It was named after the Frenchman Pierre Magnol, who lived in the 17th century.

2.6. Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of weapons

There are many pistol systems, as well as other types of firearms. However, if you look closely at their names, we will notice: firearms are mainly called after the inventor.

Some creators of weapons try to prove the advantages of their product, glorify it, and with it themselves.

The Belgian designer L. Nagan invented a revolver with a rotating drum and named it after himself - revolver. The Americans J. Browning and S. Colt did the same. The first one named a gun after himself browning, and the second, the owner of a large factory for the production of handguns, named the revolver he invented after himself Colt. German designers brothers Pavel and Wilhelm Mauser created Mausers(pistol and repeating rifle), which were manufactured in their factories.

A rapid-fire automatic weapon - a machine gun - was invented in 1883 and called maxim named after the inventor, American engineer Hoyrem Maxim.

100 years ago, the Russian army was armed with a rifle created by Russian designers together with the American designer, Colonel Berdan. This rifle was called Berdanka. Now it can only be seen in the museum.

During the Great Patriotic War, barrelless rocket artillery systems appeared in our arsenal. The soldiers gave them an affectionate name Katyusha, which is associated with the name of M. Isakovsky’s song “Katyusha,” popular in the pre-war years. In army vernacular Katyusha They also jokingly called flint, i.e., a steel plate for making fire by striking flint.

Not only pistols, shotguns, machine guns, machine guns, but also shells and even bullets are called by proper names.

Word shrapnel. This is what they call an artillery shell. It is filled with spherical bullets and has a special spacer tube, with the help of which the projectile explodes in given point trajectories. This projectile was created in 1803 by the English inventor G. Shrapnel and thereby went down in history.

2.7. Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of clothes

In the comedies of the French comedian Beaumarchais “The Barber of Seville” and “The Marriage of Figaro”, some characters wore clothes whose cut was to the taste of the audience. And they began to sew such clothes for themselves. This is how it appeared almaviva- a wide men's cloak of a special cut (it was worn by Count Almaviva from The Barber of Seville) and figaro- a type of short, loose women's blouse worn over a dress (Figaro wore it).

In Eugene Onegin, Tatyana Larina appeared on stage in a dress with a tight-fitting bodice and a gathered wide skirt. This dress was called Tatyanka.“She was completely different from Pushkin’s Tatiana, except for her tatyana and her shoulder-length curls,” we read in V. Kaverin’s story “Two Captains.”

The comic character of Italian folk comedies, Pantalone, was dressed in lace-trimmed panties, called trousers.

Now let's turn our attention to men's outerwear. Many people know the words French, riding breeches, raglan. Their names retain the names not of the characters in the plays, but of the people who were the first to wear these clothes and thereby left a memory of themselves. The French jacket is a military jacket at the waist, with four large patch pockets and a tab at the back. This jacket was worn by the English Field Marshal John French. And breeches, wide at the hips and tight at the knees, were worn by the French general Gaston Galiffe, one of the executioners of the Paris Commune.

General Raglan was the first in the history of tailoring to wear a coat in which the sleeve and shoulder were one piece. The cut itself and the coat of this style were called raglan.

And here is the cloak mac. It is made of waterproof rubberized fabric. The name of the raincoat commemorates the Scottish chemist Charles Mackintosh, who invented a method for making waterproof fabrics.

More recently, many people liked a men's knitted sweatshirt, similar to the one worn by the famous writer E. Hemingway. She was named Hemingway.

Some men's clothing names have geographic origins. These include: Hungarian- a jacket with a high waist, cords at the seams and cross cords for fastening. Such jackets were worn in Hungary. Doesn't look like her Siberian- a short caftan at the waist, with gatherings, without a slit at the back and with a stand-up collar (such clothing was common in Siberia); Moldavian- a jacket, such as women wear in Moldova.

Not so long ago, a raincoat was in fashion, originally made in the Italian city of Bologna from nylon fabric with a one-sided waterproof coating. This cloak was called Bologna.

Marengo, the fabric is black with white threads, named after the village of Marengo in Northern Italy. Now the word Marengo used to denote a black color with a gray tint. They say: the fabric is marengo color.

Cashmere And madapolam, or madepols named after the region of Kashmir and the city of Madapolam in India; crepe de Chine, faide Chine, Chinese And Nanka named after the French name for China - Shin, after the city of Nanjing and the Russian name for China; marroquin- in the country of Morocco in northwest Africa.

