Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge. Forms of scientific knowledge

Successful completion scientific work depends to the greatest extent on the ability to choose the most effective research methods, since they are the ones that allow you to achieve your goal.

Methods scientific knowledge It is customary to divide into general and special.

Majority special problems specific sciences and even individual stages of their research require the use of special solution methods. Of course, such methods are very specific. It is natural, therefore, that they are studied, developed and improved in specific special sciences. They are never arbitrary, because determined by the nature of the object being studied.

In addition to special methods used in individual sciences, there are general methods scientific knowledge, which, unlike special ones, are used throughout the entire research process and in the most diverse sciences, including in the system of economic sciences.

General methods of scientific knowledge are usually divided into three large groups:

1) methods of empirical research (observation, comparison, measurement, experiment);

2) methods used both at the empirical and theoretical levels of research (abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, etc.);

3) methods of theoretical research (ascending from the abstract to the concrete, etc.).

Let us now consider in more detail some general methods of scientific knowledge.

Observation is an active cognitive process, based primarily on the work of human senses and his objective material activity. This is the most elementary method, acting, as a rule, as one of the elements in other methods.

In everyday activities and in science, observations must lead to results that do not depend on the will, feelings and desires of the subjects. In order to become the basis for subsequent theoretical and practical actions, these observations must inform us about the objective properties and relationships of really existing objects and phenomena.

In order to be a fruitful method of cognition, observation must satisfy a number of requirements, the most important of which are: 1) systematicity; 2) purposefulness; 3) activity; 4) systematicity.

Observation as a means of cognition provides primary information about the world in the form of a set of empirical statements.

Comparison – one of the most common methods of cognition. It is not without reason that it is said that “everything is known by comparison.” Comparison allows us to establish the similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of reality. As a result of comparison, the commonality that is inherent in two or more objects is established, and the identification of commonality that is repeated in phenomena, as is known, is a step towards the knowledge of patterns and laws.

For a comparison to be fruitful, it must satisfy two basic requirements. First: only such phenomena should be compared between which there can be a certain objective commonality. Second: in order to understand objects, their comparison must be carried out according to the most important, essential (in terms of a specific cognitive task) characteristics.

Using comparison, information about an object can be obtained in two different ways. Firstly, it can act as a direct result of comparison. Secondly, very often obtaining primary information does not act as main goal comparison, this goal is to obtain secondary or derivative information resulting from the processing of primary data. The most common and important method of such processing is inference by analogy.

Measurement Unlike comparison, it is a more accurate cognitive tool. Measurement is the procedure for determining the numerical value of a certain quantity using a unit of measurement. The value of this procedure is that it provides accurate, quantitative information about the surrounding reality.

The most important indicator of the quality of a measurement and its scientific value is accuracy, which depends on the diligence of the scientist, on the methods he uses, but mainly on the available measuring instruments.

Experiment– method scientific research, which involves the purposeful study of a phenomenon through active influence on it by creating new conditions or by changing the course of the process.

Experiment is related to observation, but is not identical to it. The experiment has a number of main advantages over observation, namely:

1) experiment makes it possible to study this or that phenomenon in its “pure form”, to isolate the phenomenon from various kinds complicating circumstances;

2) the experiment allows you to study the properties of objects under extreme conditions;

3) during the experiment, the researcher can interfere with the course of the phenomenon;

4) the experiment can be repeated at any time when necessary for the purposes of scientific research and when the same conditions are present.

The experiment can be carried out either directly with the object of study or with its model, i.e. with an artificially created object that is similar to the one being studied.

The methods considered are used mainly at the empirical level of research. At the empirical and theoretical levels of research, the following methods are used: abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, etc.

Abstraction is of a universal nature in mental activity, because every step of thought is associated with this process or with the use of its result. The essence of this method consists in mental abstraction from unimportant properties, connections, relationships, objects and in the simultaneous selection and recording of one or more aspects of these objects that are of interest to the researcher.

There is a distinction between the process of abstraction and the result of abstraction, called abstraction. Usually, the result of abstraction is understood as knowledge about certain aspects of objects. The abstraction process is a set of operations leading to obtaining such a result (abstraction). Examples of abstraction include countless concepts that people operate not only in science, but also in everyday life: tree, house, road, liquid, etc.

The process of abstraction in the system of logical thinking is closely related to other research methods and, above all, to analysis and synthesis.

Analysis is a method of scientific research by breaking down a subject into its component parts. Synthesis is the combination of parts obtained during analysis into something whole.

