Teaching methods and their classification. Modern teaching methods

An essential component of pedagogical technologies are teaching methods - ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students. In the pedagogical literature there is no consensus regarding the role and definition of the concept of “teaching method”. So, Yu.K. Babansky believes that “a teaching method is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems.” T.A. Ilyina understands teaching method as “a way of organizing students’ cognitive activity.” In the history of didactics, various classifications of teaching methods have developed, the most common of which are:

by external signs of the activity of the teacher and students:

• briefing;

  demonstration;

  exercises;

  problem solving;

  working with a book;

by source of knowledge:

• verbal;

  visual:

  • demonstration of posters, diagrams, tables, diagrams, models;

    use of technical means;

    watching films and television programs;

practical:

• practical tasks;

  trainings;

  business games;

  analysis and solution conflict situations etc.;

according to the degree of activity of students’ cognitive activity:

• explanatory;

  illustrative;

  problem;

  partial search;

  research;

according to the logic of the approach:

• inductive;

  deductive;

  analytical;

  synthetic.

Close to this classification is the classification of teaching methods, compiled according to the criterion of the degree of independence and creativity in the activities of students. Since the success of training depends to a decisive extent on the orientation and internal activity of the students, on the nature of their activity, it is the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity that should serve as an important criterion for choosing a method. In this classification, it is proposed to distinguish five teaching methods:

explanatory and illustrative method;

reproductive method;

problem presentation method;

partial search, or heuristic, method;

research method.

In each of the subsequent methods, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of students increases. Explanatory and illustrative teaching method - a method in which students gain knowledge at a lecture, from educational or methodological literature, through an on-screen manual in a “ready” form. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments, conclusions, students remain within the framework of reproductive (reproducing) thinking. At the university this method finds the widest application for transmitting a large amount of information. Reproductive teaching method - a method where the application of what has been learned is carried out on the basis of a sample or rule. Here, the activities of the students are algorithmic in nature, i.e. is carried out according to instructions, regulations, rules in situations similar to those shown in the example. Method of problem presentation in teaching - a method in which, using a variety of sources and means, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, revealing a system of evidence, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve the problem. Students become witnesses and participants in scientific research. This approach has been widely used both in the past and in the present. Partial search , or heuristic, teaching method consists in organizing an active search for solutions to cognitive tasks put forward in training (or independently formulated) either under the guidance of a teacher or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. The thinking process becomes productive, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves based on work on programs (including computer ones) and textbooks. Research method of teaching - a method in which, after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks, and brief oral or written instructions, students independently study literature, sources, make observations and measurements, and perform other search activities. Initiative, independence, and creative search are most fully manifested in research activities. Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research. Techniques and teaching aids

In the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals, as a way of organizing educational cognitive activity students. The application of each teaching method is usually accompanied by techniques and tools. Wherein reception of training acts only as an element, an integral part of the teaching method, and teaching aids (pedagogical aids) are all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out the teaching impact (educational process).

Pedagogical tools did not immediately become an obligatory component of the pedagogical process. For a long time, traditional teaching methods were based on the word, but “the era of chalk and conversation is over,” due to the growth of information and the technologization of society, there is a need to use other means of teaching, for example technical ones. Pedagogical means include:

educational and laboratory equipment;

training and production equipment;

didactic technology;

educational visual aids;

technical means training and automated systems training;

computer classes;

organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, exam papers, task cards, teaching aids, etc.).

