Quantitative relative and possessive adjectives. Possessive adjectives

MORPHOLOGY. SPELLING

Adjective

According to their lexical meaning and morphological and verbal features, adjectives are divided into three groups: qualitative, relative and possessive.__________________________________________________________

Qualitative adjectives

TO quality belong to adjectives that express direct, immediate characteristics of objects that can manifest themselves to varying degrees: young - younger - the youngest, later - later - the latest.

Qualitative adjectives are called:

a) properties and qualities of objects perceived by sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch: white, loud, fragrant, sweet, hard;

b) spatial and temporal characteristics: wide, distant, ancient, modern;

c) character traits and mental makeup of a person: brave, fast, smart, talented;

d) age signs and physical features of people and animals: old, young, thin, smooth;

ґ) general assessment: good, bad, good and other signs.

Qualitative adjectives have a number of morphological, verbal and lexical features that distinguish them from relative and possessive adjectives.

Qualitative adjectives are capable of forming degrees of comparison ( highest and highest ), which indicate different degrees of manifestation of an object’s attribute: strong - stronger - more dense, thick - thicker - the thickest.

Individual qualitative adjectives can have full and short forms: definite - sure, green - green, small - small.

Many qualitative adjectives can form adverbs in -o, -e (nice, fine, good, decisive) and abstract nouns with suffixes -y, -here-, -in-, -stv-, -ech-, -av- (-yav-) (loneliness, dumbness, depth, squalor, emptiness, blakitnyava).

Qualitative adjectives can be combined with adverbs very, little, very, completely, too, etc.: very slow, a little sad, too wide.

From qualitative adjectives, with the help of suffixes and prefixes, adjectives are formed with the meaning of soundness, coarseness, varying degrees of manifestation of the attribute ( pretty, weak, hefty, cunning, extraordinary, beautiful, big, big). By the way words are composed, complex adjectives are formed with the meaning of a large degree of manifestation of the attribute ( white-white, strong-foreign, cute-cute).

Qualitative adjectives are capable of forming Antonymous pairs (big - small, rich - poor, kind - evil i) and synonymous series (Kind - friendly, affable, affectionate, responsive; brave - courageous, courageous, courageous, fearless).

Relative adjectives

Relative adjectives express the attribute of a subject in relation to:

a) material: oak table - a table made of oak, steel knife - a knife made of steel;

b) faces: student practice - student practice;

c) phenomena: windy weather - weather with wind;

d) abstract concept: philosophical term - a term that is used in philosophy;

ґ) time, place: today's incident - an incident that happened today; urban park - a park in the city;

e) actions: irrigation system - a system for irrigation;

f) measurements: triple payment - payment tripled, and etc.

Relative adjectives have a number of lexical and grammatical features.

The features of relative adjectives are unchanged; they cannot appear in different degrees, as in qualitative adjectives. Therefore, relative adjectives do not have degrees of comparison and do not form forms with the meaning of friendliness and coarseness. They do not combine with adverbs very, a little, too much, quite and so on, do not form antonymous pairs.

All relative adjectives are derivatives. Most often they are formed from nouns ( parquet floor, east wind, flower shop), less often - from adverbs, verbs and numerals ( present day, medical institution, double work).

Relative adjectives are synonymous with the adjective and non-adjective forms of nouns ( potato soup - soup with potatoes, dew drops - dew drops).

Possessive adjectives

Possessives adjectives name a sign that expresses the belonging of an object to a person (less often an animal), and answer questions whose? whose? whose?

For example: Mom's look, Shevchenko's poem, Orisina's outfit.

Possessive adjectives have their own characteristics. They are formed only from the names of persons and animals (rarely from personified objects) with the help of suffixes:

A) -ov (-ev), -yn- (-in-) and their variants in an open syllable -ov-, -ev- (-ev-) from names of persons: Dmitrov's father, Andreev's singing, sister's hand, Sophia's Easter egg, brother's jacket, grandfather's house;

b) -ach- (-yach-), -yn- (-in-) - from the names of animals: hare prey, duck nest.

Some possessive adjectives have a zero suffix (ovchØ, vedmezhØ, ovechØ), which expresses the meaning of the possessive attribute.

Possessive adjectives in the nominative (accusative) case of the masculine singular have a short form: brothers, Oleg, mother, Nikolin, nightingales.

Possessive adjectives are used mainly in oral speech, folk art and works of art. In other styles, they usually act as components of stable compounds: Achilles' heel, Graves' disease, sword of Damocles etc.

The limits between the categories of adjectives are to a certain extent arbitrary. Adjectives can be used both literally and figuratively.

Qualitative adjectives become relative if they lose their inherent characteristics (the ability to express varying degrees of a characteristic) and denote a constant property of an object: black night - ferrous metallurgy, heavy stone - heavy industry.

Relative adjectives, coexisting in a figurative meaning, acquire the qualitative characteristics of adjectives and become qualitative: an iron rim means an iron character, a silver chain means a silver voice.

Possessive adjectives, in turn, become relative and qualitative if they acquire the following characteristics: fox (whose?) hole(possessive) - fox (what?) collar(relative) - fox (what?) look (= tricky glance- qualitative).

1. Adjective- an independent part of speech that denotes a feature of an object and answers the questions: what? whose?

Basic features of an adjective

2. Based on the nature of their lexical meaning, adjectives are divided into three categories:

A) quality;
B) relative;
B) possessive.

A) Qualitative adjectives

Qualitative adjectives denote various qualities of an object:

size: big, large, small;

age: old, young;

color: Red Blue;

weight: light heavy;

appearance: handsome, slender;

personal traits: smart, strict, lazy.

Characteristic grammatical and word-formation features qualitative adjectives are:

the presence of degrees of comparison;

Big bigger Biggest; smart - smarter, smartest.

availability of full and short forms;

Strict is strict, old is old.

ability to combine with adverbs of degree;

Very strict, very big, very smart.

form adverbs with the suffixes -o, -e, -i.

Clever → clever, brilliant → brilliant, brutal → brutal.

However, not all qualitative adjectives have these features:

There are no degrees of comparison for adjectives like barefoot, oblique, blind, lame, dead, married, because they express absolute qualities, that is, qualities that cannot be compared (one cannot be dead to a greater or lesser extent; one cannot be married to a greater or lesser extent);

There is no short form for adjectives like business, friendly, comic, since they are relative in origin;

There are no degrees of comparison for relative or possessive adjectives in a qualitative sense.

Wed: a gold bracelet(relative adjective) - golden character(qualitative meaning); Fox's tail(possessive adjective) - this person has a fox character / a fox smile(qualitative meaning).

They indicate signs not directly, but through their relationship to:

These signs cannot appear to a greater or lesser extent.

Relative adjectives are synonymous with case or prepositional case forms of nouns.

Wed: iron hoop - a hoop made of iron; Volga bank - the bank of the Volga; sports shoes - shoes for sports.

B) Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives denote the characteristics of an object according to its belonging to a person or animal.

Father's jacket, mother's scarf, fox tail, wolf trail.

These adjectives answer the question whose? whose? whose? whose? An object cannot have such characteristics to a greater or lesser extent.

Possessive adjectives have suffixes:

In/-yn: mother, chicken, sister;

Ov/-ev: fathers, grandfathers;

Ий/-j- : bearish - bearish[j] his.

Note!

1) Possessive adjectives with suffixes -in/yn, -ov/-ev, -iy/-j- in the singular form of the nominative case in the masculine gender usually have a zero ending, and in the feminine and neuter genders they have the same endings as nouns.

Wed: bearish□ , bearish , bearish.

2) When adjectives are used, their meaning may change. Thus, relative adjectives can become qualitative.

Wed: lilac branch- relative adjective; lilac dress- qualitative adjective.

Possessive adjectives can become relative and qualitative.

Wed: bear trail(the trail belongs to the bear) - possessive adjective; bear coat(the fur coat is made from the skin of a bear, and does not belong to the bear) - relative adjective; bear walk(gait like a bear) is a qualitative adjective.

Exercise for the topic “3.3.1. The concept of an adjective. Morphological features of adjectives. Classes of adjectives"

Adjectives are divided into three groups according to their meaning and grammatical features: 1) qualitative, 2) relative and 3) possessive.

Qualitative adjectives denote a feature that may be characteristic of an object to a greater or lesser extent (color, size, temperature, taste, sound, strength, internal qualities of a person and living beings in general, etc.); therefore they usually have degrees of comparison, for example: 1) Walls white, and the ceilings are still whiter. 2) The fox is cunning, but the hunter is more cunning. 3) Volga – longest from the rivers of Europe.

Many qualitative adjectives have a short form, for example: snow white, beast cunning road length, as well as special suffixes, for example, introducing a diminutive meaning or expressing a weaker or stronger degree of quality: -enk; -ovat-, -ushch- (-yushch-) - a white handkerchief, a whitish fog, a long rope.

Relative adjectives denote characteristics through relation to an object; most often they indicate material, place, time, etc., for example: leather gloves(leather mittens), Siberian wheat(wheat from Siberia), spring flowers(flowers that come in spring). Relative adjectives have no degrees of comparison and no short form. They have special suffixes, for example: -n-, -an-, -sk-, -ov- (forest, leather, urban, pine).

Qualitative and relative adjectives have the same endings and the same declension system, for example: a beautiful wooden house, a beautiful wooden hut, beautiful wooden huts; a new wooden house, a new wooden hut.

Having the same basic forms with qualitative adjectives, relative adjectives are often used with a qualitative meaning. In combination gold cigarette case adjective gold relative: it refers to material, derived from a noun gold. In combination golden ripe orange adjective gold used in a qualitative sense: it does not indicate the material from which the object is made, but the color of the orange: yellow and shiny. Having received a qualitative meaning, some adjectives acquire the ability to be used (in poetic and colloquial speech) in a short form and in the form of a comparative degree, for example: I) As in autumn, the fruit is ripe gold. (V.B.) 2) Everything stony the steps are getting steeper and steeper. (V.B.)

Note. There is no sharp boundary between qualitative and relative adjectives; very often an adjective includes both relative and qualitative meanings; one of them stands out in a certain context, for example: 1) The mother entered majestically, lilac dress, in lace, with a long string of pearls around the neck. (M. G.) (lilac dress, i.e. a lilac-colored dress is a qualitative adjective); 2) The terraces have grown all around lilac bushes(i.e. lilac bushes is a relative adjective).

This is why qualitative and relative adjectives are sometimes combined into one group of qualitative-relative adjectives.

Possessive adjectives denote a characteristic that indicates that an object belongs to an individual (less often, an animal); they are formed from a noun using suffixes -in (-yn),-s(-s), For example: sister's book, sister's album, father's hat, uncle's house; they have a special declension that combines the endings of nouns and adjectives, for example: sisters A book, I see my sisters at book(noun endings); no sisters Ouch books, talking about sisters Ouch book(adjective endings).