Methods of analysis and synthesis in scientific creativity are organically interconnected and can take various shapes depending on the properties of the object being studied and the purpose of the study. Depending on the degree of knowledge of the object, on the depth of penetration into its essence, various types of analysis and synthesis are used.

Direct and empirical analysis and synthesis is used at the stage of superficial familiarization with the object. In this case, the individual parts of the object are isolated, its properties are detected, the simplest measurements are taken, and the directly given data lying on the surface of the general is recorded. This type of analysis and synthesis makes it possible to understand the phenomenon, but it is not sufficient to penetrate into its essence.

Reciprocal or elementary theoretical analysis and synthesis are widely used as a powerful tool for achieving the essence of the phenomenon under study. Here, the operations of analysis and synthesis are not carried out mechanically, but are based on some theoretical considerations, which can be assumptions about the cause-and-effect relationship of various phenomena, about the operation of some pattern.

Structural genetic analysis and synthesis allows us to penetrate most deeply into the essence of an object. At the same time, they go beyond assumptions about some cause-and-effect relationship. This type of analysis and synthesis requires isolating in a complex phenomenon such elements, such links that represent the most central, the most important thing in them, which has a decisive influence on all other aspects of the essence of the object.

Induction in a broad sense, it is a form of thinking through which thought is directed to some general position inherent in all individual objects of any class. A deduction– a form of thinking when a new thought is logically derived from previous thoughts.

Inductive research method is as follows: to obtain general knowledge about a class of objects, individual representatives of this class are examined, common essential features are determined, and then a conclusion is drawn about the entire class as a whole. In other words, the researcher goes from knowing less general provisions to knowledge of more general ones.

Deductive research method is as follows: to obtain new knowledge about an object, it is necessary, firstly, to find the closest genus into which this object belongs, and, secondly, to apply to this object the corresponding position inherent in the entire genus. In other words, there is a transition from more general knowledge to less general knowledge.

The deductive method differs favorably from other methods of cognition in that, if the initial knowledge is true, it gives true inferential knowledge. However, it would be wrong to overestimate the scientific significance of the deductive method, since without obtaining initial knowledge this method gives nothing.

Modeling– the study of any objects (concrete or abstract) through artificially created objects similar to the one being studied. The need for modeling arises when studying the object itself is impossible, difficult, expensive, etc. Therefore, modeling is special method and is widespread in science.

There must be a certain similarity between the model and the object of interest to the researcher. It can consist either in the similarity of the characteristics of the model and the object, or in the similarity of the functions performed by the model and the object, or in the identity of the mathematical description of the “behavior” of the object and its model.

IN Lately Computer modeling has become widespread, in particular, a large number of computer programs that allow you to simulate economic situations and phenomena. Computer modeling has a number of advantages, namely: the ability to create universal, convenient models; comparative cheapness and speed of research.

When developing and applying models, it is necessary not to lose sight of the fact that modeling is based on inference by analogy, and analogy provides a probabilistic meaning. In other words, the model only approximately reflects the object under study and, therefore, its use in research may give results that do not correspond to reality.

Among the theoretical research methods, we will focus on the method ascent from the abstract to the concrete, which represents the universal form of the movement of scientific knowledge, the law of reflecting reality in thinking. According to this method, the process of cognition is divided into two relatively independent stages.

At the first stage, there is a transition from the sensory-concrete, from the concrete in reality, to its abstract definitions. A single object is dismembered and described using many concepts and judgments. It seems to “evaporate”, turning into a set of abstractions and one-sided definitions fixed by thinking.

The second stage of the process of cognition is the ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Its essence lies in the movement of thought from abstract definitions of an object, i.e. from the abstract in cognition to the concrete in cognition. At this stage, the original integrity of the object is restored, as it were, it is reproduced in all its versatility - but already in thinking.

Both stages of cognition are closely interconnected. The ascent from the abstract to the concrete is impossible without a preliminary “anatomization” of the object by thought, without an ascent from the concrete in reality to its abstract definitions. Thus, we can say that the method under consideration is a process of cognition, according to which thinking ascends from the concrete in reality to the abstract in thinking and from it to the concrete in thinking.

The method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete is one of the main techniques in materialist dialectics, which is a method of understanding reality in its inconsistency, integrity, development and involves the use of paired categories such as “form” and “content”, “phenomenon” and “essence” , “general” and “special”, “quantity” and “quality”, etc.

Materialist dialectics, as applied, for example, to economics, includes the following basic methods of cognition:

1) the ascent of knowledge from the abstract to the concrete, i.e. first, ideas about economic processes are brought to a “pure” (abstract) state, and then this abstract is reproduced in the mind in the form of an integral object, taking into account the totality of these specific circumstances;

2) application of the principle of unity of “historical” and “logical”, when significant facts that reveal economic logic are selected from a huge mass of facts historical development;

3) recognition of economic development as the result of the “unity and struggle of opposites” of various subjects of market relations.