Classification of teaching methods

In world and domestic practice, many efforts have been made to classify teaching methods. Since the category method is universal, “multidimensional formation”, has many characteristics, they act as the basis for classifications. Different authors use different bases for classifying teaching methods. Many classifications have been proposed, based on one or more characteristics. Each of the authors provides arguments to justify their classification model. Let's look at some of them. 1. Classification of methods according to the source of transmission and the nature of information perception (E.Ya. Golant, E.I. Perovsky). The following features and methods are distinguished: a) passive perception - listen and watch (story, lecture, explanation; demonstration); b) active perception - working with a book, visual sources; laboratory method. 2. Classification of methods based on didactic tasks (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov.). The classification is based on the sequence of knowledge acquisition at a specific stage (lesson): a) knowledge acquisition; b) formation of skills and abilities; c) application of acquired knowledge; d) creative activity; e) fastening; f) testing knowledge, skills and abilities. 3. Classification of methods according to sources of information transfer and knowledge acquisition (N.M. Verzilin, D.O. Lordkinanidze, I.T. Ogorodnikov, etc.). The methods of this classification are: a) verbal - the living word of the teacher, working with a book; b) practical - studying the surrounding reality (observation, experiment, exercises). 4. Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner). The nature of cognitive activity reflects the level of independent activity of students. This classification is characterized by the following methods: a) explanatory and illustrative (information and reproductive); b) reproductive (boundaries of skill and creativity); c) problematic presentation of knowledge; d) partially search (heuristic); e) research. 5. Classification of methods, combining teaching methods and corresponding teaching methods or binary ones (M.I. Makhmutov). This classification is represented by the following methods: a) teaching methods: informational - informative, explanatory, instructive-practical, explanatory-stimulating, stimulating; b) teaching methods: executive, reproductive, productive-practical, partially exploratory, search. 6. Classification of methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; methods of its stimulation and motivation; methods of control and self-control (Yu. K. Babansky). This classification is represented by three groups of methods: a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal (story, lecture, seminar, conversation), visual (illustration, demonstration, etc.), practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, work activities, etc.) .r.), reproductive and problem-search (from particular to general, from general to particular), methods independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher; b) methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity: methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning (the entire arsenal of methods for organizing and carrying out educational activities is used for the purpose of psychological adjustment, motivation to learn), methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning; c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: methods of oral control and self-control, methods of written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control. 7. Classification of teaching methods, which combines sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational modeling (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk). 8. The classification of methods in combination with forms of cooperation in teaching was proposed by the German didactician L. Klingberg. a) Monologue methods: - lecture; - story; - demonstration. b) Forms of cooperation: - individual; - group; - frontal; - collective. c) Dialogical methods: – conversations. 9. Classification of methods by K. Sosnicki (Poland) assumes the existence of two teaching methods: a) artificial (school); b) natural (occasional). These methods correspond to two teaching methods: a) presenting; b) search. 10. The classification (typology) of teaching methods, set out in “Introduction to General Didactics” by V. Okon (Poland), is represented by four groups: a) methods of acquiring knowledge, based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature (conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book); b) methods of independent acquisition of knowledge, called problem-based, based on creative cognitive activity in the process of solving problems: - the classic problem-based method (according to Dewey), modified for the Polish education system, it contains four important points: the creation of a problem situation; formation of problems and hypotheses for their solution; organizing and applying the results obtained in new problems of a theoretical and practical nature; - the chance method (England and the USA) is relatively simple and is based on the consideration by a small group of students of a description of a case: students formulate questions to explain this case, search for an answer, a number of possible solutions, compare solutions, detect errors in reasoning, etc.; - the situational method is based on introducing students to difficult situation, the task is to understand and make the right decision, anticipate the consequences of this decision, find other possible solutions; - a bank of ideas is a brainstorming method; based on the group formation of ideas for solving a problem, testing, evaluation and selection of the right ideas; - micro-teaching - a method of creative teaching of complex practical activities, used mainly in pedagogical universities; For example, a fragment of a school lesson is recorded on a video recorder, and then a group analysis and evaluation of this fragment is carried out; - didactic games - the use of game moments in educational process serves the process of cognition, teaches respect accepted standards, promotes cooperation, accustoms both winning and losing. These include: staged fun, i.e. games, simulation games, business games (they are not widely used in Polish schools); c) evaluative methods, also called exhibiting methods with the dominance of emotional and artistic activity: - impressive methods; - expressive methods; - practical methods; - teaching methods; d) practical methods (methods for implementing creative tasks), characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world around us and create new forms: they are associated with the performance of various types of work (for example, woodworking, glass, growing plants and animals, making fabrics and etc.), development of work models (drawings), formation of approaches to solutions and selection of the best options, construction of a model and testing of its functioning, design of specified parameters, individual and group assessment of task completion. The basis for this typology of methods is V. Okon’s idea of ​​​​the constant development of the creative foundations of the individual through the structuring of the taught knowledge and teaching methods. “The information that a person needs is always intended for some purpose, namely to understand the structure of reality, the way of the natural world around us, society, and culture. Structural thinking is the kind of thinking that combines the elements of this world known to us. If, thanks to a successful teaching method, these structures fit into the consciousness of a young person, then each of the elements in these structures has its own place and is connected with other structures. Thus, a kind of hierarchy is formed in the student’s mind - from the most simple structures the most general to complex. Understanding the basic structures that take place in living and inanimate nature, in society, in technology and art, can contribute to creative activity based on the knowledge of new structures, the selection of elements and the establishment of connections between them.” 11. Based on the fact that the holistic pedagogical process is ensured by a unified classification of methods, which in a generalized form includes all other classification characteristics of B.T. Likhachev calls a number of classifications as if constituting a classification as a classification. He takes the following as its basis: - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the logic of socio-historical development. - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the specifics of the material being studied and forms of thinking. - Classification of teaching methods according to their role and significance in the development of essential forces, mental processes, spiritual and creative activity. - Classification of teaching methods according to their compliance with the age characteristics of children. - Classification of teaching methods according to methods of transmitting and receiving information. - Classification of teaching methods according to the degree of effectiveness of their ideological and educational impact, “influence on the formation of children’s consciousness, internal motives” and behavioral incentives. - Classification of teaching methods according to the main stages of the educational-cognitive process (methods of the perception stage - primary assimilation; methods of the assimilation-reproduction stage; methods of the stage of educational and creative expression). In the classifications identified by B.T. Likhachev, preference is given to the latter as scientific and practical, synthesizing in a generalized form the characteristics of teaching methods of all other classifications. To the number of named classifications of teaching methods one could add two or three more. All of them are not without shortcomings, and at the same time have many positive aspects. There are no universal classifications and there cannot be. The learning process is a dynamic construct, this should be understood. In the living pedagogical process, methods develop and take on new properties. Uniting them into groups according to a rigid scheme is not justified, since this hinders the improvement of the educational process. Apparently, one should follow the path of their universal combination and application in order to achieve high degree adequacy of the educational tasks being solved. At each stage of the educational process, some methods occupy a dominant position, while others occupy a subordinate position. Some methods provide solutions to educational problems to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. We also note that failure to include at least one of the methods, even in its subordinate position, in solving the problems of the lesson significantly reduces its effectiveness. Perhaps this is comparable to the absence of at least one of the components, even in a very small dose, in the composition of the drug (this reduces or completely changes its medicinal properties). The methods used in the educational process also perform their functions. These include: teaching, developing, nurturing, stimulating (motivational), control and correction functions. Knowledge of the functionality of certain methods allows you to consciously apply them.

Teaching methods(from ancient Greek μέθοδος - path) - the process of interaction between the teacher and students, as a result of which the transfer and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by the content of training occurs. Teaching technique (teaching technique)- short-term interaction between the teacher and students, aimed at the transfer and assimilation of specific knowledge, skills, abilities.

According to the established tradition in domestic pedagogy, METHODS of teaching are divided into three groups:

- Methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities:

1. Verbal, visual, practical (According to the source of presentation educational material).

2. Reproductive, explanatory and illustrative, search, research, problem, etc. (according to the nature of educational and cognitive activity).

3. Inductive and deductive (according to the logic of presentation and perception of educational material);

- Control methods for the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: Oral, written checking and self-testing the effectiveness of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities;

- Stimulation methods educational and cognitive activity: Certain incentives in the formation of motivation, a sense of responsibility, obligation, interests in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities.

In teaching practice, there are other approaches to determining teaching methods that are based on the degree of awareness of the perception of educational material: passive, active, interactive, heuristic and others. These definitions require further clarification, because the learning process cannot be passive and is not always a discovery (eureka) for students.