A special group in terms of meaning and endings consists of adjectives in -th(fox) - ya(fox) - ye(fox) - yi(foxes), which are formed from nouns denoting people or animals (fisherman - fisherman, fox - fox). They have mixed endings: both short and full, for example: fox ya fur coat(short ending) fox ye th fur coats(full ending) fox ye flair(short ending) lis his flair(full ending).

These adjectives combine different meanings. They are used in a possessive meaning, for example: human voices, a fishing boat, fox tricks; Moreover, they do not indicate belonging to an individual person or animal, but denote a characteristic characteristic of either a certain group of people or an entire species of animal, for example: bearish den; To whom, if not me, everything fox know the tricks. (Kr.) This meaning distinguishes them from possessive adjectives with suffixes -in, -ov, denoting ownership of a single person (grandfather's sheepskin coat - This is a sheepskin coat that belonged to someone’s grandfather, and not at all the sheepskin coat typical of all old people).

Adjectives are used in -y, -y, -y and in a relative sense, for example: fox collar, bearskin coat, hare hat, sheepskin coat.(Adjectives indicate the material from which things are made.) These same adjectives can also acquire a qualitative meaning, for example: disservice(stupid service that causes damage, trouble instead of providing help), hare soul(cowardly, timid).

Exercise 189. Read and indicate in what combinations relative adjectives are used in a qualitative sense.

Iron chain - iron discipline, steel scissors - steel muscles, wooden face - wooden house, cherry tree - cherry dress, tin soldiers - tin eyes, golden character - golden bracelet, stone heart - stone building.

190. Read and indicate which adjectives are qualitative and which are relative; then indicate the gender, number and case of each adjective. Indicate adjective epithets.

At a provincial stop, endless, hot as desire,

Lunch silence. Straight country road space.

Buntings sing lifelessly, Lilac forest in the background,

In the bushes near the canvas. Gray cloud's tuft,

(B. Pasternak.)

191. Insert the missing epithets: then compare them with those given in M. Gorky’s story “Old Woman Izergil”.

The air was saturated... with the smell of the sea and... with the vapors of the earth, which had been heavily moistened by rain shortly before evening. Even now, fragments of clouds were wandering across the sky, lush, like clouds of smoke, gray and ash-blue, there - sharp, like fragments of rocks, matte black or brown. Between them sparkled tenderly... patches of sky, decorated with specks of stars.

192. Orally make up a phrase with each synonym; indicate the difference in the use of synonyms, then select antonyms for them (where possible).

1) Strong, durable, solid, strong, powerful, irresistible. 2) Fast, nimble, quick, nimble, playful, lively. 3) Fearful, timid, cowardly, indecisive, humble. 4) Thin, skinny, lean, lean, dry, lean. 5) Wonderful, wondrous, wonderful, charming, magnificent, excellent. 6) Red, scarlet, purple, crimson, crimson, crimson.

Famous linguist Yu.S. Stepanov believed that the difference quality And relative meanings of adjectives is one of the most difficult. This division is carried out not even in all languages. In Russian, middle school students already learn to distinguish between these categories of adjectives.

As you probably remember, adjectives answer questions Which? which? which? which?

Which? –small yard, school teacher, bear claw.

Which? –wonderful weather, wooden bench, fox face.

Which? –excellent mood, pearl necklace, horse hoof.

Which? – polite students, regional competitions, bunny ears.

Each row contains examples qualitative, relative and possessive adjectives. How to distinguish them? As has already become clear, simply asking a question about an adjective will not give a result; the category cannot be determined in this way.

Grammar and semantics(meaning of the word). Let's consider each category of adjectives by meaning .

Qualitative adjectives

It’s already clear from the name what these adjectives mean. quality of the item. What kind of quality could this be? Color(lilac, burgundy, bay, black), form(rectangular, square), physical characteristics of living things (fat, healthy, active), temporal and spatial features (slow, deep), general qualities, inherent in an animate object ( angry, funny, happy) and etc.

Also, most (but not all!) qualitative adjectives have a whole range of grammatical features, by which they are quite easy to distinguish from other adjectives. These features may not necessarily be a whole set for each quality adjective, but if you find that at least some attribute is suitable for this adjective - you have a quality adjective. So:

1) Qualitative adjectives denote a feature that can appear to a greater or lesser extent. Hence the ability to form degrees of comparison.

Thin - thinner - thinnest. Interesting – less interesting – the most interesting.

2) Form short forms. Long is long, short is small.

3) Combine with adverbs of measure and degree. Very beautiful, extremely entertaining, completely incomprehensible.

4) From qualitative adjectives you can form adverbs on -o(s) And nouns with abstract suffixes -ost (-is), -izn-, -ev-, -in-, -from- :magnificent - magnificent, clear - clarity, blue - blue, blue - blue, thick - thickness, beautiful - beauty.

5) You can also form words with diminutive or augmentative suffixes: angry - angry, dirty - dirty, green - green, healthy - hefty.

6) Can have antonyms: big - small, white - black, sharp - dull, stale - fresh.

As you can see, there are many signs, but it is absolutely not necessary to use all of them. Remember that some quality adjectives have no degrees of comparison, some abstract nouns do not form, some cannot be combined with adverbs of measure and degree, but they fit according to other criteria.

For example, adjective bay. This adjective does not fit any grammatical criteria, but it means color = quality of item, - that means it quality.

Or adjective beautiful. You can't tell very beautiful, but you can form an adverb Wonderful. Conclusion: adjective quality.

Relative adjectives

Designate a sign through an attitude towards an object. What kind of relationship could this be - signs? Material, from which the item is made ( iron nail - iron nail, stone basement - stone basement, velvet dress - velvet dress); place, time, space (today's scandal is a scandal that happened today; intercity bus – a bus between cities; Moscow region – Moscow region); appointment(parent meeting - meeting for parents, children's store - store for children) and etc.

Signs of this and not temporary, but permanent, That's why Relative adjectives do not have all the features inherent in qualitative adjectives. This means that they do not form degrees of comparison(not to say that this house is wooden, and that one is more wooden), cannot be combined with adverbs of measure and degree(can't say very gold bracelet) etc.

But phrases with relative adjectives can be transform, replacing the adjective. For example, villager - village resident, milk porridge - porridge with milk, plastic cube - plastic cube.

We hope that it has become clearer to you how to distinguish between qualitative and relative adjectives. We’ll talk about possessive adjectives and some pitfalls in the next article.

Good luck in learning Russian!

Still have questions? Don't know the difference between qualitative and relative adjectives?
To get help from a tutor, register.
The first lesson is free!

website, when copying material in full or in part, a link to the source is required.

The modern Russian language has two most important forms of existence: firstly, a literary language and, secondly, diverse territorial dialects. Dialects are gradually dissolving into the literary language, but this process is still far from over. The defining feature of a literary language is its overcoming of non-functional differences between units. Territorial dialects in their mass create enormous variation for all types of linguistic units: the same object is called differently in different dialects, the same syntactic connection is expressed in different ways, the same word receives a different phonetic form, etc. Each dialect collective does not remain closed; its members inevitably become acquainted with other dialects and meet with interlocutors of different dialects, so interdialectal differences constantly become differences within the same speech act (primarily within a dialogue). These differences are not related to the functions of the speech act, to the linguistic purpose of units of communication.

Literary language contrasts this non-functional diversity with unity: it exists for the entire territory of Russian speech. Its interaction with dialects and enrichment due to dialects does not lead to an increase in synonymy within the literary language, but to a functional demarcation and to a complication of the system of linguistic units. Both the literary language and dialects have phonetic, grammatical, and lexical norms. But the structure of the norms of literary and dialect languages ​​is fundamentally different. The dialect in its widest extent allows synonymy of units, i.e. a variety of words to express the same meaning (without functional linguistic differences), a variety of syntactic forms, stylistically identical, for the same statement, sometimes a variety of phonetic “shells” for the same word, etc.

Functions of language: communicative, cognitive (cognitive), cumulative (accumulates, transmits information)

Periodization: 14-16th centuries, language of Russian language 15-17th centuries

Speech culture is a branch of linguistics (linguistics) that studies the speech life of society in a certain era (objective-historical point of view) and establishes, on a scientific basis, the rules for using language as the main means of communication between people, a tool for the formation and expression of thoughts (normative-regulatory point of view) . Comparison of different forms of oral and written speech, disclosure of the norms of the literary language at all levels of the language system (pronunciation, stress, grammatical structures, word usage, structure of phrases and sentences) make it possible not only to identify trends in language development, but also to influence this process and contribute to the real embodiment of literary norms in speech practice, and to pursue a targeted language policy.

3 aspects of speech culture: normative, ethical and communicative.

1) Normative aspect presupposes compliance of speech with the requirements that were formed in a given language community in a certain historical period; it is associated with correctness, exemplary speech, with compliance with literary norms of pronunciation (orthoepic norm), stress (accentological norm), word usage (lexical norm), formation (morphological norm), construction of phrases and sentences (syntactic norm).

2) Communicative aspect is associated with the selection of appropriate and justified linguistic means in a certain communication situation, with the conscious use in speech practice of those words, word forms and phrases that most closely correspond to the communicative situation and meet the goals of communication. This aspect presupposes the speaker’s knowledge of functional varieties of language, as well as the ability to focus on pragmatic conditions of communication.

3) Ethical The aspect of speech culture is determined by knowledge of the rules of speech behavior and the ability to apply them in specific communication situations. This aspect of speech culture is associated with the concept speech etiquette, by which we mean a developed system of rules of speech behavior and speech formulas used in certain communicative situations.

Types of norms: 1. Pronunciation (orthoepic), 2. lexical (violation of the meaning of the word), 3. word-formative, 4. morphological, 5. stylistic, 6. orthographic, 7. Punctuation.

Phoneme(Ancient Greek φώνημα - “sound”) - the minimum unit of the sound structure of a language. The phoneme does not have an independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but serves to distinguish and identify significant units of language (morphemic words):

when replacing one phoneme with another, you get a different word (<д>om -<т>ohm);

changing the order of phonemes will also result in a different word (<сон> - <нос>);

when you remove a phoneme, you will also get another word (i.e.<р>he is the tone).

The term “phoneme” in a close modern sense was introduced by Polish-Russian linguists N.V. Krushevskyi and I. who worked in Kazan. A. Baudouin de Courtenay (after the early death of Krushevsky, Baudouin de Courtenay pointed out his priority).

The phoneme as an abstract unit of language corresponds to the sound of speech as a concrete unit in which the phoneme is materially realized. Strictly speaking, speech sounds are infinitely varied; a sufficiently accurate physical analysis can show that one person never pronounces the same sound in the same way (for example, stressed [á]). However, while all these pronunciation options allow you to correctly recognize and distinguish words, the sound [á] in all its variants will be a realization of the same phoneme<а>.

Phoneme is the object of study of phonology. This concept plays an important role in solving such practical problems as developing alphabets, principles of spelling, etc.