4) study of the genesis (origin) of economic forms, i.e. tracing from what conditions they arise, what they are in a mature form and what they will turn into in the future, starting from the primary “cell” developing into an organism.

Religious, artistic, and also scientific. The first three forms are considered extra-scientific, and although scientific knowledge grew out of everyday, everyday knowledge, it differs significantly from all extra-scientific forms. has its own structure, in which two levels are distinguished: empirical and theoretical. Throughout the 17th-18th centuries, science was predominantly at the empirical stage, and they began to talk about the theoretical stage only in the 19th century. Methods theoretical knowledge, which were understood as methods for a comprehensive study of reality in its essential laws and connections, began to gradually build on the empirical ones. But even despite this, the studies were in close interaction, thereby suggesting an integral structure of scientific knowledge. In connection with this, even general scientific methods of theoretical knowledge appeared, which were equally characteristic of the empirical method of knowledge. At the same time, some methods empirical knowledge were also used at the theoretical stage.

Basic scientific methods of the theoretical level of knowledge

Abstraction is a method that comes down to abstraction from any properties of an object during cognition in order to more deeply study one of its aspects. Abstraction as a final result should develop abstract concepts that characterize objects from different sides.

Analogy is a mental conclusion about the similarity of objects, which is expressed in a certain relationship, based on their similarity in slightly different respects.

Modeling is a method based on the principle of similarity. Its essence is that it is not the object itself that is examined, but its analogue (substitute, model), after which the data obtained are transferred according to certain rules to the object itself.

Idealization is the mental construction (construction) of theories about objects, concepts that actually do not exist in reality and cannot be embodied in it, but those for which in reality there is an analogue or a close prototype.

Analysis is a method of dividing one whole into parts in order to understand each part separately.

Synthesis is a procedure opposite to analysis, consisting in combining individual elements into one system for the purpose of further knowledge.

Induction is a method in which a final conclusion is drawn from knowledge obtained in a less general manner. Simply put, induction is a movement from the particular to the general.

Deduction is the opposite method of induction, which has a theoretical orientation.

Formalization is a method of displaying content knowledge in the form of signs and symbols. The basis of formalization is the distinction between artificial and natural languages.

All these methods of theoretical knowledge, to one degree or another, can also be inherent in empirical knowledge. Historical and theoretical knowledge is also no exception. The historical method is a reproduction in detail of the history of an object. It is especially widely used in historical sciences, Where great importance has concreteness of events. The logical method also reproduces history, but only in the main, main and essential, without paying attention to those events and facts that are caused by random circumstances.

These are not all methods of theoretical knowledge. Generally speaking, in scientific knowledge all methods can appear simultaneously, being in close interaction with each other. The specific use of individual methods is determined by the level of scientific knowledge, as well as the characteristics of the object and process.

Scientific knowledge, as a process, is associated with the activity of the cognizing subject, and the subject can obtain knowledge experimentally (empirically) and through complex logical operations, creative processing of the received initial data, i.e. in theory. Hence it follows that scientific knowledge has empirical and theoretical levels, which are organically interconnected. Scientific knowledge differs from ordinary knowledge by purposefulness, specificity, clear recording of the results of knowledge with mandatory theoretical rethinking and adjustments to the arsenal of science.

The empirical level is a unique stage of collecting data about natural or social objects that scientists lack in order to create a complete picture of the phenomenon or process being studied. Therefore, the process of the empirical stage of research is guided and controlled by theory. However, this does not mean that the theory fetters empirical research and limits it. The empirical stage of collection has relative independence, and the collected material does not necessarily have to correspond to one or another theoretical concept. The discrepancy between the experimental material and one or another form of theoretical knowledge indicates the imperfection of knowledge.

At the empirical level, the object under study is reflected mainly from its external relations and manifestations accessible to living contemplation. The main thing for the empirical stage is fact-recording activity.

Empirical knowledge is very close to such theoretical methods as analysis and synthesis, which can even be called theoretical-empirical. The same can be said about experiment, as a method of cognition, combining the experimental acquisition of knowledge with a preliminary understanding of the conditions for its implementation and, accordingly, laying a certain hypothetical knowledge as the basis for specific actions. This confirms the immutable fact of any knowledge that experience (practice) is the initial and final stage of knowledge.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is associated with the comprehension of empirical material, its processing on the basis of concepts, laws, and theories.