America represented Boston, is a fine cloth named after the city of Boston in the USA.

2.8. Transition of proper names into common nouns

in attributes wstake life

Here is Whatman paper. Otherwise she is called Whatman paper It is used for drawing and painting. It got its name from the owner of the English paper mill Whatman. A parchment, parchment, or parchment paper, thick paper that is impervious to fat and moisture and is used for packaging, as well as glassine - thin durable paper for making natural tracing paper - named after the city of Pergamon in Asia Minor, where in the 2nd century BC. e. Leather processing for writing became widespread. The skin of animals (especially calves) processed in a special way was used not only for writing (before the spread of paper), but also for making drums and for other purposes.

3. Proper names and character of a person.

Word hooligan in Russia it became common after the outbreak of the First World War. And during the years of the revolution and Civil War, when all the shackles, including moral ones, were weakened as much as possible, already seemed almost like an original Russian word. However, the origin of this word is English. G. Belykh and L. Panteleev in their famous book about street children “Republic of SHKID”, explaining its appearance, refer to the legend according to which the Hooligan family lived in England in the 19th century. These Hooligans owned an inn on the Dover Highway, and noblemen and merchants from the Continent often stayed with them. The owners robbed and killed them. But " terrible secret inn" was discovered, and the royal court sentenced the family of the killers to death. And from that time on, murderers, thieves and arsonists were called hooligans. The form “hooligan” quickly became established in the Russian language. The explanation is interesting, but there are other versions. According to one of them, the Irishman Patrick Hooligan, who lived near London at the end of the 18th century and owned an inn there, was such a brawler, so annoying to his guests and neighbors that he soon became “famous” for his disgusting, obnoxious behavior. He was repeatedly reported in London police reports, and his name became a household name.

And here is the version contained in the Encyclopedia Britannica. In the 18th century, the Irishman Hulley lived in London, who organized a number of gangs that were particularly violent. They began to be called hooligans, that is, members of the Hulli gang.

Be that as it may, the English word quickly took root on Russian soil. And today, any dictionary will explain that a hooligan is someone who clearly and grossly violates public order and expresses disrespect for others.

The works of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin are eternally relevant for Russian life. And it is impossible to accurately translate them into other languages. It is required to accompany the translation with voluminous explanations.

This eccentric intrigue and huge expenses of the royal favorite at the expense of the state treasury was what Shchedrin had in mind in the first place when he put the word “pompadour” into use. In addition, the title of the famous marquise was consonant with the Russian word “tyrant,” which censorship would hardly have missed in the description of senior government officials. So try to translate Shchedrin’s “pompadour,” for example, into English! And there already is such a word (as in almost all European languages) - it means a hairstyle, introduced into use by the same active madam. A sort of cola that Madame de Pompadour began to whip on her head when she discovered that her hair was thinning. And he's turning gray! Instead of putting on a wig or dyeing her hair (although this method was not used by French fashionistas at that time), the marquise whipped up her hair and put her gray hair on public display, immediately introducing the fashion for gray strands in women's hairstyles.

Now let's get acquainted with some heroes of Western European classical literature, whose character and behavior were reflected in their names, which became, as it were, the calling cards of these heroes. In order to find out the meaning of a word, you need to consult a dictionary. But some words may not be in the dictionary. What should I do? In this case, you need to turn to the original source, that is, read the work in which the character is constantly “registered”. After reading and understanding the system of images of this work, you will not only know what content is put into the word, not only use it correctly, but also skillfully use the character’s own name in the meaning of a common noun.

Of the many plays by the English playwright W. Shakespeare, “Othello” and “The Tragic History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark” are especially popular. From the first play, the names Othello and Iago became popular, from the second - Hamlet.

In a word Othello we call a jealous person because the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, the Venetian Moor Othello, was painfully jealous and out of jealousy strangled his wife Desdemona; in a word Iago we call him a scoundrel-slanderer, because the officer Iago, taking advantage of Othello’s gullibility, slandered Desdemona, which led to her death; Hamlet- a person who always doubts everything (remember Hamlet’s monologue, which begins with the words: “To be or not to be? - that is the question...”).