Sound- the minimum, indivisible unit of sounding speech. Considered from the acoustic, articulatory and semantic aspects

SPELLING (from the Greek orthos “correct” and epos “speech”), correct pronunciation (cf. spelling - correct spelling). The word orthoepy is used in two meanings: 1) a system of uniform pronunciation standards in a literary language; and 2) science (section of phonetics), dealing with pronunciation standards, their justification and establishment. Orthoepic norms are also called literary pronunciation norms, since they serve the literary language, i.e. a language spoken and written by cultured people. Literary language unites all Russian speakers; it is needed to overcome linguistic differences between them. And this means that he must have strict norms: not only lexical - norms for the use of words, not only grammatical, but also orthoepic norms. Differences in pronunciation, like other differences in language, interfere with people's communication by shifting their attention from what is being said to how it is being said. Orthoepic rules prevent errors in pronunciation and cut off unacceptable options. Pronunciation options recognized as incorrect, non-literary, may appear under the influence of the phonetics of other language systems - territorial dialects, urban vernacular or closely related languages, mainly Ukrainian. We know that not all Russian speakers have the same pronunciation. In the north of Russia “okayut” and “yakayat”: they pronounce v[o]da, g[o]v[o]rit, n[e]su), in the south - “akayat” and “yakayat” (they say v[a] ]da, n[ya]su), there are other phonetic differences. The orthoepic norm does not always affirm as the only correct one of the pronunciation options, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, it allows variations in pronunciation. Both the pronunciation e[zh"zh"]u, vi[zh"zh"]at with a soft long sound [zh"], and e[zhzh]u, vi[zh]at - with a hard long sound are considered literary and correct; it is correct to [zh"zh"]i, and to [zh]i, and to ra[sh"sh"]ist and ra[sh"h"]ist, and [d]believe and [d"]believe, and p[o]poetry and p[a]poetry. Thus, in contrast to spelling norms, which offer one option and prohibit others, orthoepic norms allow options that are either assessed as equal, or one option is considered desirable and the other acceptable. Orthoepic norms are established by scientists - specialists in the field of phonetics. On what basis do linguists decide which option should be rejected and which should be approved? Orthoepy codifiers weigh the pros and cons of each of the encountered options, taking into account various factors: the prevalence of the pronunciation option, its compliance with the objective laws of language development (i.e. they look at which option is doomed and which has a future). They establish the relative strength of each argument for a pronunciation option. For example, the prevalence of a variant is important, but this is not the strongest argument in its favor: there are also common mistakes. In addition, spelling specialists are in no hurry to approve a new version, adhering to reasonable conservatism: literary pronunciation should not change too quickly, it should be stable, because the literary language connects generations, unites people not only in space, but also in time. Therefore, it is necessary to recommend a traditional, but living norm, even if it was not the most widespread.

Russian graphics. How does our writing convey the sound composition of words? What number of letters is necessary and at the same time sufficient to convey all the subtleties of the language? This number is different in every language. Previously, they thought that it was ideal for one letter to correspond to one sound, and always the same letter. Russian linguist N.F. Yakovlev proved that there should not be more letters in a language than there are basic, independent sounds.

In the Russian language, as we have seen, there are five vowel phonemes and 34 consonants. There are 39 sounds in total. And there are 33 letters in the alphabet. What explains this “shortage”? It turns out that you can “save” the number of letters. Yakovlev calculated the formula for constructing the most economical alphabet in terms of the number of letters. He showed that if a language has pairs of consonants that differ in the same attribute (for example, hardness - softness), then each pair can be designated by the same letter, and an additional attribute can be conveyed using the adjacent, next letter. The Russian alphabet prompted him to this idea. In Russian writing, paired consonants in terms of hardness and softness are conveyed by the same letter: for [ With] And [ With"] - one letter - With , For [ m] And [ m"] - one letter m etc. In total, there are 12 such pairs, differing only in hardness and softness, in the Russian language. This means that instead of 24 letters to convey these consonants, our letter makes do with 12 letters.

How do we distinguish a hard consonant from a soft one? Why don’t we confuse when reading when to say soft and when to say hard? Because the hardness-softness of the consonant is indicated by the next letter - the neighbor on the right. Letter pairs serve as such indicators of the softness-hardness of the preceding consonant A – I , O – e , at – Yu , uh – e , s – And (cf. small-crumpled,they say-chalk, onion-Luke, sir-gray, bald-fox). What if there is no vowel after a consonant? Then the “softening” role is played by the letter soft sign ( b ), which in itself does not denote any sound, but conveys the softness of the preceding consonant. So, it took 12 fewer consonants (12 letters were saved), but it was necessary to introduce a soft sign plus five more letters for vowels so that they denote not only the vowel phoneme, but also the softness of the preceding consonant.

This principle of designating hard-soft consonants is conventionally called syllabic.

The syllabic principle also determines the transmission of phonemes j(“yot”). What is the difference between the two words - wolves And Christmas trees- not literally, but with sounds? This can be seen from the transcription: [wolf" and]. These words are distinguished by sounds that distinguish meaning (phonemes) V And j. Phoneme j has its own letter - th , but this letter is used to convey j only after vowels at the end of a word and before consonants ( lei, watering can), and before the vowels the letter th not used: we do not write apple, southern, Yozhik etc., and we write apple, southern, hedgehog). Thus, in letters I ,Yu , e , e not only vowels + the softness of the preceding consonant are conveyed: “concurrently” they perform one more job - they convey combinations j+ A, j+at, j+ O, j+ uh. In this case, one letter corresponds to a combination of sounds.

The syllabic principle is a striking feature of Russian graphics. It developed spontaneously, in the process of development of the Russian language, and turned out to be very convenient. Not only does it allow you to use fewer letters, but it also saves paper. After all, if there were no double set of letters for vowels, and the softness of consonants would always be indicated by a soft sign (for example, tjotya, loveblue- instead of aunt, I love you), then the words would be much longer in writing.

Until now, we have talked about the use of letters regardless of what words they are part of, when the choice of a letter is determined only by the environment of the transmitted sounds, the sound context. Such rules are called graphics rules, in contrast to spelling rules in the narrow sense of the word. They will be discussed further.

Russian spelling. Now we move on to rules of another type, designed to convey sounds in weak positions in writing, i.e. in those in which two or more phonemes coincide in one sound. To correctly convey such a sound, you must first of all “free” it from the influence of position, and to do this, correlate it with the sound in a strong position (in the same significant part of the word), and then select the desired letter. This is exactly what we did at school when we checked for “questionable sounds.”

The secret of Russian spelling turns out to be simple: changes in sounds that occur under the influence of position are not conveyed in writing. Sounds in weak positions are marked in the same way as if they were in a strong position. This is not a whim, but a principle of our spelling. Our spelling is reasonable, it refuses to convey the accidental, determined by phonetic position.

It turns out that our spelling is not a jumble of many different rules. There is one general rule that is applicable in a variety of cases at first glance: we write letters using the same rule O And w in a word lO woow ka(we check both letters by the position of distinguishing sounds: lO vit, fishingw ek). Using the same rule we write the letter With in place of the sound [ h] at the beginning of a word With quit(examination: With tear off), and a letter d to indicate [ ts] in the word molo d tsa (check: molod ec), and a letter d in place of the “missing” sound position in a word upon request posd But(examination: opozd at).

But it is necessary to check - correlate with a strong position - not only the sounds that have “suffered” from the position, but also those sounds of weak positions that have not changed in their sound: the unstressed vowel needs to be checked A in a word trA va(so as not to write the letter O ), consonant f in a word shkaf (so as not to write a letter at the end of a word V ).

So, in the rules of spelling, the choice of letter for a sound in a weak position is determined by what sound it alternates with in a strong position.

What is this unit that we convey by letter? Now we know that sounds, the change of which is caused by phonetic position, form the same sound unit - a phoneme. We convey it in writing, no matter what sound it is presented in a weak position. We always designate a phoneme by its strong position. Therefore, the main principle of our orthography - the principle of ignoring positional alternations of sounds in writing - is called phonemic, or phonemic. This is a very convenient principle. It works when writing both vowels and consonants, and in all parts of the word - not only in roots, but also in suffixes and endings. It provides a uniform representation of morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of language), and this helps us recognize words easily when reading.

Why do we often find it difficult to decide which letter to write? There are several reasons. First of all, a language does not always have a word in which the sound being tested corresponds to a sound in a strong position. Then you have to remember which letter to write, for example in words O laziness, ToA empty, vitI s, uh tazh, seWith tra, veh de. In addition, in our spelling there are deviations from the main principle. For example, at the root - height/growth- occurs only under stress O, and without accent we write that letter O (RO if, hydrogenO if), That A : RA style, vyrA whelped, manufacturedA become. The same with the root - zor/zar-: writing hA rya, hA rnitsa, although under stress O: hO ri, hO ryka. And at the root - float-, on the contrary, under stress it is written only A – plA wat, without accent - O : swimmer. Such spellings, which contradict the main principle of our spelling, are called conventional or traditional; they, as a rule, reflect the facts of the history of the Russian language.

We examined the basic principles of the rules for literal transmission of the sound composition of words. In addition to these rules, spelling in the broad sense of the word includes the rules of continuous and hyphenated spelling, as well as the rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters. The collection of rules for using punctuation marks is called punctuation. These rules have their own laws and their own scope of action - not the word, but the sentence and the text. The name itself - “punctuation marks” - suggests that our writing takes care of “stammers” in the perception and pronunciation of the text. “Stuttering” when reading about punctuation marks, our eye gives a signal to the voice to make stops - pauses, to highlight certain parts of the sentence with intonation. And this helps the listener to understand what we read out loud. Punctuation separates and highlights certain syntactic units in the text.

Lexicology as a science about the lexical system of the Russian language. Subject, goals and objectives.

Lexis is the science of the vocabulary of a language (Greek vocabulary). All NS words that name objects, phenomena, relationships with other objects form a word composition (vocabulary). Like other levels of language, vocabulary is the subject of a special branch of linguistics called LEXICOLOGY. The subject of study is a word from the perspective of its subject content. Subject of words. Language composition: 1. general l/l - study of general patterns of structure and functioning of different languages; 2. private l/l - it is possible to study words. composition of a particular language, clarification of the patterns of its development and special. features; 3. descriptive l/l - studies the lex system. Units and nouns Simultaneously; 5. historical l/l - considers the formation of the lex. Composition in its historical development; 5. comparative l/l - studies lex. Units of one language compared to lex. Units of another4 6. compare. l/l - compares units of non-kinship. languages. There are also practical and theoretical l/l. This science is closely related to other disciplines about language. To study words. The composition of the RY, it is necessary to delve into history. Also l/l interacts with non-linguistic. sciences: philosophy, logic, psychology, culture of the people. Vocabulary is a system, which is multidimensional. It is a collection of microsystems, i.e. it can be systematized depending on different parameters. The word as a unit of the lexical system of the Russian language. The concept of the word. Functions of the word

The word is the basic unit of language. S. is twofold in nature: 1. external design, 2. it names an object, phenomenon, etc. The lexical meaning of a word is its connection with a particular phenomenon of reality. Nominative form - designation of an object, process, attribute, sacred property, etc. generalizing f-ya - the word means a concept, names not only individual phenomena, but also classes of phenomena that have common characteristics (ex. BREAD). The word also has an evaluative quality: it can express the attitude, assessment, and emotions of the speaker. Lexical semantics. Types of lexical meanings of a word.