Empirical data, being repeatedly rethought and from different angles of view, rechecked, transformed from the individual, particular to the general, and form the basis of particular or general laws, theories.

Theoretical understanding is carried out on the basis of an arsenal of methods of theoretical knowledge, which is replenished from year to year. Relatively recently, a systematic approach entered scientific life, and even more recently, a synergetic approach.

Methods of the empirical level of knowledge include observation, comparison and experiment.

Observation is the expedient perception of the phenomena of reality associated with their description and measurement. In medicine, the method of field observation is used, the objects of which can be patients undergoing treatment, various objects of the external environment, microorganisms, tissues of a living organism, and excretory products. The specific methods of field observation are just as diverse (microscopy, biochemical, hematological, etc.). The field observation method involves studying an object in its usual conditions.

Comparison - identifying similar and different aspects in processes, objects, phenomena.

An experiment is an active, purposeful practical activity in which the researcher selects or forms an object of study and the conditions in which it operates. The experiment can be carried out in natural, model or natural-model forms. Medical (medico-biological) experiment is a type scientific activity, undertaken on biological objects in order to discover and study the objective laws of the occurrence, course and outcome of the disease, as well as to determine the effectiveness of therapeutic (therapeutic or surgical) agents. To the number experimental research it is necessary to include clinical trials of means and methods of providing medical care (which must necessarily be preceded by experiments on animals in order to check for pathological effects on a living organism).

The methods of the theoretical level of cognition include the following.

Abstraction is the mental abstraction of individual elements, properties, relationships and consideration of them in their “pure form”, separately from each other.

Analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the real or mental division of an object into its component parts, and synthesis is their combination into a single whole.

Idealization is the mental construction of concepts about objects that are non-existent and impracticable in reality, but have prototypes in the objective world.

Induction and deduction. Induction is the movement of thought from the individual to the general, and deduction is from the general to the individual.

Analogy is the establishment of similarities between features, aspects, properties, and relationships of the non-identical objects under consideration. Inference by analogy does not provide reliable, but probabilistic knowledge.

Mental modeling is the construction and study of a secondary (theoretical) object that is similar in essential features to the primary object being studied.

Systems approach- consideration of an object as an element of a system with clarification of the place and function of each element, internal hierarchy and laws of functioning.

The synergetic method is a method for identifying the self-organization of open nonequilibrium systems of any nature.

When considering theoretical methods, it should be taken into account that systemic and synergetic methods are a manifestation of the methodological significance of systems theory and synergetics.

Scientific knowledge is a process during which the content of knowledge is enriched and the forms of its existence are replaced. The main forms in which scientific knowledge exists are: problem, hypothesis, theory. But this chain of forms of knowledge cannot exist without factual material and practical activities to test scientific assumptions. The forms of scientific knowledge cannot be considered outside the process of scientific knowledge, which includes empirical and theoretical stages.

The empirical stage is associated with obtaining facts, and therefore at this stage such a form of scientific knowledge appears as a fact of science.

The fact of science differs from the fact of reality, since the facts of reality are recorded as events, phenomena of life, but without their detailed description. Facts of science are facts of reality, reflected, verified and recorded in the language of science. The facts of science do not always agree with existing views on a particular issue, object or phenomenon. Coming to the attention of scientists, a fact of science excites theoretical thought and contributes to the transition of research from the empirical to the theoretical stage.

From the contradiction between theoretical knowledge and the facts of science, this form of scientific knowledge arises as a problem. A problem is knowledge that reflects the discrepancy between the facts of science and existing concepts, views on the phenomenon or process under study.

The problem is solved by putting forward working hypotheses and then testing them. A hypothesis is a form of scientific knowledge formulated on the basis of a number of facts and containing an assumption, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof.

In the course of proving the put forward hypotheses, some of them become a theory, since they carry true knowledge, while others are clarified, changed, and specified. Still others, if the test gives a negative result, are rejected, marking a delusion. The pinnacle of scientific knowledge is theory, as the logical conclusion of the thorny path of trial and error. Theory is the most developed holistic form of scientific knowledge, providing a complete reflection of the essential, natural connections of a certain area of reality.

A truly scientific theory must be objectively true, logically consistent, integral, have relative independence, be developing knowledge and influence practice through people's activities.