Passive method

Passive learning method

Passive method(Diagram 1) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher is the main actor and manager of the lesson, and students act as passive listeners, subject to the teacher’s directives. Communication between the teacher and students in passive lessons is carried out through surveys, independent work, tests, tests, etc. From the point of view of modern pedagogical technologies and the effectiveness of students’ assimilation of educational material, the passive method is considered the most ineffective, but despite this, it also has some pros. This is a relatively easy preparation for the lesson on the part of the teacher and an opportunity to present a relatively larger amount of educational material in the limited time frame of the lesson. Given these advantages, many teachers prefer the passive method to other methods. It must be said that in some cases this approach works successfully in the hands of an experienced teacher, especially if students have clear goals aimed at thoroughly studying the subject. Lecture is the most common type of passive lesson. This type of lesson is widespread in universities, where adults, fully formed people, who have clear goals to deeply study the subject, study.

Active method

Active learning method

Active method(Diagram 2) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher and students interact with each other during the lesson and students here are not passive listeners, but active participants in the lesson. If in a passive lesson the main character and manager of the lesson was the teacher, then here the teacher and students are on equal terms. If passive methods presupposed an authoritarian style of interaction, then active ones presuppose a more democratic style. Many equate active and interactive methods; however, despite their commonality, they have differences. Interactive methods can be considered as the most modern form active methods.

Interactive method

Interactive teaching method

Interactive method(Scheme 3). Interactive (“Inter” is mutual, “act” is to act) - means to interact, to be in the mode of conversation, dialogue with someone. In other words, unlike active methods, interactive ones are focused on broader interaction of students not only with the teacher, but also with each other and on the dominance of student activity in the learning process. The teacher's place in interactive lessons comes down to directing the students' activities to achieve the lesson's goals. The teacher also develops a lesson plan (usually, these are interactive exercises and assignments during which the student learns the material).
Therefore, the main components of interactive lessons are interactive exercises and tasks that students complete. An important difference between interactive exercises and assignments and ordinary ones is that by completing them, students not only and not so much consolidate the material they have already learned, but rather learn new ones.

Literature

1. Alekhin A.N. General teaching methods at school. - K.: Radyanskaya school, 1983. - 244 p.
2. Davydov V.V. Theory of developmental training. - M.: INTOR, 1996. - 544 p.
3. Zagvyazinsky V.I. Theory of learning: Modern interpretation: Textbook for universities. 3rd ed., rev. - M.: Academy, 2006. - 192 p.
4. Kraevsky V.V., Khutorskoy A.V. Fundamentals of teaching: Didactics and methodology. Textbook aid for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2007. - 352 p.
5. Lyaudis V. Ya. Methods of teaching psychology: Textbook. 3rd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Publishing house URAO, 2000. - 128 p.
6. Mikhailichenko O.V. Methods of teaching social disciplines in higher education: a textbook. – Sumy: SumDPU, 2009. – 122 p.
7. Pedagogy: Textbook. manual for pedagogical students. Institute / Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. - 2nd ed., add. and processed - M.: Education, 1988. - P.385-409.

• Educational technologies
• Heuristic learning
• Interactive approaches
• Multimedia training
• Schechter method
• Flask model
• van Hiele model of geometry learning
• Flask model in class
• Active learning
• Teacher
• Business game
• Contour map
• Lerner, Isaac Yakovlevich

Links

Teaching methods and their classification

An essential component of pedagogical technologies are teaching methods - ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students. In the pedagogical literature there is no consensus regarding the role and definition of the concept of “teaching method”. So, Yu.K. Babansky believes that “a teaching method is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems.” T.A. Ilyina understands teaching method as “a way of organizing students’ cognitive activity.” In the history of didactics there were various classifications teaching methods, the most common of which are:

by external signs of the activity of the teacher and students:

• briefing;

  demonstration;

  exercises;

  problem solving;

  working with a book;

by source of knowledge:

• verbal;

  visual:

  • demonstration of posters, diagrams, tables, diagrams, models;

    use of technical means;

    watching films and television programs;

practical:

• practical tasks;

  trainings;

  business games;

  analysis and resolution of conflict situations, etc.;

according to the degree of activity of students’ cognitive activity:

• explanatory;

  illustrative;

  problem;

  partial search;

  research;

according to the logic of the approach:

• inductive;

  deductive;

  analytical;

  synthetic.

Close to this classification is the classification of teaching methods, compiled according to the criterion of the degree of independence and creativity in the activities of students. Since the success of training depends to a decisive extent on the orientation and internal activity of the students, on the nature of their activity, it is precisely the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity that should serve important criterion choosing a method. In this classification, it is proposed to distinguish five teaching methods:

explanatory and illustrative method;

reproductive method;

problem presentation method;

partial search, or heuristic, method;

research method.

In each of the subsequent methods, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of students increases. Explanatory and illustrative teaching method - a method in which students gain knowledge at a lecture, from educational or methodological literature, through an on-screen manual in a “ready” form. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments, conclusions, students remain within the framework of reproductive (reproducing) thinking. At universities, this method is widely used for transmitting a large amount of information. Reproductive teaching method - a method where the application of what has been learned is carried out on the basis of a sample or rule. Here, the activities of the students are algorithmic in nature, i.e. is carried out according to instructions, regulations, rules in situations similar to those shown in the example. Method of problem presentation in teaching - a method in which, using a variety of sources and means, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, revealing a system of evidence, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve the problem. Students become witnesses and participants in scientific research. This approach has been widely used both in the past and in the present. Partial search , or heuristic, teaching method consists in organizing an active search for solutions to cognitive tasks put forward in training (or independently formulated) either under the guidance of a teacher or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. The thinking process becomes productive, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves based on work on programs (including computer ones) and textbooks. - a method in which, after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks, and brief oral or written instructions, students independently study literature, sources, make observations and measurements, and perform other search activities. Initiative, independence, and creative search are most fully manifested in research activities. Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research. Techniques and teaching aids

In the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals, as a way of organizing the educational and cognitive activities of students. The application of each teaching method is usually accompanied by techniques and tools. Wherein reception of training acts only as an element, an integral part of the teaching method, and teaching aids (pedagogical aids) are all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out the teaching impact (educational process).