One of the main tasks of lexicology is the study of the subject meanings of words and expressions. The study of the meaning of linguistic units is the subject of a special important branch of linguistics - SEMANTICS. Sema is the minimum limiting unit of the content plan. The term “semantics” is also used in a non-terminological meaning. Linguistic semantics, i.e. linguistic, studies both the vocabulary of a language and its grammatical structure. Build and accordingly on the lexicon. semantics and gram. Semantics. The subject of the gram. Semnatics yav-syagram. Forms, combination of words and sentences. Lexical semantics has a subject. Studying the subject (lexical) meaning of words. A lexical system is a language system. A sign in the lexicon has a plan of expression and a plan of content. The design plan is external. Form of words and graphics Shell. The content plan is the meaning of the word. The lexical meaning of the word is determined by a number of linguistic and extralinguistic factors. Under the language factors there are connections, beings between words and participation in the formation of vocabulary. Meanings. Extra-linguistic factors are most important in the formation of vocabulary. The meaning of words is because they determine the connection of the word with real phenomena and the connection of the lexical meaning with the concept as a form of thinking reflecting the phenomena of reality. That. The lexical meaning of a word is, first of all, its content, the basis of the lex. The meaning lies in the concept, i.e. form of thinking, concept characterized by volume and content. The scope of a concept is a class of defined phenomena generalized into a concept. The content of a concept is the totality of the essential features of these phenomena. S.p. there is always a deeper meaning to the word. Because it contains the most detailed characteristics. In the meaning of the word, emotions are included. Components (daughter-daughter), concept of emotions. Comp. Does not include. Lexico-semantic system of the Russian language. Content structure of the word. Classification of lexical meanings by V.V. Vinogradova

1. Direct nominative meanings, directly connected with an object or meaning, characterized by free compatibility of words and corresponding real connections between words and meanings. basic a lot of vocabulary r.ya. A word can have one lex. Meaning, then it is unambiguous, somewhat polysemantic. 2. Meanings, phraseologically connected, arise when the lexical meaning of a word is realized in combination with a definition. The range of words, the compatibility of the condition is limited not by real-subject-lexical connections, but by internal ones. Lexical laws Systems r.ya. (bosom→friend). 3. Syntactically determined meanings, release only in a sentence, when the word is defined. Syntactic. F-yu, most often f-yu predicate (he is our head). 4. constructively conditioned. The meaning requires a definition for its eruption. Grammar Design and definition Lexic. District (get involved in conversation, work).

Polysemy (polysemy) of a word. Expansion and narrowing of lexical meaning.

The original, basic meaning of any word is a direct meaning, but on its basis, through rethinking, other meanings, figurative, can arise, called not directly, not directly, but by capturing features or relationships between parts and the whole or adjacency location, etc. Polysemy is a consequence of the transfer of names from one subject of action to another. Polysemy is used to enhance the impact of constructing synonymous series and is therefore a powerful medium for expressing speech. The meaning of a word can change in the process of development of one language; expansion and contraction of the language is possible. Narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word, called a generic concept or the name of a whole, becomes the name of a specific concept or part. Etc. joke, duet. 7. Direct and figurative meaning of words. Types of figurative meanings (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc.).

Such transfers occur on the basis of: 1. by similarity (shape, color, quality, internal St. you, etc.) - metaphor (river branch, strong friendship, garden ring). 2. by contiguity (temporal, spatial, logical) - metonymy - lyric tenor, famous tenor. 3. by function - personification - the sun laughs. 4. deliberate exaggeration - hyperbole - to scare you to death. 5. deliberate reduction - boy-thumb. 6. irony - a stylistic figure of mockery or deceit through allegory, when a word takes on a meaning in context that is opposite to the original or denies it. The form is gender, and the content is negative, in oral speech it is conveyed by intonation.

Correlation of the concepts of polysemy and homonymy.

Polysemy is the presence of more than 1 meaning in a language unit. It happens: lexical (the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena) and grammatical (the ability of the first grammatical form to convey different meanings). Etc. chickens are counted in the fall (the personal verb has a generalized personal meaning). Multi-meaning differs in that with it there is a certain connection between the meaning of a multi-meaning word and this gives grounds to consider them the meanings of one word and distinguish them from the meaning of words - homonyms. Homonymy is the sound coincidence of different linguistic units, knowing cat = x without being connected with each other. Lexical homonyms are identical-sounding words that do not have a common meaning (sem) and are not associatively connected. The reasons for the appearance of homonyms are varied: - historically - sound changes (bow after the reforms of the 19th century), borrowing (marriage from German defect, from Russian Matrimony), - onomatopoeia (sh9ip, rose snakes), break in the original. Unified semantics of multivalued meanings. Words (light). Homonyms can be complete or incomplete. Full homonyms are the same in all grams. Forms. Incomplete coincide in a number of grams. Form. Onion, I'll make it. Types of homonyms in the lexical paradigmatics of the Russian language.

Homonyms in which only individual phrases coincide. Forms, called Homoforms, in contrast to complete homonyms, are words of both one and the other. Forms. (mouth, verse - verb, noun). 2. Homographs - words that are identical in spelling, but different in meaning (flour, mine, road). 3. homophones - words that are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling (company-campaign, fruit-raft, Serb-sickle). Paronymy and its connection with homonymy.

In connection with homonymy, often consider. The phenomenon of parnomy is a partial sound similarity of words with their partial or complete semantic difference. (escavator-escalator, addressee-addressee). The most ancient stylistic device, paronomasia, is based on the use of parnomimes. (I would be glad to serve, it’s sickening to be awarded).

Types of synonyms in Russian.

1. conceptual (semantic, iliographic) characterized by some differences in shades of meaning. Silent - inaudible. 2. Stilichtiseski single out one concept, but it is used in different styles (soldier, warrior, warrior). 3. semantic-stylistic. In addition, synonyms have different characteristics: according to the degree of modernity, according to the sphere of use (1 word - nationwide, 2 - limited), according to the degree of compatibility (brown-brown), according to internal. Form (limitless, boundless, boundless), according to different controls (start work/get to work)). Lexical synonyms, their varieties. Reasons for the appearance of synonyms.

Synonyms can be popular and contextual. O. s. - these are words that have a similar meaning in isolated use, i.e. out of context. Contextual - or individual - author's, found only in a certain context. Synonyms help enrich speech, eliminate monotony, enhance expression, and can be used to construct an antithesis. Gradation - increasing and decreasing, arranges synonyms as the quality or intensity of the action increases. Descending - from wider to smaller. Reason: the appearance of synonyms - a change in the meaning of the word, or borrowing (linguistics-linguistics).

Antonymy as the most important semantic category of language.

One of the most basic and ancient semantic categories of the language. The essence of antonymy is the correlative opposition of lexical units. Antonyms are words of the 1st part of speech that have the opposite meaning. Antonyms are united by common semes (semes of expression, emotions, time). Antonyms can form pairs (love-hate), or build microsystems of 3 or more Types of antonymic oppositions in the Russian language. Classification of antonyms from the point of view of structure. Semantic classification of antonyms. Antonyms as a means of creating expressiveness.

STYLISTIC FIGURES, special figures of speech fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of an utterance (for example, anaphora, epiphora, simploca, ellipse, amplification, antithesis, oxymoron, parcellation, parallelism, gradation, inversion, non-union, polyunion, chiasmus, silence and etc.). Sometimes tropes, as well as unusual phrases and figures of speech that go beyond the linguistic norm, are classified as stylistic figures. ANTITHESIS - (from Greek antithesis - opposition) - opposition of characters, circumstances, images, compositional elements, creating the effect of sharp contrast. Broader: comparison of opposing concepts, states, any elements of a literary work. Meet A.: character (in character organization), plot (in plot construction), compositional; to express A. often used antonyms- words with opposite meanings (“Red and Black”, “War and Peace”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Thick and Thin”, etc.). OXYMORON (oxymoron) (Greek oxymoron, lit. - witty-stupid), stylistic figure, combination of words with opposite meanings (“living corpse” - L.N. Tolstoy; “heat of cold numbers” - A.A. Blok).

General principles of classification of vocabulary of the Russian language. Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its origin. Original Russian vocabulary, its historical layers.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has a long and complex history of its formation, development and enrichment. In the vocabulary of the modern Russian language from its point of view; historical formation can be distinguished two main layers: 1) words that have a native Russian character, and 2) borrowed words.

Original Russian vocabulary forms the main body of vocabulary of the Russian language, defining its national specificity. The original Russian vocabulary includes all words generated by the language itself at any stage of its development. The structure of native Russian vocabulary includes: a) words of common Slavic origin; b) Old Russian vocabulary; c) actual Russian words. 1. Common Slavic vocabulary is the ancient vocabulary core of the Russian language, formed during the period of the existence of pan-Slavic linguistic unity, i.e. common Slavic language, approximately until the VI-VII centuries. AD The common Slavic vocabulary is dominated by nouns, since their nominative function has a particularly clear expression. Among these nouns, several thematic groups stand out: names of natural phenomena: storm, wind, whirlwind; names of time concepts: morning day Evening; names of topographic objects: shore, swamp, land; plant names: birch, beech, elm; names of animals and birds: ram, bull, sparrow; names of household items, tools, food products: log, bucket, chisel, knife, grain, flour, cheese; names of the anatomical parts of the body that make up its structure: thigh, head names of abstract concepts of spiritual and moral content: trouble, faith, guilt. The common Slavic vocabulary also includes a number of adjectives that have a predominantly qualitative meaning, which is also relevant for the current state of the lexical system of the Russian language. As part of these adjectives, the following thematic groups are distinguished: color names: white, blue; names of external quality characteristics: barefoot, fast, shabby, smooth; names of internal quality characteristics: important, proud, kind, evil, wise In the vocabulary of the modern Russian language one can also find a significant number of verbs of common Slavic origin. They are distributed into several thematic groups: verbs of labor activity: forge, wash, whip; verbs of movement and movement in space: wander, carry; verbs of thought, speech, feeling: mutter, fear, write; verbs of other subjects: fight, peck, take revenge, drink. Some numerals, pronouns, primitive adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions have a common Slavic origin: one, two, ten, one hundred; I you he; who what; where, then, there; without, about, at, for; but, yes, and, whether etc. 2. Old Russian vocabulary was formed during the period of the existence of the Old Russian language (VII-XIII centuries). The vocabulary of the Old Russian language was enriched mainly due to internal word-formation resources, which made it possible to create new lexical units to denote new concepts that emerged as a result of the social, economic, cultural and moral development of the Russian people. New words that arose in the Old Russian language were mainly associated with the most relevant areas of everyday life and everyday life and are included in the same thematic groups that we mentioned when describing common Slavic vocabulary. As examples of Old Russian vocabulary that has retained its functions in modern Russian, the following lexical units can be cited (grouping by parts of speech and by topic is not given): beam, pamper, squirrel, ham, introduce, talker, pea etc. 3. Actually Russian vocabulary- this is an extensive, constantly expanding layer of words that arose and are emerging on an original Russian basis within the chronological framework of the existence of the Russian language, starting around the 14th century. and to the present time. Here are examples of Russian vocabulary proper, divided by parts of speech: nouns: butterfly, ice, blade, child; adjectives: vigilant, sullen, pistachio; Verbs: to strike, to thunder; adverbs: locked up, almost completely. From the above examples it is clear that Russian words themselves in almost all cases have a derivative base with a greater or lesser number of affixes and are the result of different methods of word formation.

Borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language.

At the stage of formation and development of Old Russian vocabulary, a significant number of words and morphemes of Old Church Slavic origin penetrated into the Russian language. Contacts of the Old Russian language with the Old Church Slavonic language represent a significant phenomenon in the history of cultural life in Russia. In the era of the 21st century. These contacts became especially close, which was facilitated by the spread of Christianity in Rus' and the popularity of ancient Bulgarian culture. Ancient Bulgarian religious ritual and cultural traditions penetrated the Russian land under the influence of numerous monuments of Old Slavonic writing, represented initially by liturgical books, and then by all kinds of secular sources. Through these monuments, the Old Church Slavonic language is first established as the official language of the Orthodox Church, and then gradually penetrates into various spheres of secular life, comes into contact with the Old Russian spoken language and thus has a significant influence on all its styles and genres. One of the results of this influence is how It has already been noted that the Old Russian language assimilated a large number of Old Church Slavonic words, a significant part of which, having undergone various transformations, is preserved in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, forming in it a special lexical layer of Old Church Slavonicisms. Many Old Slavonicisms entered the active stock, became commonly used and are now perceived as proper Russian words: average, power, different, work, equal, sweet, enemy, before etc. Being included in the Russian vocabulary, Old Church Slavonicisms were influenced by the semantic laws of the Russian language and were gradually distributed into three semantic groups.

Borrowings from living Slavic languages.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages. Signs of borrowed words in the Russian language (characteristic features of Greekisms, Latinisms, etc.). Late borrowings in the Russian language. Ways of mastering borrowed words in the Russian language. Active and passive vocabulary. The concept of the lexical core and periphery.

The Russian language dictionary is constantly changing and improving in the process of its historical development. Changes in vocabulary are directly related to human production activity, to the economic, social, and political development of society. The vocabulary reflects all processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects and phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that name them go out of use or change their meaning. Taking all this into account, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: an active dictionary and a passive dictionary.

The active vocabulary includes those everyday words whose meaning is clear to all speakers of a given language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.

The passive stock of words includes those that either have a pronounced connotation of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet become widely known and are also not in everyday use.

Passive words are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

Outdated vocabulary: historicisms and archaisms.

Outdated words

One group of obsolete words consists of those that have already completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that meant: boyar, veche, streltsy, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city duma), mayor, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms.

Another group of obsolete words consists of archaisms, i.e. words that, in the process of language development, were replaced by synonyms, which are other names for the same concept. This group includes, for example, the words barber - hairdresser; this - this; more - because; gostba - trade; eyelids - eyelids; piit - poet; komon - horse; Lanita - cheeks; instigate - incite; bed - bed, etc.

Both of these outdated words are used in the language of fiction as a means of recreating a certain historical era (for example, in the novels “Razin Stepan” by A. Chapygin, “Peter I” by A.N. Tolstoy, “Emelyan Pugachev” by V.Ya. Shishkov, “Ivan the Terrible” by V. Kostylev, “Loyal Sons of Russia” by L. Nikulin, “I came to give you freedom” by V. Shukshin, “Memory” by V. Chivilikhin and many others). They can be a means of giving speech a comic or ironic tone. Archaisms are part of traditional poetic sublime vocabulary (for example, the words: breg, cheeks, youth, this, eyes, this, etc.). The use of historicisms and archaisms in special scientific-historical literature is already devoid of a special stylistic specification, since it allows one to lexically accurately characterize the era being described.

Neologisms and occasionalisms in the Russian language.

Neologisms

New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from rp. neos - new + logos - word). A neologism that has arisen together with a new object, thing, or concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used and accessible to the public, it ceases to be a neologism. For example, the words Soviet, collectivization, collective farm, link, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist, pioneer, Michurinets, metro builder, Tselinnik, Lunnik, cosmonaut and many others have gone this way. Over time, many of these words also become obsolete and become passive in the language.

Consequently, due to the continuous historical development of the lexical composition of the language, many words, even in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms with an abstract meaning (for example, fiction, liberty, reality, citizenship, humanism - humanity, idea, communism - communist, social, equality, socialism - socialist, etc.), in modern language they are part of the active vocabulary stock.

And some words, having arisen relatively recently (tax in kind, surplus appropriation, nepman, komchvanstvo, party maximum, party minimum, people's commissar, etc.), have managed to become obsolete.

In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author are highlighted. Some of them entered the literary language, for example: drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (in Lomonosov); industry, love, absent-mindedness, touching (in Karamzin); fade away (in Dostoevsky), etc. Others remain part of the so-called occasional authorial formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example: mandolin, unsmile, sickle, hammer, chamberlenye and many others by Mayakovsky; stormed, made a mess with B. Pasternak; mokhnatinki, Ant Country and Muravskaya Country by A. Tvardovsky; to magic, cellophaneized, etc. from A. Voznesensky; side-bodied, unfamiliarity, overworld, inflexible and others by E. Yevtushenko. A.I. has a lot of non-usual words. Solzhenitsyn, especially among the adverbs: he turned around ready, rushed forward, grinned broadly.

Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its use. The vocabulary is universal.

Popular vocabulary, which forms the vocabulary basis of the modern Russian literary language, are opposed to groups of words that are known only to a limited circle of people united by a territorial dialect or social community. Set of lexical units, which constitute a specific affiliation of a particular territorial dialect and are common in the speech of only the local population, form dialect vocabulary .Dialectal vocabulary remains outside the boundaries of the literary language and, as already noted, finds application only in the oral speech of speakers of a particular territorial dialect. In addition, dialect vocabulary can be used by writers in works of art for the speech characteristics of characters or general stylization of speech. However, excessive “saturation” of the vocabulary material of a work with dialect vocabulary leads to a decrease in artistry and makes it difficult to understand. Many dialect words penetrate into the literary language and are gradually consolidated in it and even lose their dialect specificity. Such words are perceived by speakers as words of a literary language with one or another shade of emotionality and expressiveness. This is exactly how in the 19th century. The following words entered the literary language and gradually lost their dialect specificity: hunger strike, kids, arrogant, confusion, boring etc.

Many colloquial words should be distinguished from dialect vocabulary. For example, colloquial (not dialectal) words are: blond, plump, thrashing, grinding, flickering, foisting, poor fellow, wimp, muzzle, yell, deceive, be stunned, horde, hard worker, canteen, hard worker, be rude, wimpy, hang around etc. Vocabulary of limited use: dialect, professional, slang and argot.

Argo. Jargon. Slang. The first two terms are French in origin (French argot, jargon), the third is English (English slang). All three terms are often used interchangeably. However, it is advisable to distinguish between the concepts hidden behind these names: argot is, in contrast to jargon, a secret language to one degree or another, created specifically to make the speech of a given social group incomprehensible to outsiders. Therefore, it is preferable to use the phrases “thieves’ slang”, “argo of the ofeni” - traveling merchants in Russia in the 19th century, rather than “thieves’ jargon”, “ofeni’s jargon”. The term "slang" is more characteristic of the Western linguistic tradition. Content-wise, it is close to what is denoted by the term “jargon”. Argo, jargon, slang are types of sociolect. The specificity of each of these linguistic entities may be due to the professional isolation of certain groups or their social isolation from the rest of society. Computer jargon (slang) is an example of professionally limited language formations, thieves' slang, student slang are examples of socially limited subcodes. Sometimes a group may be isolated both professionally and socially; the speech of such a group has the properties of both professional and social jargon. An example is soldier's jargon, since military affairs is a profession, and people engaged in this profession live their own lives, quite isolated from the rest of society. Dialects are a type of language that spreads over a limited territory. They have their own vocabulary. The neuter gender is mostly absent. In Russian language section three groups of dialects: Northern Great Russian, Middle Great Russian, Southern Great Russian. DIALECTISM (from dialect), linguistic (phonetic, grammatical, etc.) features inherent in dialect speech, interspersed into the literary language. Sometimes used as a stylistic device in works of art.

Language styles and stylistic differentiation of vocabulary. Stylistically neutral (inter-style) vocabulary. Vocabulary of book (written) speech.

The vocabulary of written speech includes words that are used primarily in written varieties of literary language: in scientific articles, textbooks, in official documents - and are not used in everyday speech. Vocabulary Fiction, based on interstyle words, can include words of both oral and written speech. There are three types of written vocabulary: book vocabulary, high vocabulary, official vocabulary. Book vocabulary. Book words used. in all written varieties of language (in journalism, in scientific literature, in official documents, business papers), giving speech a “bookish” sound. The bookishness of borrowed words denoting abstract concepts is most noticeable: alternative, cataclysm, maxim, effective, prerogative. The “bookishness” of many words originally Russian and borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language is not so strongly felt: truly, insofar as, extremely, endurance, collection. Vocabulary with a vaguely bookish flavor is sometimes called moderately bookish. Colloquial and everyday vocabulary (vocabulary of oral speech).

The vocabulary of oral speech includes words characteristic of casual conversation. These words, as a rule, are not used in written styles: in scientific and technical literature, in textbooks, in official documents and business papers. Not all words used in conversation belong to the vocabulary of oral speech. The basis of the vocabulary of casual conversation is neutral vocabulary. The vocabulary of oral speech is heterogeneous. All of it is “lower” than neutral vocabulary, but depending on the “degree of reduction”, on the degree of literature, this vocabulary is divided into two large groups - colloquial and vernacular vocabulary. Colloquial vocabulary: this includes words that give speech a touch of informality, ease, but not rude. In terms of belonging to different parts of speech, colloquial vocabulary is diverse: big guy, witty, boast, new, careless, hack, yeah, at random etc. A considerable part of colloquial words expresses the attitude towards the named object, action, property, sign and their emotional assessment: grandma, grandpa, antediluvian, imagine, dodge, fidget, scribble. But not all spoken words can express an emotional assessment. For example: smoke break, instantly, renewed, in an embrace, usherette, about to go home. Colloquial words are close to interstyle vocabulary. However, they are still different from her. This is easiest to detect if you “place” them in an official context, where they appear foreign. In explanatory dictionaries, colloquial words are given with the mark “colloquial.”, to which a mark is often added, indicating the emotional assessment expressed by the word - “joking,” “ironic.” An important feature of colloquial vocabulary is the fact that it is included in the number of literary expressions. Colloquial phenomena. words that go beyond the literary norm. 1). Rough and crudely expressive words: hang around, squish, belly, jew's harp, mug, snout, zenki, paw, rudely, kill. 2). Other words are not rude, figurative, do not express evaluation, they are perceived as incorrect from the point of view of the literary norm, as evidence of insufficient literacy of the one who uses them. They are called vernacular or vernacular. These include: without fail, in the heat of the moment, mama, to mischief, to blind, to wait. Since vernacular words themselves do not have figurativeness and do not contain evaluation, they represent the exact semantic equivalent of the corresponding literary words: always-always, theirs-them, sew-sew, frighten-frighten.