Thus, cognition marks man’s active mastery of objective and subjective reality. In his quest for knowledge, a person uses the capabilities of the senses and the power of the mind. Constantly improving the tools of cognitive activity, he strives to know everything, from the microcosm to the depths of the Universe, but at the same time he is not satisfied with any knowledge, but only true knowledge that can serve as the basis for further cognitive activity. Striving for knowledge, a person learns to understand those who lived and those who live, to explain to himself and others what he understood from the intricacies of life, since knowledge and understanding is the spiritual life of a person, without which his physical existence loses content and meaning. The main support of man on the path to knowledge is science as a system of constantly expanding and deepening knowledge about the world and the processes occurring in it. Understanding the process of obtaining scientific knowledge, as well as the forms of its existence, elevates a person, contributes to his involvement in scientific creativity, and therefore opens up opportunities for success in the specific field in which he is engaged.

Cognition is the process of gaining knowledge about the world around us and about ourselves. Knowledge begins from the moment a person begins to ask himself questions: who am I, why did I come into this world, what mission should I fulfill. Cognition is a constant process. It occurs even when a person is not aware of what thoughts guide his actions and actions. Cognition as a process is studied by a number of sciences: psychology, philosophy, sociology, scientific methodology, history, science. The purpose of any knowledge is to improve yourself and expand your horizons.

Structure of cognition

Cognition as a scientific category has a clearly defined structure. Cognition necessarily includes a subject and an object. The subject is understood as a person who takes active steps to carry out cognition. The object of cognition is what the subject’s attention is directed to. The object of cognition can be other people, natural and social phenomena, or any objects.

Methods of cognition

Methods of cognition are understood as tools with the help of which the process of acquiring new knowledge about the world around us is carried out. Methods of cognition are traditionally divided into empirical and theoretical.

Empirical methods of cognition

Empirical methods of cognition involve the study of an object using any research activities confirmed experimentally. TO empirical methods knowledge includes: observation, experiment, measurement, comparison.

Observation is a method of cognition during which an object is studied without direct interaction with it. In other words, the observer can be at a distance from the object of knowledge and still receive the information he needs. With the help of observation, the subject can draw his own conclusions on a particular issue and build additional assumptions. The observation method is widely used in their activities by psychologists, medical personnel, and social workers.
Experiment is a method of cognition in which immersion occurs in a specially created environment. This method of cognition involves some abstraction from the outside world. Scientific research is carried out using experiments. During this method cognition confirms or disproves the hypothesis put forward.
Measurement is an analysis of any parameters of the object of cognition: weight, size, length, etc. During the comparison, the significant characteristics of the object of knowledge are compared.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Theoretical methods of cognition involve studying an object using analysis various categories and concepts. The truth of the hypothesis being put forward is not confirmed experimentally, but is proven using existing postulates and final conclusions. Theoretical methods of cognition include: analysis, synthesis, classification, generalization, concretization, abstraction, analogy, deduction, induction, idealization, modeling, formalization.

Analysis implies mental analysis of a whole object of knowledge into small parts. The analysis reveals the connection between the components, their differences and other features. Analysis as a method of cognition is widely used in scientific and research activities.
Synthesis involves combining individual parts into a single whole, discovering a connecting link between them. Synthesis is actively used in the process of all cognition: in order to accept new information, it is necessary to correlate it with existing knowledge.
Classification is a grouping of objects united according to specific parameters.
Generalization involves grouping individual items according to their main characteristics.
Specification is a clarification process carried out with the aim of focusing attention on significant details of an object or phenomenon.
Abstraction implies a focus on private party a specific subject in order to discover a new approach, to acquire a different perspective on the problem being studied. At the same time, other components are not considered, are not taken into account, or are given insufficient attention.
Analogy carried out in order to identify the presence of similar objects in the object of cognition.
Deduction– this is a transition from the general to the specific as a result of conclusions proven in the process of cognition.
Induction- this is a transition from the particular to the whole as a result of conclusions proven in the process of cognition.
Idealization implies the formation of separate concepts denoting an object that do not exist in reality.
Modeling involves the formation and consistent study of any category of existing objects in the process of cognition.
Formalization reflects objects or phenomena using generally accepted symbols: letters, numbers, formulas or other symbols.

Types of knowledge

Types of cognition are understood as the main directions of human consciousness, with the help of which the process of cognition is carried out. Sometimes they are called forms of cognition.

Ordinary cognition

This type of cognition implies that a person receives basic information about the world around him in the process of life activity. Even a child has ordinary knowledge. A little person, receiving the necessary knowledge, draws his own conclusions and gains experience. Even if a negative experience comes, in the future it will help to develop such qualities as caution, attentiveness, and prudence. A responsible approach develops through understanding the experience gained and living it internally. As a result of everyday knowledge, a person develops an idea of how one can and cannot act in life, what one should count on and what one should forget about. Ordinary cognition is based on elementary ideas about the world and connections between existing objects. It does not affect general cultural values, does not consider the worldview of the individual, his religious and moral orientation. Ordinary cognition strives only to satisfy a momentary request about the surrounding reality. The personality simply accumulates what is necessary for further life activity. useful experience and knowledge.