Pedagogical tools did not immediately become an obligatory component of the pedagogical process. For a long time, traditional teaching methods were based on the word, but “the era of chalk and conversation is over,” due to the growth of information and the technologization of society, there is a need to use other means of teaching, for example technical ones. Pedagogical means include:

educational and laboratory equipment;

training and production equipment;

didactic technology;

educational visual aids;

technical training aids and automated training systems;

computer classes;

organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, exam papers, task cards, teaching aids, etc.).

In world and domestic practice, many efforts have been made to classify teaching methods. Since the category method is universal, “multidimensional formation”, has many characteristics, they act as the basis for classifications. Different authors use different bases for classifying teaching methods. Many classifications have been proposed, based on one or more characteristics. Each of the authors provides arguments to justify their classification model. Let's look at some of them. 1. Classification of methods according to the source of transmission and the nature of information perception (E.Ya. Golant, E.I. Perovsky). The following features and methods are distinguished: a) passive perception - listen and watch (story, lecture, explanation; demonstration); b) active perception - working with a book, visual sources; laboratory method. 2. Classification of methods based on didactic tasks (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov.). The classification is based on the sequence of knowledge acquisition at a specific stage (lesson): a) knowledge acquisition; b) formation of skills and abilities; c) application of acquired knowledge; d) creative activity; e) fastening; f) testing knowledge, skills and abilities. 3. Classification of methods according to sources of information transfer and knowledge acquisition (N.M. Verzilin, D.O. Lordkinanidze, I.T. Ogorodnikov, etc.). The methods of this classification are: a) verbal - the living word of the teacher, working with a book; b) practical - studying the surrounding reality (observation, experiment, exercises). 4. Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner). The nature of cognitive activity reflects the level of independent activity of students. This classification is characterized by the following methods: a) explanatory and illustrative (information and reproductive); b) reproductive (boundaries of skill and creativity); c) problematic presentation of knowledge; d) partially search (heuristic); e) research. 5. Classification of methods, combining teaching methods and corresponding teaching methods or binary ones (M.I. Makhmutov). This classification is represented by the following methods: a) teaching methods: informational - informative, explanatory, instructive-practical, explanatory-stimulating, stimulating; b) teaching methods: executive, reproductive, productive-practical, partially exploratory, search. 6. Classification of methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; methods of its stimulation and motivation; methods of control and self-control (Yu. K. Babansky). This classification is represented by three groups of methods: a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal (story, lecture, seminar, conversation), visual (illustration, demonstration, etc.), practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, work activities, etc.) .r.), reproductive and problem-search (from particular to general, from general to particular), methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher; b) methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity: methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning (the entire arsenal of methods for organizing and carrying out educational activities is used for the purpose of psychological adjustment, motivation to learn), methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning; c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: methods of oral control and self-control, methods written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control. 7. Classification of teaching methods, which combines sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational modeling (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk). 8. The classification of methods in combination with forms of cooperation in teaching was proposed by the German didactician L. Klingberg. a) Monologue methods: - lecture; - story; - demonstration. b) Forms of cooperation: - individual; - group; - frontal; - collective. c) Dialogical methods: – conversations. 9. Classification of methods by K. Sosnicki (Poland) assumes the existence of two teaching methods: a) artificial (school); b) natural (occasional). These methods correspond to two teaching methods: a) presenting; b) search. 10. The classification (typology) of teaching methods, set out in “Introduction to General Didactics” by V. Okon (Poland), is represented by four groups: a) methods of acquiring knowledge, based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature (conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book); b) methods of independent acquisition of knowledge, called problem-based, based on creative cognitive activity in the process of solving problems: - the classic problem-based method (according to Dewey), modified for the Polish education system, it contains four important points: the creation of a problem situation; formation of problems and hypotheses for their solution; organizing and applying the results obtained in new problems of a theoretical and practical nature; - the chance method (England and the USA) is relatively simple and is based on the consideration by a small group of students of a description of a case: students formulate questions to explain this case, search for an answer, a number of possible solutions, compare solutions, detect errors in reasoning, etc.; - the situational method is based on introducing students into a difficult situation, the task is to understand and make the right decision, anticipate the consequences of this decision, and find other possible solutions; - a bank of ideas is a brainstorming method; based on the group formation of ideas for solving a problem, testing, evaluation and selection of the right ideas; - micro-teaching - a method of creative teaching of complex practical activities, used mainly in pedagogical universities; For example, a fragment of a school lesson is recorded on a video recorder, and then a group analysis and evaluation of this fragment is carried out; - didactic games - the use of game moments in the educational process serves the process of cognition, teaches respect for accepted norms, promotes cooperation, accustoms both winning and losing. These include: staged fun, i.e. games, simulation games, business games (they are not widely used in Polish schools); c) evaluative methods, also called exhibiting methods with the dominance of emotional and artistic activity: - impressive methods; - expressive methods; - practical methods; - teaching methods; d) practical methods (methods for implementing creative tasks), characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world and creating new forms of it: they are associated with performing various types of work (for example, wood, glass, growing plants and animals, making fabrics, etc.), developing models of work (drawing), forming approaches to solutions and choosing the best options , building a model and checking its functioning, designing specified parameters, individual and group assessment of task completion. The basis for this typology of methods is V. Okon’s idea of ​​​​the constant development of the creative foundations of the individual through the structuring of the taught knowledge and teaching methods. “The information that a person needs is always intended for some purpose, namely to understand the structure of reality, the way of the natural world around us, society, and culture. Structural thinking is the kind of thinking that combines the elements of this world known to us. If, thanks to a successful teaching method, these structures fit into the consciousness of a young person, then each of the elements in these structures has its own place and is connected with other structures. Thus, a kind of hierarchy is formed in the student’s mind - from the simplest structures of the most general nature to complex ones. Understanding the basic structures that take place in living and inanimate nature, in society, in technology and art, can contribute to creative activity based on the knowledge of new structures, the selection of elements and the establishment of connections between them.” 11. Based on the fact that the holistic pedagogical process is ensured by a unified classification of methods, which in a generalized form includes all other classification characteristics of B.T. Likhachev calls a number of classifications as if constituting a classification as a classification. He takes the following as its basis: - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the logic of socio-historical development. - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the specifics of the material being studied and forms of thinking. - Classification of teaching methods according to their role and significance in the development of essential forces, mental processes, spiritual and creative activity. - Classification of teaching methods according to their compliance with the age characteristics of children. - Classification of teaching methods according to methods of transmitting and receiving information. - Classification of teaching methods according to the degree of effectiveness of their ideological and educational impact, “influence on the formation of children’s consciousness, internal motives” and behavioral incentives. - Classification of teaching methods according to the main stages of the educational-cognitive process (methods of the perception stage - primary assimilation; methods of the assimilation-reproduction stage; methods of the stage of educational and creative expression). In the classifications identified by B.T. Likhachev, preference is given to the latter as scientific and practical, synthesizing in a generalized form the characteristics of teaching methods of all other classifications. To the number of named classifications of teaching methods one could add two or three more. All of them are not without shortcomings, and at the same time have many positive aspects. There are no universal classifications and there cannot be. The learning process is a dynamic construct, this should be understood. In the living pedagogical process, methods develop and take on new properties. Uniting them into groups according to a rigid scheme is not justified, since this hinders the improvement of the educational process. Apparently, one should follow the path of their universal combination and application in order to achieve a high degree of adequacy to the educational tasks being solved. At each stage of the educational process, some methods occupy a dominant position, while others occupy a subordinate position. Some methods provide solutions to educational problems to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. We also note that failure to include at least one of the methods, even in its subordinate position, in solving the problems of the lesson significantly reduces its effectiveness. Perhaps this is comparable to the absence of at least one of the components, even in a very small dose, in the composition of the drug (this reduces or completely changes its medicinal properties). The methods used in the educational process also perform their functions. These include: teaching, developing, nurturing, stimulating (motivational), control and correction functions. Knowledge of the functionality of certain methods allows you to consciously apply them.