Phraseologisms and their classification in the Russian language.

Phraseology is a branch of science about the Russian language that studies the structural and semantic-stylistic features of stable phrases, their types and functioning in speech. Stable phrases, in contrast to free phrases, are usually called phraseological units, phraseological phrases, phraseological units or simply phraseological units. In semantic-functional terms, phraseological units are in most cases correlative with words, since, like words, they perform a nominative function and act as its members in the structure of a sentence. Phraseologisms often contain units that perform a communicative function, i.e. having a sentence structure and acting as a unit of communication, these phraseological units are not created in the process of communication, but are reproduced as ready-made integral units; compare: Do you like to ride- love to carry sleighs too.- If you're afraid of wolves, don't go into the forest(ate.). An important feature inherent in any phraseological unit is the invariability of the structural composition of the phraseological unit, the constant presence in it of the same word forms, which, moreover, in most cases have a forever fixed arrangement order. For example: with all my heart- “with great difficulty, barely, somehow”: Having spent five years in the district school, Foma, with half a sin, graduated from four classes(M.G.). In other words, phraseological units are not formed in the process of speech, as happens with free phrases, but are retrieved from memory in finished form. In this regard, phraseological units come closer to words, which are also reproduced in speech as ready-made units.

A significant number of phraseological units are characterized by “impenetrability of structure”, i.e. the impossibility of including any word between the components of a phraseological unit. Thus, based on the described criteria, we can conclude that a phraseological phrase is a stable phrase reproduced in ready-made form, performing a nominative or communicative function and having a holistic, constant meaning, constant composition and structure. In addition, many phraseological units are characterized by metaphor and impenetrable structure. Systematicity of phraseological units: grammatical categories and stylistic groups of phraseological units.

Style is a type of literary language that is traditionally assigned in society to one of the spheres of life. Each variety has certain linguistic characteristics (primarily vocabulary and grammar) and is contrasted with other similar varieties of literary language, which correlate with other spheres of life and have their own linguistic characteristics.

Style is associated with the state of society; it is historically changeable. In Lomonosov's time it was possible to talk only about styles of book speech; At the same time, three styles were distinguished: high, medium and low. The literary language is changing, and now there are four styles in the language: three bookish (scientific, official business, journalistic) and a colloquial style.

We can only talk about the relative isolation of literary language styles. Most of the language means in each style are neutral, inter-style. However, the core of each style is formed by its inherent linguistic means with the corresponding stylistic coloring and uniform norms of use.

Stylistic devices are used consciously by speakers or writers. The style of a speech work is related to its content, purpose, and the relationship between the speaker (writer) and the listener (reader).

Consequently, style is a type of literary language that has historically developed at a certain time in a particular society, which is a relatively closed system of linguistic means that are constantly and consciously used in various spheres of life.

Each functional style has its own characteristics of using a general literary norm; it can exist both in written and oral form. Each style includes works of different genres that have their own characteristics.

Most often, styles are compared on the basis of their inherent word usage, since it is in word usage that the difference between them is most clearly manifested. However, grammatical characteristics are also important here.

Words and structures should be selected in accordance with the chosen style, especially in writing. The use of linguistic means of different styles within the same text leads to the appearance of stylistic errors. Often there are errors associated with the inappropriate use of clericalism, as well as the abuse of special terms in non-scientific texts and the use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary in book texts.

Functional styles.

1. Colloquial and everyday style.

2. Scientific style.

3. Official business style.

4. Artistic style.

5. Newspaper and journalistic style.

MORPHEMICS is a branch of linguistics that studies the types and structures of morphemes, their relationships to each other and to the word as a whole.

MORPHEME is the minimum indivisible significant part of a word, i.e. a phonetic form has a specific meaning assigned to it.

In the Russian language there are words mutable and unchangeable. The former consist of a stem (i.e., a part of a word that contains lexical meaning) and an ending (i.e., a part of a word that indicates the relationship of a given word with other words in a sentence), the latter - only a stem.

The base must include hoden (the main part of the word, which is common to all related words), and there may also be pshiyaaki (morphemes that appear before the root) and suffixes (morphemes that appear after the root before the ending, if any). All significant parts of a word, except the root, are called affixes.

By function, affixes are divided into:

Derivational or inflectional (serve to form new words): anti-democratic (derivational prefix), courage (derivational suffix), - formative or inflectional (serve to form word forms): cats (ending), read (formative prefix), faster (formative suffix ).

Word formation- the formation of new words (derivatives) from single-root words and the resulting formal-semantic relationship between the derivative and its generating word. For example: professor → professorial, work → worker.

_Affixal.

Prefixes and suffixes are most often used. Accordingly, the models will be called: prefixal, suffixal or prefix-suffix(depending on the method of education). For example: chew -> chew -> chewing gum.

semi-affixal.

The most commonly used semi-affixes are, for example: bluish-blue, etc., also in English: cyber-boy.

Composition. Connection of two roots.

Types of word formation:

through a connecting vowel (o, e):

• root+root = locomotive;

  root + similar word = agriculture;

  root+word = logging.

without a connecting vowel:

• a combination of truncated words or truncated roots - collective farm;

  truncated root + word with a “taken out” middle: es(kadrenny) min(onos)ets = destroyer, people(one) com(issari)at = People's Commissariat;

  combination of truncated root + word: dance floor = dance floor, party + ticket = party card.

abbreviation: CIS, NATO.

reduction(end truncation): umbrella=umbrella; doctor=doc; teacher=teacher

conversion- transition from one part of speech to another without changing the word. In the Russian language, the phenomenon is limited exclusively to the substantivization of adjectives.

Substantivization is the transition of an adjective into a noun: ice cream, sick (as a noun), day off (“I have a day off today.” (noun)).

Telescoping, contamination.

A method of word formation in which a word is formed from the first part of one word and the last part of the second. For example, motel - motor + hotel - hotel for motorists

Noun. Lexical-semantic or lexical-grammatical categories of nouns.

Exist. - a part of speech that combines words with the grammatical meaning of objectivity (it is fashionable to call it a substantive), cat. expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness/inanimateness. In a sentence, it plays the role of subject and object of action (subject and object; there can be predicative, attribute, and circumstantial). Able to be defined by adjectives and participles. Depending on the lexicon - semantic. and grammatical signs are divided into lexical - grammatical ranks: 1) Common and proper nouns Naritsat. - serve as names of homogeneous objects, actions or states ( mother, island, bird, grief, sleep) Own - are the names of individual objects, isolated from a number of homogeneous ones: first and last names, geographical. names, names of animals, etc. and so on. ( Yakovina Olga Anatolyevna, Khimki, Ukraine, Dnieper, “Saga of the Nibelungs”, Renaissance, Victory Day, Vel. Fatherland war,” “If he has already invited you to “MORYAK,” Marina continued, “then the two of you will make a wonderful newspaper” (Paustovsky). Stop trembling, textbook quote) Their formal - grammatical. A special feature is the absence of a plural form. number (in this case the value changes). 2) Specific and non-specific Concr. - are used to name purely concrete objects and purely concrete phenomena of reality, taken separately and therefore subject to counting, that is, combined with quantities. num., and are determined by ordinal words like “first”, “seventh, seventh, answer...”, “so, thirteenth, who should the devil love?” In the vast majority of cases, they have forms of both numbers, with the exception of tantumov (who hasn’t moved in yet - re-read the previous paragraph). Unspecified - all the rest, and more specifically (pardon the pun): a) abstract (abstract) - courage, struggle, delirium. They do not form plural forms. numbers (plural - another meaning) and do not correlate with quantities. number b) collective - naming a collection of objects that are homogeneous in some respect, etc., presented as a single whole ( youth, fools, proletariat). They are not determined by quantity. numbers, but have special word formations. suffixes -v(a), -stv(o), -estv(o), -ur(a), -at. In some cases, the suffix can impart an emotional connotation ( Officerism, soldierhood are negative, and baherism is simply indecent!) c) material - they call types of products, agricultural crops, materials, medicines, food and other waste (though that’s what the textbook says about waste!), in short, a mass homogeneous in composition, a substance that is not divisible into individual elements (rye, wine and hashish, sawdust, iron). They have the form of only one number and are not combined with quantities. number, but how words denoting the substance being measured can be combined with words of measure - kg, liter, gram, cube, boat...3) Animated and inanimate Shower - denote primarily living beings (people and animals), not - objects and phenomena of reality that are not considered living nature<== лексически. Грамматически, категория од./неод. проявляется при склонении существительных. Форма вин. пад. одуш. совпадает с формой род. пад. Форма вин. пад. неод. - с формой именит. пад. По грамматич. признакам одуш. противоестественно признаются мертвецы, покойники, утопленники, удавленники, умершие, мертвые, всякие там дамы, ферзи, тузы и кони, куклы со всеми их разновидностями от петрушки до марионетки, все скопом мифологические твари и герои. А по поводу некоторых слов так и не определились маститые филологи: микробы или микробов, вируса или вирус и т.п.

Number category- lexical - grammatical inflectional category, which finds its expression in the opposition of correlative forms of units. number and plural number, that is, the opposition of one object or phenomenon to many of the same objects or phenomena.

Unit number and plural number differ in grammatical means of expression:

1) the presence of different endings - book - books, house - houses

2) the presence of an ending in combination with a change in the place of stress - wall - walls, window - windows

3) truncation, extension or alternation of suffixes in the stem - earthling - earthlings, leaf - leaves.

4) using suppletive forms - person - people, child - children

Plural form number can be formed from the shape of the unit. number

a) using the suffix ( ear - ear-j-a) b) replacing the suffix ( kitten - kittens) c) changing the place of stress ( arm - arms, leg - legs) d) alternating sounds ( friend - friends) e) suppletive way ( person people)

Genus category - ability noun (in singular) dictate grammatical. associated defining words with certain forms ( big house, big beast). This category is inherent in all beings, except for those that are temporarily or for life in the plural. number Noun different genders differ completely or partially in the declension paradigm ( house to house, lady to lady, village to village), word-formation structure ( brother - brothers, teacher - teacher), some lexical and semantic features. At noun. inanimate gender is a pure formality among souls. but not at all, since it is connected with the real gender of the object. Gender Masculine is a type of grammatical. kind of noun names, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and in souls. noun - husband beings belong to her. floor. Let's do without examples. It includes nouns that have in them. pad. units number zero inflection after a hard or soft consonant stem (+ proud exception - the word path) Gender Feminine - the same, but in noun. shower - the names of the creatures belong to it... You guessed correctly, everyone gets a piece of candy! Sorry, it's going crazy. This includes all beings that have in them. pad. units number graduation -and I noun with a base on a soft consonant, in gender. pad. having inflection -And.