Scientific knowledge

This type of cognition is based on a logical approach. Its other name is . Here a detailed consideration of the situation in which the subject is immersed plays an important role. Using a scientific approach, existing objects are analyzed and appropriate conclusions are drawn. Scientific knowledge is widely used in research projects any direction. With the help of science, many facts are proven true or disproved. The scientific approach is subject to many components; cause and effect relationships play a large role.

In scientific activity, the process of cognition is carried out by putting forward hypotheses and proving them in practice. As a result of the research, the scientist can confirm his assumptions or completely abandon them if the final product does not meet the stated goal. Scientific knowledge is based primarily on logic and common sense.

Artistic knowledge

This type of cognition is also called creative. Such knowledge is based on artistic images and affects the intellectual sphere of the individual’s activity. Here, the truth of any statements cannot be proven scientifically, since the artist comes into contact with the category of beauty. Reality is reflected in artistic images, and is not constructed by the method of mental analysis. Artistic knowledge is limitless in its essence. The nature of creative knowledge of the world is such that a person himself models an image in his head with the help of thoughts and ideas. The material created in this way is an individual creative product and receives the right to exist. Each artist has his own inner world which he reveals to other people through creative activity: an artist paints pictures, a writer writes books, a musician composes music. Every creative thinking has its own truth and fiction.

Philosophical knowledge

This type of cognition consists of the intention to interpret reality by determining a person’s place in the world. Philosophical knowledge is characterized by the search for individual truth, constant reflection on the meaning of life, appeal to such concepts as conscience, purity of thoughts, love, talent. Philosophy tries to penetrate into the essence of the most complex categories, explain mystical and eternal things, determine the essence of human existence, and existential questions of choice. Philosophical knowledge is aimed at understanding controversial issues of existence. Often, as a result of such research, the activist comes to understand the ambivalence of all things. A philosophical approach involves seeing the second (hidden) side of any object, phenomenon or judgment.

Religious knowledge

This type of cognition is aimed at studying human relationships with higher powers. The Almighty here is considered simultaneously as an object of study, and at the same time as a subject, since religious consciousness implies the praise of the divine principle. A religious person interprets all current events from the point of view of divine providence. He analyzes his inner state, mood and waits for some specific response from above to certain actions performed in life. For him, the spiritual component of any business, morality and moral principles are of great importance. Such a person often sincerely wishes others happiness and wants to fulfill the will of the Almighty. A religiously minded consciousness implies a search for the only correct truth, which would be useful to many, and not to one specific person. Questions that are posed to the individual: what is good and evil, how to live according to conscience, what is the sacred duty of each of us.

Mythological knowledge

This type of cognition belongs to primitive society. This is a version of the knowledge of a person who considered himself an integral part of nature. Ancient people sought answers to questions about the essence of life differently than modern people; they endowed nature with divine power. That is why the mythological consciousness formed its gods and the corresponding attitude to current events. Primitive society abdicated responsibility for what happens in everyday reality and turned entirely to nature.

Self-knowledge

This type of cognition is aimed at studying one’s true states, moods and conclusions. Self-knowledge always implies deep analysis own feelings, thoughts, actions, ideals, aspirations. Those who have been actively engaged in self-knowledge for several years note that they have highly developed intuition. Such a person will not get lost in the crowd, will not succumb to the “herd” feeling, but will make responsible decisions on his own. Self-knowledge leads a person to understand his motives, comprehend the years he has lived and the deeds he has committed. As a result of self-knowledge, a person’s mental and physical activity, he accumulates self-confidence, becomes truly courageous and enterprising.

Thus, cognition as a deep process of acquisition necessary knowledge about the surrounding reality has its own structure, methods and types. Each type of knowledge corresponds to a different period in the history of social thought and the personal choice of an individual.

In the structure of scientific knowledge, empirical and theoretical levels are distinguished. These levels differ from each other in a number of parameters, the main of which are methods of cognition, as well as the nature of the knowledge gained.

The main methods of the empirical level include observation and experiment. The theoretical level is characterized by the use of analysis, synthesis, idealization, deduction, analogy and other general logical methods of cognition:

· Analysis is a method of cognition, consisting in the mental or practical (material) division of an integral object into its constituent elements (signs, properties, relationships) and their study relatively independently of the whole.