Concepts of method, technique and teaching aid. Classification of teaching methods. Selection of teaching methods

The success of the educational process largely depends on the teaching methods used.

Teaching methods These are ways of joint activity between the teacher and students, aimed at achieving their educational goals. There are other definitions of teaching methods.

Teaching methods are ways of working for teachers and students, with the help of which the latter acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the formation of their worldview and the development of cognitive powers (M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov).

Teaching methods are ways of interrelated activities of teachers and students to implement the tasks of education, upbringing and development ( Yu. K. Babansky).

Teaching methods are ways of teaching the teacher and organizing educational and cognitive activities of students to solve various didactic tasks aimed at mastering the material being studied ( I. F. Kharlamov).

Teaching methods are a system of consistent, interconnected actions of the teacher and students, ensuring the assimilation of the content of education, the development of mental strength and abilities of students, and their mastery of the means of self-education and self-study (G. M. Kodzhaspirova).

Despite the various definitions given to this concept by didactics, the common thing is that most authors tend to consider the teaching method as a way of collaboration between the teacher and students in organizing educational activities. If we are talking only about the activities of the teacher, then it is appropriate to talk about teaching methods, if only about the activities of students, then about teaching methods.

Reflecting the dual nature of the learning process, methods are one of the mechanisms, ways of implementing pedagogically appropriate interaction between the teacher and students. The essence of teaching methods is considered as an integral system of methods that collectively provide a pedagogically appropriate organization of educational and cognitive activity of students.

Thus, the concept of a teaching method reflects in the interrelation the methods and specifics of the teaching work of the teacher and the educational activities of students to achieve learning goals.

Widely used concepts in didactics are also the concepts of “learning method” and “learning rule”.

Reception training This component or separate aspect of a teaching method, i.e. a particular concept in relation to the general concept of “method”. The boundaries between the concepts of “method” and “technique” are very fluid and changeable. Each teaching method consists of individual elements (parts, techniques). With the help of a technique, a pedagogical or educational task is not completely solved, but only its stage, some part of it.

Teaching methods and methodological techniques can change places and replace each other in specific pedagogical situations. The same methodological techniques can be used in different methods. Conversely, the same method for different teachers may include different techniques.

In some situations, the method acts as an independent way to solve a pedagogical problem, in others as a technique that has a particular purpose. For example, if a teacher conveys new knowledge using a verbal method (explanation, story, conversation), during which he sometimes demonstrates visual aids, then their demonstration acts as a technique. If a visual aid is the object of study, students receive basic knowledge based on its consideration, then verbal explanations act as a technique, and demonstration as a teaching method.

Thus, the method includes a number of techniques, but it itself is not their simple sum. Techniques determine the uniqueness of the methods of work of the teacher and students and give an individual character to their activities.

Learning Rule This normative prescription or indication of how one should optimally act in order to carry out an activity corresponding to the method. In other words, learning rule (didactic rule) this is a specific instruction on how to act in a typical pedagogical situation of the learning process.

A rule acts as a descriptive, normative model of a technique, and a system of rules for solving a specific problem is already a normative-descriptive model of a method.

The teaching method is a historical category. The level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations influence the goals, content, and means of the pedagogical process. As they change, so do teaching methods.

In the early stages of social development, the transfer of social experience to younger generations was carried out spontaneously in the process of joint activities of children and adults. By observing and repeating certain actions, mainly labor ones, with adults, children mastered them through direct participation in the life of the social group of which they were members.

Teaching methods based on imitation prevailed. Imitating adults, children mastered the methods and techniques of obtaining food, making fire, making clothes, etc. It was based on reproductive method training (“do as I do”). This is the most ancient teaching method , from which all others developed.