Gender Middle - similar, only the declension paradigm partially coincides with husband. r., and in general they are mostly inanimate. These include nouns that have in them. pad. units number inflection -o/ -e, indeclinable nouns. on -me, inclined inanimate noun

In plural number generic differences are preserved only in names, gens. and wine falls, in the rest it happens unification. However, in the first three they are also not always different. Little is said about stylistic use: poets traditionally use the opposition of two objects of different kinds, under which “he” and “she” are perceived, as the textbook says, “tragically separated or feeling the happiness of shared love.” . At the same time, sometimes the category. kind serves at the same time as a means of creating the entire figurative basis of the lyrical narrative. Well, there’s a mountain ash there, with an oak tree across the road, a Giraffe with an Antelope, a golden cloud on the chest of the Cliff - the Giant, in short, come up with more examples where they feel something - and it’ll fail. This very category can also be used in texts of a humorous, playful nature. (“ I managed to take a coffee pot and a fork for a walk in the grove” A.K. Tolstoy)

Declension of nouns: definition, classification of nouns, types of declension in school and university grammar. Question about indeclinable nouns (nouns of zero declension). Declension of nouns Pluralia tantum.

A creature that has only one form. number, called singularia tantum. There are all sorts of them:

Real ( aspirin, iron, cereal, cellophane)

Collective ( foliage, students, raw materials)

Distracted ( courage, fun, music)

Own ( Don, Moscow, Khlestakov, Griboedov, “War and Peace””)

What's happened pluralia tantum you, as I think, have already guessed. They are also like unslaughtered chickens:

Real ( yeast, cream, cabbage soup)

Collective ( money, jungle, cereal)

Distracted ( running, negotiations, funeral, frost, twilight)

Own ( Alps, Khimki, Sparrow Hills)

Specific creatures denoting objects consisting of several parts or paired objects ( scissors, pants, sled)

Names of some games ( tag, hide and seek, checkers)

Unit number used as a plural. number -

1.) When naming creatures. not just one, but a whole bunch of all sorts of things that nevertheless have common characteristic properties, that is, they are a single class. (It is human nature to make mistakes. A journalist must be physically developed. A dog is a man's friend) - generalized meaning.

2.) At collective meaning being, replacing a set of objects presented as a single whole ( There was a poppy growing in the field. Mass reader.)

3). If the same action is performed by each individual from a whole group of persons - distributive (distributive) meaning (The children wrote with a pencil. Those gathered raised their heads.)

Plural number in unit value number - is characteristic of the colloquial style of speech and is associated with a change in the meaning of these words.

1) Distracted creatures. - the lexical meaning is specified, for example, words denoting a state indicate facts of manifestation of this state ( sadness - quench my sorrows, joy - the first joys)

2) Material beings. when used figuratively, they denote varieties and types of substances ( vegetable fats, vegetable oils), products made from it ( window glass), the space occupied by this substance ( Baltic waters, Troekurov lands, Arctic ice)

3) Proper names become common nouns, denoting the type of people ( Chichikovs, Khlestakovs), or denote members of the same family ( Skrynnikov family)

All sorts of authorial, that is, occasional intrigues with a change in numbers and, accordingly, the meanings of words are possible. A couple of examples - “Rostov jasmines are blooming” by Vinogradsky (not that one), “Running of fiery trunks” by Pasternak (that one).

Animation-inanimation- this is a lexical and grammatical category that classifies the named object as animate (i.e., living beings) or as inanimate (i.e., objects of inanimate nature and plants, as well as events, phenomena, qualities, actions, states, etc.) . P.).

Formal means of expressing the category of animate ~ inanimate are both paradigmatic and syntagmatic (and for indeclinable nouns - only syntagmatic). For animate nouns, the accusative plural form of both the noun itself and the adjective or participle that agrees with it coincides with the form of the genitive case, and for inanimate nouns - with the form of the nominative case:

Animated (V. = R.)

AND. beautiful horses, ducks, animals, kangaroos R. IN. beautiful horses, ducks, animals, kangaroos

Inanimate (V. = I.)

AND. R. beautiful tables, roses, windows, coats IN. beautiful tables, roses, windows, coats

In the singular form, animate ~ inanimate is paradigmatically expressed only in masculine nouns of the type student, home(null-terminated) and hourly, day off(substantivized adjectives): we know a student, a sentry(V.=R.), but we know the house, day off(V.=I.). For masculine nouns uncle, young man(I declension), as well as in indeclinable types dandy Animacy is expressed in the singular form only syntagmatically: No this uncles, dandies; I seethis uncle, dandy(V.=R.). In neuter and feminine nouns, animation ~ inanimateness is not expressed in the singular form.

Some nouns that do not denote living beings, according to their grammatical properties, are included in the category of animate: 1) words dead man, deceased(but not dead body); 2) the names of mythical creatures that never took place in reality like goblin, mermaid; 3) names of figures in some games: queen, ace, jack, trump, ball; 4) doll designations: matryoshka, doll.

Nouns denoting an undivided (collective) collection of living beings are grammatically inanimate: lead the people, detachment, troops, armies etc. In designs like sign up as a volunteer, become a soldier, elect a deputy, become a member a special form of the accusative plural is used, modeled on inanimate nouns (cf. the usual form of the accusative of the same nouns: see volunteers, teach soldiers, believe in deputies).

Words virus, microbe, bacterium can be either animate or inanimate: study viruses, microbes, bacteria And viruses, microbes, bacteria; linguistic consciousness seems to hesitate whether these microorganisms should be classified as living beings.

Case(number of students, caused by the facial expression of the teacher) - inflectional lexical - grammatical category of beings., cat. denotes its relationship to another word of a phrase, sentence or an entire syntactic construction using a system of case forms opposed to each other. It is expressed by inflections of the word, which may be accompanied by a shift in stress, a change in word order and intonation, and prepositions.

We have 6 main cases and several additional ones.

Nominative (nominative). Who? What?

This is the only direct case, all others are indirect. Not used with prepositions. The meanings are as follows: 1. subject actions (clouds are coming), states (the child is sleeping) 2. object (the house is built) 3. attribute - in the nominal part of the predicate (son was a student) and in application to the subject ( girl - beauty) 4. circumstantial - in documents and information messages ( May 1998) 5. vocative ( vocative form) - as a form of address (Vasya!) Here in colloquial speech such a perverted option is possible as the phatic meaning (I don’t know, however, how it is spelled correctly - the peculiarities of the diction of Associate Professor Anikina...), that is, an expression of a trusting attitude towards the subject of an ardent appeal ( Van! Zin!) The vocative also has an archaic form ( My Father, Sergius, Father Seraphim! Master! etc.) 6. imperative modal - (silence! a curtain! music!)

Indirect cases tend to vary their meanings depending on whether they are adjective or verbal. Briefly speaking.

Genitive (genitive) Whom? what?

Priimenny 1. subject (arrival of deputies, the appearance of Christ to the people) 2. object (raising children, fear of the dark) 3. attribute (Karelian birch furniture, land of unafraid idiots) The verb has no third meaning, everything else is the same. But that's not all, there's more adverbial meaning (twenty-fifth of this month), modal (people here...), possessive ( belonging )-- teacher's briefcase, partitive(meaning part of a whole) - in colloquial. speeches - oh, I want some tea! Prepositions gender pad. : without, near, for, before, because of, from under, between, from, with, at, about, after, except, besides, etc. + about a hundred derivative prepositions like in the name of what, etc. Please do not forget that subjects and objects can be direct and indirect, however, only the Serpent Gavrilych knows how to distinguish them, and I know, insignificant one.

Dative ( dative) To whom? Why?

Verb: 1. subject of state- in impersonal constructions ( the children became ill, my son is three years old) 2. indirect object(addressee) - write to a friend, tell your son 3. objective - adverbial- time, place, reason, purpose, measure (go to the forest) Application: 1. subject - letter to brother 2. definitive (monument to Pushkin, comrade in misfortune). And so that life doesn’t seem like honey, there is still modal meaning - look at me! sit down! Prepositions of dates. pad.: to, according to (both are used only with him), thanks to, in spite of, depending on, in relation to what, etc.

Accusative (accusative) Whom? What?

The verb is his life credo. It doesn't happen to others. Combines with transitive verbs or words of the state category. Values: 1. object ( unprompted ) - read a book, drink tequila 2. adverbial- measure, place, time, reason, purpose, quantity - to stay for an hour, to go across the river, it costs a million 3. attributive - checkered notebook, striped pants 4. modal - give me a carriage, a carriage! I'll eat you, I'll eat you... Prepositions of wine. pad.: in, on, for, about, about, on, under, about, with, through, through, including, regardless of, etc.

Creative (ablative) By whom? How?

Verb: 1. subject - a mistake made by a student 2. object - speak the language 3. attributive - dad was a teacher (God forbid, of course!) 4. adverbial - time, instrumental, image and method of action, comparison - sit in the evenings, fly in flocks, write with a pen, stand face to face, flow like a stream. Applied has no second meaning. Prepositions: for, between, between, above, before, under, with, in accordance with, etc.

Prepositional (locative) About whom? About what?

Can't live without excuses. Prepositions - in, on, with, about, by. Verb: 1. object of speech, thought (explanatory) - talk about horses 2. adverbial - place, time, mode of action - being sick as a child, living near the school. Apply: 1. object - a report on a problem 2. attribute - a bound book, a drawing on porcelain. 3. adverbial - attributive - garden at home, life in the city

I wish you success in trying to remember all this canoe. God help you.

Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives. Short forms of adjectives. Degrees of comparison of adjectives.

Quality adj. capable of forming degrees of comparison. But here it is not clear - Mr. Rosenthal and his friends distinguish three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. Two determined women do not see Su-Rakh as positive at point-blank range. Decide for yourself who is closer to you.

Form positive degree names a characteristic without comparison with another manifestation of the same characteristic. Means of expression for p.s. serve as unit forms. number and plural number adjectives - strong voice, cool days.