Don Juan from the comedy of the French playwright Jean Moliere “Don Juan” and Don Quixote from the novel “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha” by the Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes de Saavedra are not similar to each other. The first is a person who spent his life in love adventures. Fans of such adventures are called Don Juans. The second is a disinterested, funny dreamer, wasting his strength in the fight against imaginary obstacles, not taking into account that this struggle is useless, and causing only ridicule from everyone. Such visionary dreamers, far from real life, are called quixotic. Rocinante - the name of Don Quixote's old, emaciated horse - also became a household name: Rocinante They jokingly call it an exhausted old nag.

Anecdotal stories about the German Baron Munchausen and his incredible travels and adventures have been known for a long time. He collected them and published them in Oxford in 1785, translated into English under the title “Stories of Baron Munchausen about his wonderful travels and campaign in Russia.” A person who shamelessly lies and brags, like Munchausen, is called Munchausen.

Russian classical literature is also rich in characters, whose names and surnames began to be used as common nouns. Remember characters comedy “The Minor” by Prostakov, Mitrofanushka, Skotinin, Vralman.

Who do we call Mitrofan? Mitrofan or mitrofanushka the name of the stupid young dropout. The ignorant German, a former coachman who becomes Mitrofan's teacher, is perfectly suited to the telling surname Vralman, which unambiguously characterizes its owner. Vralman means “braggart, liar, liar.”

In the comedy "Woe from Wit" there are a number of surnames that have become household names. The meanings of these surnames are well known to you. Let us remind you: Famusov- an arrogant careerist bureaucrat who panders to those above him; rocktooth- a rude soldier who recognizes nothing but service.

Molchalin- an obsequious, hypocritical person, afraid to express his opinion, and an unprincipled careerist; repeaters- a chatterbox who does not have his own thoughts and repeats other people's words.

Researchers have calculated that of all the proper names of Gogol’s characters, at least eleven have become household names. These are Manilov, Korobochka, Nozdrev, Plyushkin, Sobakevich, Khlestakov, Chichikov. Less known are Derzhimorda, Neuvazhay-Koryto, Poprishchin and Tryapichkin.

4. Conclusion

The names of inventors, scientists, and discoverers remain in the names of the laws, units of measurement, technologies and instruments they discovered, or in geographical names. But there are names that are closer to the individual, people, and not science. These names, as a rule, are either forgotten or unexpectedly remain in the language, as if separated from their bearers. Sometimes they turn into the names of companies or cars, devices, after which people stop recognizing the person’s name. This is not necessary, the main thing is that they have served their service and still remain with us. I would like to name a few of these names.

Louis Pasteur is a name widely known in science, particularly in medicine. But this is the only known case when the surname of a French scientist, the creator of microbiology as a science, was transformed into the verb “pasteurize.” After all, they don’t say “X-ray”, but simply call a device that operates on the basis of a scientist’s discovery an X-ray. By the way, Konrad Roentgen is the world’s first Nobel Prize laureate, awarded to him in 1901 for a discovery that “changed the life of mankind.” And when we go “for an x-ray,” we remember that initially it was still a person. Before Louis Pasteur, a well-known method of preserving food was sterilization. Every housewife today knows that pasteurizing products at a temperature not exceeding 100°C means killing microorganisms in them without harming the product itself. But few housewives will associate this excellent method of preserving food with the name of Pasteur. This is how the surname takes on a second life.

In 1759, the French Minister of Finance Etienne de Silhouette, after resigning, began cutting out portraits from paper named after him. Later, the word “silhouette” entered the language in a broader sense. Denoting an unclear outline of a person, figure or object.

Scotsman D. Mackintosh glorified his name by being the first person to make a waterproof raincoat. This was a salvation from constant rain and even fog for Scotland and England. And although most people wearing Macintoshes around the world do not know that this is the name of the inventor, they are still grateful to him.

List of used literature

1., From proper names to common nouns./ , . – M.: Education, 1999.

2. Blau M . From Doberman to bully. From proper names to common nouns. /M. Blau. – AST. Astrel, 2003.

3., Bobrov's dictionary/ , . - M.: Proserpina, 1998.

4. To the origins of the word. Stories about the science of etymology./ . – M.: Education, 2001.

5. Nikonov in toponymy./. – M.: Education, 1998.

Very interesting origin stories have words associated with real historical figures, for example, scientists, writers, or entrepreneurs who did not leave the public of their time indifferent. It is for this reason that their names have become household names. Words-eponyms, and that’s what they are called in etymology, are found often, we just don’t know or don’t think about their existence.