As the volume of accumulated knowledge expanded and the actions mastered by man became more complex, simple imitation could not provide a sufficient level of assimilation of cultural experience. Since the organization of schools there have appeared verbal methods training. The teacher, using words, conveyed ready-made information to the children, who assimilated it. With the advent of writing and then printing, it became possible to express, accumulate and transmit knowledge in symbolic form. The word becomes the main carrier of information, and learning from books becomes a massive way of interaction between teacher and student.

Books were used in different ways. In medieval school, students mechanically memorized texts, mainly of religious content. This is how it arose dogmatic, or catechism, method training. Its more advanced form is associated with posing questions and presenting ready-made answers.

In the era of great discoveries and inventions, verbal methods are gradually losing their importance as the only way to transfer knowledge to students. Society needed people who not only knew the laws of nature, but also knew how to use them in their activities. The learning process organically included such methods as observation, experiment, independent work, exercise aimed at developing independence, activity, consciousness, and initiative of the child. Development is received visual methods training, as well as methods that help to apply the acquired knowledge in practice.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. important place began to occupy heuristic method as a verbal option, which more fully took into account the needs and interests of the child, the development of his independence. “Book” methods of study were contrasted with “natural” methods, that is, learning through direct contact with reality. The concept of “learning through activity” using practical methods training. The main place in the learning process was given to manual labor, various kinds of practical exercises, as well as students’ work with literature, during which children developed the skills of independent work, use own experience. Approved partially search, research methods.

Over time, they are becoming more widespread methods problem-based learning, based on posing a problem and on students’ independent movement towards knowledge. Gradually, society is increasingly beginning to realize that a child needs not only education, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the development of his abilities and individual characteristics. Getting distribution methods developmental education. The widespread introduction of technology into the educational process, computerization of teaching leads to the emergence of new methods.

American educator K. Kerr identifies four “revolutions in the field of teaching methods.” In the early stages of human society, parents were the main teachers of children. The first revolution occurred when they were replaced by professional teachers. The second revolution is associated with the replacement of the spoken word with the written word. The third revolution led to the introduction of the printed word into learning, and the fourth is aimed at partial automation and computerization of learning.

The search for methods to improve the learning process remains constant. However, regardless of the role assigned to one or another teaching method at different periods in the development of education, none of them, when used exclusively on its own, provides the desired results. No teaching method is universal. A variety of teaching methods should be used in the educational process.

1. Characteristics of teaching methods, their pedagogical capabilities. Conditions for using teaching methods and tools. Methods and means of developmental education.

In modern pedagogical practice, a large number of teaching methods are used. When selecting them, the teacher faces significant difficulties. In this regard, there is a need for a classification that helps to identify the general and the special, the essential and the accidental in teaching methods, and thereby contributes to their expedient and more effective use.

Unified classification teaching methods does not exist. This is due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different characteristics and individual aspects of the learning process.

Let's look at the most common classification of teaching methods.

Classification of teaching methods by student activity level (Golant E. Ya.). This is one of the earliest classifications of teaching methods. According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into passive and active, depending on the degree of student involvement in learning activities. TO passive include methods in which students only listen and watch ( story, lecture, explanation, excursion, demonstration, observation), To active methods that organize independent work of students ( laboratory method, practical method, working with a book).

Classification of teaching methods by source of knowledge (Verzilin N. M., Perovsky E. I., Lordkipanidze D. O.)

There are three sources of knowledge: word, visualization, practice. Accordingly, they allocate verbal methods(the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word); visual methods(sources of knowledge are observed objects, phenomena, visual aids); practical methods(knowledge and skills are formed in the process of performing practical actions).

Verbal methods occupy a central place in the system of teaching methods. These include story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, working with a book.

The second group according to this classification consists of visual teaching methods, in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids, diagrams, tables, drawings, models, devices, and technical means used. Visual methods are conventionally divided into two groups: demonstration method and illustration method.

Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. The main purpose of this group of methods is the formation of practical skills. Practical methods include exercises, practical And laboratory works.

This classification has become quite widespread, which is obviously due to its simplicity.

Classification of teaching methods for didactic purposes (Danilov M. A., Esipov B. P.).

This classification identifies the following teaching methods:

- methods of acquiring new knowledge;

- methods of developing skills and abilities;

- methods of applying knowledge;

- methods of consolidating and testing knowledge, abilities, skills.

The criterion for dividing methods into groups according to this classification are learning objectives. This criterion better reflects the teacher’s activities to achieve the teaching goal. For example, if the goal is to introduce students to something, then to achieve it, the teacher will obviously use the verbal, visual and other methods available to him, and to consolidate, he will ask students to complete oral or written tasks.

With this classification of methods, the gap between their individual groups is eliminated to a certain extent; The teacher’s activities are aimed at solving didactic problems.

Classification of teaching methods by the nature of students’ cognitive activity (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.).

According to this classification, teaching methods are divided depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of students when mastering the material being studied. The nature of cognitive activity is the level of mental activity of students.

The following methods are distinguished:

- explanatory and illustrative (information-receptive);

- reproductive;

- problematic presentation;

- partially search engines (heuristic);

- research.

Essence explanatory-illustrative method consists in the fact that the teacher communicates ready-made information using various means, and students perceive it, understand it and record it in memory. The teacher conveys information using the spoken word (story, conversation, explanation, lecture), the printed word (textbook, additional manuals), visual aids (tables, diagrams, pictures, films and filmstrips), practical demonstration of methods of activity (showing experience, work on a machine, a method for solving a problem, etc.).

The cognitive activity of students comes down to memorizing (which may be unconscious) ready-made knowledge. There is a fairly low level of mental activity here.

Reproductive method assumes that the teacher communicates and explains knowledge in a ready-made form, and students assimilate it and can reproduce and repeat the method of activity on the instructions of the teacher. The criterion for assimilation is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge.

The main advantage of this method, as well as the explanatory and illustrative method discussed above, is cost-effectiveness. This method provides the opportunity to transfer a significant amount of knowledge and skills in a minimal amount of time. a short time and with little effort. The durability of knowledge due to the possibility of its repeated repetition can be significant.