Form comparative degree indicates the quality of an object, manifested to a greater extent than in another object, or in itself, either earlier or later - The voice became stronger, the days were cooler. There are two forms of comparison. step.:

1) Synthetic (simple) - using suffixes -ee (-ee; -e - for those adj., basis cat. ends with sounds g, k, x, d, t, h, st, sk; -she - only some adj. - longer, shorter, stronger, further. Form on -to her used mainly in colloquial and poetic speech. Several adj. form a s.p. in a suppletive way: small - smaller, good - better, bad - worse. Sometimes in the education of sp. the prefix is ​​used along with the suffix By- ( has a conversational character ) - further away, stronger. This form is unchangeable and is usually the predicate in a sentence - “Girl, be smarter”. Not everything is great. adj. capable of such a feat as the formation of a sp.: 1) adj. with suffix -sk-, -ov- - ironic, businesslike 2) adj. with objective assessment suffixes - nice, clean, and also with prefixes and suffixes, cat. already in themselves indicate the degree of manifestation of the characteristic - cheerful, cute, feisty, reddish, plump 3) some adj. with suffixes -k-, -n- - timid, avid, early 4) adj. with the meaning of color, relative in origin - pink, coffee, raspberry, chocolate, amber 5) adj., which are participles by origin - brilliant mind, outstanding abilities, open mind 6) many verbs. adj. with suffix -l- - backward, seedy, sunken 7) adj., denoting the colors of horses - bay, brown, piebald 8) indicating the absolute degree of manifestation of the characteristic - barefoot, widowed, alive, dead, single, married

2) Analytical (complex) - using a combination of the original form adj. and words more or less - stronger, less hot. It changes according to cases, gender and numbers, in a sentence it can act as a predicate and as a definition - I wore a warmer jacket because... Today was a less warm day.

These forms differ stylistically: syn. f. more neutral, their use is possible in any style of speech, an. f. They also give speech a bookish tone. Both forms appear in a sentence as a definition and as a nominal part of the predicate, but an. f. often happens first. If the defined noun. stands in cosv. fallen., then the only thing consumable is she.

Form superlatives indicates the highest degree of quality of an item compared to others - the strongest voice, the hottest day. It also has several forms of manifestation:

1) Synthetic - using suffixes -eysh-, -aysh- ( after acc. g, k, x) - the most important, stupidest, easiest. Sometimes a prefix takes part in this the most - the most beautiful. S.p. cannot form: 1) adj. with suffixes -sk-, -ov- 2) some adj. with suffix -k- - caustic, catchy, accurate, timid 3) verb. adj. with suffix -l- 4) participles used figuratively 5) a number of adj. with a non-derivative base - big, young, long, dry, tight. This form is more typical for book speech.

2) Analytical - using words most, most and the original form of the adjective - “I’m the strongest, I’m the coolest,” the most popular.

3) This form is not recognized this time by Mr. Rosenthal, who combines 2) and 3) under one word “complex.” Ladies highlight the complex shape as a combination of synthetic materials. forms compare Art. with words everyone, everything - “We are better than everyone, we are more beautiful than everyone, smarter than everyone and more modest than everyone” This is an unchangeable form.

Forms prev. step. They also differ stylistically. Neutral - an. f. with the word most and complex shape. Forms with most are bookish in nature, they are even formed primarily from adj. Forms with -eysh-, -aysh- They have a bookish coloring and great expressiveness. In thin and decomposition speeches are used as elative, i.e. regardless of the high degree of manifestation of the trait - “The purest example of pure beauty”. Forms with most are found mainly in the oral speech of educated people and the intelligentsia. The combination of suffixal prev. step. with the words most and most is a gross speech error, although it is possible in the language. thin literature.

Qualitative, relative and possessive adjectives.

Adjectives are divided into three groups according to their meaning and grammatical features: 1) qualitative, 2) relative and 3) possessive.

Qualitative adjectives denote a feature that may be characteristic of an object to a greater or lesser extent (color, size, temperature, taste, sound, strength, internal qualities of a person and living beings in general, etc.); therefore they usually have degrees of comparison, for example: 1) Walls white, and the ceilings are stillwhiter. 2) The fox is cunning, but the hunter is more cunning. 3) Volga – longest from the rivers of Europe.

Many qualitative adjectives have a short form, for example: snow white, beast cunning road length, as well as special suffixes, for example, introducing a diminutive meaning or expressing a weaker or stronger degree of quality: -enk; -ovat-, -ushch- (-yushch-) - a white handkerchief, a whitish fog, a long rope.

Relative adjectives denote characteristics through relation to an object; most often they indicate material, place, time, etc., for example: leather gloves(leather mittens), Siberian wheat(wheat from Siberia), spring flowers(flowers that come in spring). Relative adjectives have no degrees of comparison and no short form. They have special suffixes, for example: -n-, -an-, -sk-, -ov- (forest, leather, urban, pine).

Qualitative and relative adjectives have the same endings and the same declension system, for example: a beautiful wooden house, a beautiful wooden hut, beautiful wooden huts; a new wooden house, a new wooden hut.

Having the same basic forms with qualitative adjectives, relative adjectives are often used with a qualitative meaning. In combination gold cigarette case adjective gold relative: it refers to material, derived from a noun gold. In combination golden ripe orange adjective gold used in a qualitative sense: it does not indicate the material from which the object is made, but the color of the orange: yellow and shiny. Having received a qualitative meaning, some adjectives acquire the ability to be used (in poetic and colloquial speech) in a short form and in the form of a comparative degree, for example: I) As in autumn, the fruit is ripe gold . (V.B.) 2) Everything stony the steps are getting steeper and steeper. (V.B.)

Note. There is no sharp boundary between qualitative and relative adjectives; very often an adjective includes both relative and qualitative meanings; one of them stands out in a certain context, for example: 1) The mother entered majestically, lilac dress, in lace, with a long string of pearls around the neck. (M. G.) (lilac dress, i.e. a lilac-colored dress is a qualitative adjective); 2) The terraces have grown all around lilac bushes(i.e. lilac bushes is a relative adjective).

This is why qualitative and relative adjectives are sometimes combined into one group of qualitative-relative adjectives.

Possessive adjectives denote a characteristic that indicates that an object belongs to an individual (less often, an animal); they are formed from a noun using suffixes - in (- yn ), -s(-s), For example: sister's book, sister's album, father's hat, uncle's house; they have a special declension that combines the endings of nouns and adjectives, for example: sistersA book, I see my sistersat book(noun endings); no sistersOuch books, talking about sistersOuch book(adjective endings).

A special group in terms of meaning and endings consists of adjectives in - th (fox) -ya (fox) -ye (fox) -yi (foxes), which are formed from nouns denoting people or animals (fisherman - fisherman, fox - fox). They have mixed endings: both short and full, for example: foxya fur coat(short ending) foxye th fur coats(full ending) foxye flair(short ending) lishis flair(full ending).

These adjectives combine different meanings. They are used in a possessive meaning, for example: human voices, a fishing boat, fox tricks; Moreover, they do not indicate belonging to an individual person or animal, but denote a characteristic characteristic of either a certain group of people or an entire species of animal, for example: bearish den; To whom, if not me, everything fox know the tricks. (Kr.) This meaning distinguishes them from possessive adjectives with suffixes -in, -ov, denoting ownership of a single person (grandfather's sheepskin coat - This is a sheepskin coat that belonged to someone’s grandfather, and not at all the sheepskin coat typical of all old people).

Adjectives are used in -y, -ya, -ye and in a relative sense, for example: fox collar, bearskin coat, hare hat, sheepskin coat.(Adjectives indicate the material from which things are made.) These same adjectives can also acquire a qualitative meaning, for example: disservice(stupid service that causes damage, trouble instead of providing help), hare soul(cowardly, timid).

BRIEF APPLICATIONS

Many qualitative adjectives, along with full forms, form short ones: beautiful beautiful beautiful beautiful

beautiful beautiful beautiful beautiful

Short adjectives don't bow(do not change by cases, only by gender and number) and as definitions not used(only as a nominal part of a nominal predicate).

Historical reference: In the Old Russian language, both short and full adjectives played the role of definition equally. Short adjectives varied according to the nominal declension and were used with an “indefinite” noun (i.e., with a noun denoting either an unknown or first-mentioned object), and full adjectives formed by merging short forms with demonstrative pronouns I, I, E , were used with a “definite” noun (i.e., with a noun denoting an already known object). Such relationships can be compared to the difference between the definite and indefinite articles in English, French and German. However, the category of definiteness-indeterminacy turned out to be unstable, and over time, short adjectives ceased to be used as a definition, and since the nominal part of the predicate always appears in the nominative case, short adjectives lost the forms of oblique cases. In frozen form, in several phraseological expressions, the remains of such case forms have survived to this day:

genus. case – from young to old, in broad daylight

date case – around the world

wine case – on bare feet

As for full adjectives, they not only replaced the short forms used in the function of definition, but, starting from the 15th century, they also began to be used as a predicate:

Young a man was walking down the street.(definition)

Her brother is still veryyoung . (predicate)

He's stillyoung for this work.(predicate)

In modern Russian, short adjectives are rarely used in colloquial speech; it gives preference to full forms. Thus, the use of short adjectives is, as a rule, part of literary and bookish styles of speech. However, in a number of cases, the use of short adjectives as a predicate Necessarily:

being predicates, short adjectives acquire some verb properties:

have an additional meaning of time - the full form of adjectives expresses constant sign, and the short form is temporary:

Her mother is sick. His mother is sick. I’m offended that my mother, always so stern and beautiful, is now so ugly and funny.(M. Gorky)

agree with the pronoun YOU as part of forms of politeness:

Please. Please be kind. How attentive you are.

develop the ability of prepositional control:

be angry with someone → he is angry with him, agree with someone → he agrees with me

distributed with the addition:

Siberia is rich in forests. The theater is full of spectators. He is good at languages.

combined with an infinitive in colloquial speech instead of a subordinate clause with a conjunction to(some):

You are young to teach me (to teach me). I'm glad to see you. He is always ready to help.

combine with adverbs like, so(as opposed to full adjectives, which combine with pronouns what, such)

How beautiful she is. The air here is so clean and fresh.

Some short adjectives differ in meaning from full ones:

She is good, kind. - She looks extraordinarily beautiful in this dress.

His character is lively. - His father is still alive.

He is a tall, distinguished man. - From our window we can see the park.

the short form gives the statement greater categoricalness, expressiveness, and expressiveness. So in some cases the difference between the short and long forms is purely stylistic:

He is brave, smart and honest. - positive qualities are emphasized

He is ugly, cunning and angry. - a sharp negative characterization, condemnation is expressed

Full forms with a negative characteristic soften the statement:

― You, Masha, are stupid. The stupidest one in our family. Excuse me please.(A. Chekhov)

You're stupid less offensive than you're stupid. You're stupid sounds offensive.

several adjectives are known only in short form:

glad, obliged, much, necessary

the short form is required if the predicate is at the beginning of the sentence, and the subject has another agreed or inconsistent definition. In this case, the short form has an intensifying connotation:

My story will be sad.(Pushkin) Quiet Ukrainian night. The sky is transparent. The year after the birth of Christ, 1918, was a great and terrible year, the second since the beginning of the revolution.(Bulgakov)

Most qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison.

Adjectives have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superior.

The use of a qualitative adjective in abstraction from the degree of its manifestation is called positive degree.

Beautiful(positive degree) – more beautiful(comparative) - beautiful(superlative).