· Synthesis is a method of cognition consisting in the mental or practical combination of previously identified elements (features, properties, relationships) of an object into a single whole, taking into account the knowledge gained in the process of their study, relatively independently of the whole

· Deduction is a method of cognition (a method of reasoning) consisting of deducing conclusions of a particular nature from general premises.

· Analogy is a method of cognition (a method of reasoning) consisting of stating the similarity of objects in certain characteristics (properties, relationships) and assuming on this basis that they are similar in other characteristics (properties, relationships), as a result of which a conclusion is made that the object being studied has previously unknown characteristics (properties, relationships) identical to those recorded in the object compared with it.

· Abstraction is a method of cognition that consists of mental abstraction from a number of signs, properties and relationships of an object and simultaneous selection for consideration of those that interest the researcher.

· Generalization is a method of cognition consisting in establishing common features, properties and relationships of an object.

· Comparison is a method of cognition that consists in comparing objects that are homogeneous in terms of characteristics that are essential for a given consideration, through which their qualitative and quantitative properties are revealed.

· Induction is a method of cognition (a method of reasoning) consisting of guiding thoughts to some general conclusion (rule, position) based on particular premises.

· Modeling is a research method that consists of creating and studying a model that replaces the object under study (the original), followed by transferring the obtained information to the original.

The main type of knowledge obtained at the empirical level of scientific research is fact and experimental law. Knowledge of the theoretical level, first of all, refers to theory. The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is distinguished by its focus on discovering general, necessary, natural characteristics of an object, identified using rational procedures. At the theoretical level, theoretical laws are formulated.

Scientific theory is one of the problems of the philosophy of science. What is a scientific theory: an explanation or a description of facts? In the history of science, the so-called Descartes-Laplace line is distinguished, expressing the understanding of scientific theory as an explanation. The opposite position, called the Pascal-Ampere line, is distinguished by a statement about the descriptive nature of the theory. On the question of whether a theory is a reflection of reality, alternative points of view have also emerged. Philosophers and scientists who are inclined to the position of epistemological optimism answer this question positively. On the contrary, those who share the attitudes of agnosticism, conventionalism, and fallibilism believe that theoretical knowledge does not pursue the goal of a correct reflection of objective reality.

The structure of a scientific theory includes the following main elements: fundamental concepts and principles, idealized objects, methodological principles and methods of proof. The process of functioning of a theory necessarily includes the stages of formulating a problem, as well as putting forward and testing hypotheses.

A characteristic feature of theoretical knowledge is that the subject of knowledge deals with abstract objects. Since theoretical knowledge reflects the general and essential aspects of a variety of phenomena that make up an abstract object, devoid of clarity and other sensory characteristics, theoretical knowledge can neither be confirmed nor refuted by individual experimental data. Empirical experience can only sow doubt or increase the confidence of the researcher, provide his orientation and direction, provide starting point reference point of cognition.

Theoretical knowledge is characterized by consistency. If individual empirical facts can be accepted or refuted without changing the whole empirical knowledge, then in theoretical knowledge a change in individual elements of knowledge entails a change in the entire system of knowledge.

Theoretical knowledge, reflecting the essence of an abstract object that replaces a certain set of phenomena, gives a deeper picture of cognizable reality than the sensory image of empirical knowledge.

And finally, theoretical knowledge is not associated with the data of empirical experience, but with certain philosophical principles and ideas. The generality, consistency and abstractness of theoretical knowledge bring it closer to philosophical knowledge. At the same time, theoretical knowledge differs from philosophical knowledge by being more specific, which allows it to be guided by philosophical knowledge and be fueled by empirical knowledge.

Theoretical knowledge also requires its own techniques (methods) of cognition, focused on testing hypotheses, substantiating principles, and building a theory. In solving these issues, the following have proven themselves well: idealization and formalization; axiomatic method; hypothetico-deductive method; unity of historical and logical, as well as many others special methods construction of logical and mathematical systems.

1. Idealization

Idealization is a special epistemological relationship where the subject mentally constructs an object, the prototype of which is available in the real world.

The process of idealization is characterized by the introduction into the constructed object of such features that are absent in its real prototype, and the exclusion of properties inherent in this prototype. As a result of these operations, such concepts as “point”, “circle”, “straight line”, “ideal gas”, “absolute black body”, etc. were developed.

These concepts are idealized objects. Having formed an idealized object using the technique of idealization, the subject gets the opportunity to operate with it as with a real existing object. This means that with the help of such an object he can build abstract diagrams of real processes and find ways to penetrate into their essence.

Idealization, as a special method of cognition, is of great importance in theoretical research. But it also has its limits.