Both of these methods are characterized by the fact that they enrich knowledge and skills, form special mental operations, but do not guarantee the development of students’ creative abilities. This goal is achieved by other methods, in particular the method of problem presentation.

Method of problem presentation is a transition from performing to creative activity. The essence of the method of problem presentation is that the teacher poses a problem and solves it himself, thereby showing the train of thought in the process of cognition. At the same time, students follow the logic of presentation, mastering the stages of solving holistic problems.

At the same time, they not only perceive, realize and remember ready-made knowledge and conclusions, but also follow the logic of evidence, the movement of thought of the teacher or a substitute medium (cinema, television, books, etc.). And although students with this method of teaching are not participants, but merely observers of the process of thinking, they learn to resolve cognitive difficulties.

A higher level of cognitive activity carries with it partially search engine (heuristic) method.

The method was called partially search because students independently solve a complex educational problem not from beginning to end, but only partially. The teacher involves students in performing individual search steps. Some of the knowledge is imparted by the teacher, and some of the knowledge is acquired by students on their own, answering questions or solving problematic tasks. Educational activities develops according to the scheme: teacher - students - teacher - students, etc.

Thus, the essence of the partially search method of teaching comes down to the fact that:

Not all knowledge is offered to students in a ready-made form; some of it needs to be acquired on their own;

The teacher’s activity consists of operational management of the process of solving problematic problems.

One of the modifications of this method is heuristic conversation.

Research method of teaching provides for creative learning by students.

Its essence is as follows:

The teacher, together with the students, formulates the problem;

Students resolve it independently;

The teacher provides assistance only when difficulties arise in solving the problem.

Thus, the research method is used not only to generalize knowledge, but mainly so that the student learns to acquire knowledge, investigate an object or phenomenon, draw conclusions and apply the acquired knowledge and skills in life. Its essence comes down to organizing the search and creative activities of students to solve problems that are new to them.

The main disadvantage of this teaching method is that it requires a significant amount of time and a high level of pedagogical qualifications of the teacher.

Classification of teaching methods based on a holistic approach to the learning process (Babansky Yu. K.).

According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into three groups:

1) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities;

2) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity;

3) methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.

First group includes the following methods:

Perceptual (transmission and perception of educational information through the senses);

Verbal (lecture, story, conversation, etc.);

Visual (demonstration, illustration);

Practical (experiments, exercises, completing assignments);

Logical, i.e. organization and implementation of logical operations (inductive, deductive, analogies, etc.);

Gnostic (research, problem-search, reproductive);

Self-management of educational activities (independent work with a book, equipment, etc.).

To the second group methods include:

Methods of developing interest in learning (cognitive games, educational discussions, creating problem situations, etc.);

Methods of forming duty and responsibility in teaching (encouragement, approval, censure, etc.).

To the third group various methods of oral, written and machine testing of knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as methods of self-monitoring of the effectiveness of one’s own educational and cognitive activity are included.

Binary classification of teaching methods based on on combination of methods of activity of the teacher and students (Makhmutov M. I.).

The basis binary And polynar Classifications of teaching methods are based on two or more general characteristics.

The binary classification of teaching methods by M. I. Makhmutov includes two groups of methods:

1) teaching methods (information-reporting; explanatory; instructive-practical; explanatory-motivating; stimulating);

2) teaching methods (executive; reproductive; productive-practical; partially exploratory; search).

Classification, based on four signs (logical-substantive, source, procedural and organizational-managerial), suggested by S. G. Shapovalenko.

There are other classifications of teaching methods.

As we can see, at present there is no single view on the problem of classifying teaching methods, and any of the classifications considered has both advantages and disadvantages that must be taken into account at the selection stage and in the process of implementing specific teaching methods. The presence of different points of view on the problem of classifying teaching methods reflects the objective, real versatility of teaching methods, the natural process of differentiation and integration of knowledge about them.

Let us dwell in more detail on individual teaching methods included in various classifications.

Story. This is a monologue, sequential presentation of material in a descriptive or narrative form. The story is used to convey factual information that requires imagery and consistency of presentation. The story is used at all stages of learning, only the objectives of the presentation, style and volume of the story change.

Storytelling has the greatest developmental effect when teaching. junior schoolchildren prone to imaginative thinking. The developing meaning of the story is that it brings mental processes into a state of activity: imagination, thinking, memory, emotional experiences. By influencing a person’s feelings, the story helps to understand and assimilate the meaning of the moral assessments and norms of behavior contained in it.

The goals are distinguished:

- story-introduction, the purpose of which is to prepare students to learn new material;

- story-narration used to present intended content;

- story-conclusion summarizes the material studied.

There are certain requirements for the story as a teaching method: the story must ensure the achievement of didactic goals; contain reliable facts; have clear logic; the presentation must be evidential, figurative, emotional, taking into account the age characteristics of the students.

In its pure form, the story is used relatively rarely. More often it is used in combination with other teaching methods illustration, discussion, conversation.

If with the help of a story it is not possible to provide a clear and precise understanding of certain provisions, then the method of explanation is used.

Explanation this is the interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, phenomena. The explanation is characterized by an evidential form of presentation, based on the use of logically related inferences that establish the basis for the truth of a given judgment. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying the theoretical material of various sciences. As a teaching method, explanation is widely used in working with people of different age groups.

There are certain requirements for explanation: precise and clear formulation of the essence of the problem; consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, reasoning, and evidence; use of comparison, analogy, juxtaposition; impeccable logic of presentation.

In many cases, the explanation is combined with observations, with questions asked by both the trainer and the learner, and can develop into a conversation.

Conversation a dialogical teaching method in which the teacher, by asking a system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned. Conversation as a teaching method can be used to solve any didactic problem. Distinguish individual conversations(questions addressed to one student) , group conversations(questions are addressed to a specific group) and frontal(questions are addressed to everyone).