Boycott- British manager in Ireland Charles Boycott (1832–1897). The Irish refused to cultivate his land and began a campaign to isolate Boycott from local society.

Cardigan- this piece of clothing was named in honor of General James Thomas Brudnell, the seventh head of the county of Cardigan. It is he who is credited with the invention of this item of clothing, intended to insulate a uniform.

Chauvinism- Nicolas Chauvin, a French soldier who expressed his love for France and Napoleon Bonaparte in particular in his speeches. Extremely pretentious.

Whatman- This is high quality white thick paper. It got its name from the English paper manufacturer James Whatman, who in the mid-1750s introduced a new paper form that made it possible to produce sheets of paper without traces of the grid.

Breeches- the name of this cut of trousers is given by the name of the French general Gaston Galifet (1830–1909), who introduced them for cavalrymen. Then breeches were borrowed by other armies, and even later they entered the daily wardrobe of men and women.

Guppy- Robert John Lemcher Guppy, an English priest and scientist, gave a report to members of the Royal Society in 1886, in which he spoke about fish that do not spawn, but give birth to live young. And, by the way, he was laughed at.

Sweatshirt- this popular type of clothing is named after the great Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy, although the writer himself wore a shirt of a different cut.

Guillotine- French doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, although he did not invent this means of execution, in 1789 he first proposed cutting off heads using this mechanism. This was considered “more humane.”

Tapestry- the word originated in France in the 17th century, after the royal Gobelin manufactory opened. Their products were very popular, and in some countries everything made using the tapestry weaving technique was called a tapestry.

Olivie- everyone’s favorite salad got its name in honor of its creator, chef Lucien Olivier, who ran the Hermitage restaurant of Parisian cuisine in Moscow in the early 60s of the 19th century. True, the original recipe is completely different from the modern, familiar version.
Olivier took:
meat of two boiled hazel grouse,
one boiled veal tongue,
added about 100 grams of black pressed caviar,
200 grams of fresh salad,
25 boiled crayfish or 1 can of lobster,
half a jar of very small pickled cucumbers (pickles),
half a jar of Kabul soybeans is a kind of soybean paste sauce produced at that time (similar to the “Yuzhny” and “Moskovsky” sauces later produced in the USSR, which also contained soy hydrolysate),
two chopped fresh cucumbers,
100 grams capers (prickly vegetable crop, which is marinated flower buds),
finely chopped five hard-boiled eggs.
This delicacy was seasoned with Provencal sauce, which was supposed to be prepared with “French vinegar, two fresh egg yolks and a pound (400 grams) of Provençal olive oil."

Begonia- named after the French nobleman Michel Begon (1638-1710). He was the intendant of the French colonies in the Caribbean and organized a scientific expedition to the Antilles to collect plants.

Masochism- Austrian writer Leopold von Sacher-Masoch (1836–1895) described in his novels “The Divorced Woman” and “Venus in Fur” how despotic women mocked weak men. That’s where the term came from.

Maecenas- the name comes from the name of the Roman Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, who patronized the arts under Emperor Augustus.

Lovelace- Sir Robert Lovelace is a character in Samuel Richardson's novel Clarissa, written in 1748. According to the plot of this work, a handsome aristocrat insidiously seduces the 16-year-old main character.

Saxophone- the instrument is named after the Belgian inventor of musical instruments, Adolphe Sax (1814–1894).

Sandwich- John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718–1792), an English minister and avid gambler, is said to have invented this sandwich while playing cribbage. The game had already lasted for several hours, and the minister could not be distracted to eat. John Montague asked to be served meat sandwiched between two slices of bread. His fellow players really liked this way of eating, because he didn’t have to take time off from the game, and they also ordered sandwich bread.

Silhouette- Etienne de Silhouette (1709–1767) was the Comptroller General of Finance in France under Louis XV and imposed taxes on the outward signs of wealth (doors and windows, farms, luxury goods, servants, profits). In retaliation, his name was associated with the so-called “cheap painting” ", when instead of an expensive portrait you can simply outline a person’s shadow - cheaper and faster.

Mausoleum- this type of burial structure is named after the magnificent tomb of the Carian king Mausolus in the city of Halicarnassus in the territory of modern Turkey.