Each idealization is created to solve a specific problem. The method of idealized objects without reference to a specific problem will provide a direct path to error. In addition, it is not always possible to ensure a transition from an idealized object to an empirical object.

2. Formalization

This technique consists of constructing abstract models with the help of which real objects are studied.

Formalization provides the ability to operate with signs and formulas. The derivation of some formulas from others according to the rules of logic and mathematics makes it possible to establish theoretical patterns that could not be discovered empirically.

Formalization plays a significant role in the analysis and clarification of scientific concepts. In scientific knowledge, it is sometimes impossible not only to resolve, but even to formulate a problem until the concepts related to it are clarified.

3. Axiomatic method

This is a way of producing new knowledge when it is based on axioms, from which all other statements are derived in a purely logical way, followed by a description of this conclusion.

The main requirement of the axiomatic method is consistency, completeness, and independence of axioms.

In the axiomatic construction of theoretical knowledge, a set of initial positions is first specified that do not require proof. Then, according to certain rules, a system of conclusions is built from them. The set of axioms (postulates) and conclusions derived on their basis forms an axiomatic theory.

Examples of the successful application of the axiomatic method of producing new theoretical knowledge can be Euclid's geometry, classical mechanics Newton.

Newton's "Principles" represent a typical example of an axiomatically constructed theory, where various elements (concepts, laws) are organized into unified system. And their connection within the system is such that some concepts were derived and justified by others. By interpreting the findings (conclusions), the axiomatic system turns into a specific theory real object.

4. Hypothetico-deductive method

This is a special technique for producing new but probable knowledge.

It is based on drawing conclusions from hypotheses whose true meaning remains uncertain.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning first made its appearance in Plato’s dialogues, during which the task of convincing the opponent either to abandon his thesis or to clarify it by drawing consequences from it that contradict the facts was solved.

In scientific knowledge, this method was developed in the 17th-18th centuries. Newton's "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" can be considered as a model of a hypothetico-deductive system, the axioms of which are the basic principles of motion.

The hypothetico-deductive method is able to accurately describe the formal structure of theories. However, it has its own Achilles heel. It does not take into account the genesis of hypotheses and those laws that are considered as axiomatic prerequisites.

5. Thought experiment method

A thought experiment is a system of mental procedures carried out on idealized objects.

The construction of abstract objects as theoretical images of reality and operating with them in order to study the essential characteristics of a real object of knowledge constitute the main task of a thought experiment.

In the process of a thought experiment, idealized images of the object under study are re-arranged and processed in real and unreal situations. Therefore, a thought experiment has practically nothing in common with an experiment in empirical knowledge. Except that both begin with thinking through practically feasible operations.

Before Galileo, there was an opinion that a moving body stops as soon as the force pushing it ceases its action. This position was refuted by a thought experiment with a cart, on the path of which all types of friction were eliminated. The idealized object of the "cart", once given a push, acquires the ability to move forever. In practice, such an experiment cannot be carried out, but the implementation of a thought experiment made it possible to determine the foundations of the mechanics of movement.

IN modern natural science thought experiment has become one of the main means of interpreting new theoretical knowledge.

6. Unity of the historical and logical

Any process of reality breaks down into phenomenon and essence, into its empirical history and the main line of development.

The historical method traces the history of the development of this phenomenon in its entirety and diversity. By systematizing and generalizing this empirical material, it is possible to establish a general historical pattern.

But this same pattern of development can be revealed by turning not to real empirical history, but by examining the main phases of development at the essential level, that is, at the level of abstraction, cleared of historical form. This problem is solved using the logical method.

In the unity of the historical and logical, the historical traces the process of formation and development of an object, and the logical provides a theoretical reproduction of the developing object in all its natural connections and relationships.

The reflection of the historical in the logical is not reduced to a simple reproduction of the time sequence of the historical development of an object. It is associated with consideration of the process of formation of an object and the result of its development.

The logical translates the reflection of historical development into an abstract form, freed from empirical history, from its accidents. The course of abstract thinking, ascending from simple to complex, corresponds to the actual historical process of development of the object under study.

Thus, the unity of the historical and logical strengthens the possibilities of the epistemological relationship in the “subject-object” system, especially in conditions when the object is that social reality, which very often confirms the Heraclitean remark that “into the same river You can’t enter twice.” She is one and already different.

Only the unity of the historical and logical allows us to have a relatively adequate idea of society as an object of social reality.

Only this unity makes it possible to build a theory of a developing object, because the scientific reproduction of the object being studied presupposes the relationship between the analysis of the structure of the object and its genesis.