Depending on the tasks set by the teacher in the learning process, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, and the place of conversation in the didactic process, different types of conversations are distinguished:

- introductory or introductory conversations. Conducted before learning new material for updating previously acquired knowledge and determining the degree of readiness of students for knowledge and inclusion in upcoming educational and cognitive activities;

- conversations communication of new knowledge. There are catechetical(reproduction of answers in the wording given in the textbook or by the teacher); Socratic(involving reflection) and heuristic(involving students in the process of actively searching for new knowledge and formulating conclusions);

- synthesizing, or consolidating conversations. Serve to generalize and systematize students’ existing knowledge and ways of applying it in non-standard situations;

- control and correction conversations. They are used for diagnostic purposes, as well as to clarify and supplement students’ existing knowledge with new information.

One type of conversation is interview, which can be carried out with an individual or a group of people.

When conducting a conversation, it is important to formulate and ask questions correctly. They should be short, clear, meaningful; have a logical connection with each other; reveal in aggregate the essence of the issue being studied; promote the assimilation of knowledge in the system.

In terms of content and form, questions must correspond to the level of development of students (questions that are too easy and very difficult do not stimulate active cognitive activity or a serious attitude towards knowledge). You should not ask double, suggestive questions containing ready-made answers; formulate alternative questions that allow “yes” or “no” answers.

Conversation as a teaching method has undoubted dignity:

Activates the educational and cognitive activity of students;

Develops them speech, memory, thinking;

Has great educational power;

It is a good diagnostic tool and helps to monitor students' knowledge.

At the same time, this method also has flaws:

Requires a lot of time;

If students do not have a certain stock of ideas and concepts, then the conversation turns out to be ineffective.

In addition, the conversation does not provide practical skills; contains an element of risk (the student may give an incorrect answer, which is perceived by others and recorded in their memory).

Lecture This is a monologue way of presenting voluminous material. It differs from other verbal methods of presenting material in its more strict structure; abundance of information provided; logic of presentation of the material; the systematic nature of knowledge coverage.

Distinguish popular science And academic lectures. Popular science lectures are used to popularize knowledge. Academic lectures are used in senior secondary schools, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions. Lectures are devoted to large and fundamentally important sections curriculum. They differ in their structure and methods of presenting the material. The lecture can be used to summarize and repeat the material covered.

The logical center of the lecture is some theoretical generalization related to the sphere of scientific knowledge. Specific facts forming the basis conversations or story, here serve only as an illustration or as a starting point.

The relevance of using lectures in modern conditions is increasing due to the use of block study of new material on topics or large sections.

Educational discussion as a teaching method is based on the exchange of views on a particular issue. Moreover, these views either reflect the participants’ own opinions or are based on the opinions of others. The main function of educational discussion is to stimulate cognitive interest. With the help of the discussion, its participants acquire new knowledge, strengthen their own opinions, learn to defend their position, and take into account the views of others.

This method is advisable to use if students have necessary knowledge on the topic of the upcoming discussion, have a significant degree of maturity and independence of thinking, are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare students for the discussion in advance, both in content and in formal terms.

Working with a textbook and book one of the most important methods training. The main advantage of this method is the ability for the student to repeatedly access educational information at a pace that is accessible to him and at a convenient time. When using programmed educational books, which, in addition to educational information, also contain control information, issues of control, correction, and diagnostics of knowledge and skills are effectively resolved.

Work with the book can be organized under the direct supervision of the teacher (teacher) and in the form of independent work by the student with the text. This method accomplishes two tasks: students learn educational material and accumulate experience working with texts, and master various techniques for working with printed sources.

Let's look at some techniques for working independently with texts.

Note taking a short note, a summary of the content of what was read. There are continuous, selective, complete, and short notes. You can take notes on the material in the first (yourself) or third person. It is preferable to take notes in the first person, since in this case independence develops better thinking.

Testing a summary of the main ideas in a specific sequence.

Abstracting review of a number of sources on the topic with your own assessment of their content and form.

Drawing up a text plan After reading the text, you need to break it into parts and title each of them. The plan can be simple or complex.

Citation verbatim excerpt from the text.

When quoting, the following conditions must be met:

a) the quotation should be correct, without distorting the meaning;

b) an accurate record of the output data is required (author, title of work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page).

Annotation a brief, condensed summary of the content of what was read without losing the essential meaning.

Review writing a review, i.e. a short review expressing your attitude about what you read.

Drawing up a certificate. Help information about something obtained after searching. Certificates can be biographical, statistical, geographical, terminological, etc.

Drawing up a formal logical model verbal-schematic representation of what was read.

Compiling a thematic thesaurus an ordered set of basic concepts on a topic, section, or entire discipline.

Drawing up a matrix of ideas (grid of ideas, repertoire grid)compilation in table form comparative characteristics homogeneous objects, phenomena in the works of different authors.

Pictographic recording wordless image.

These are the basic techniques for working independently with printed sources. It has been established that mastery of a variety of techniques for working with texts increases the productivity of cognitive work and allows you to save time on mastering the content of the material. The transition from one method of working with text to another changes the mode of operation of the brain, which prevents its rapid fatigue.

Demonstration as a teaching method, it involves the display of experiments, technical installations, television programs, videos, filmstrips, code positives, computer programs, etc. The demonstration method serves primarily to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but is also used to familiarize oneself with the appearance of an object and its internal structure. This method is most effective when students themselves study objects, processes and phenomena, carry out the necessary measurements, establish dependencies, due to which an active cognitive process is carried out, their horizons broaden, and a sensory-empirical basis for knowledge is created.

The demonstration of real objects, phenomena or processes occurring in natural conditions has didactic value. But such a demonstration is not always possible. In this case, they use either a demonstration of natural objects in an artificial environment (animals in a zoo), or a demonstration of artificially created objects in a natural environment (small copies of mechanisms).

Three-dimensional models play an important role in the study of all subjects, as they allow one to become familiar with the design and principles of operation of mechanisms (the operation of an internal combustion engine, a blast furnace). Many modern models make it possible to carry out direct measurements and determine technical or technological characteristics. At the same time, it is important to correctly select objects for demonstration and skillfully direct students’ attention to the essential aspects of the phenomena being demonstrated.

Closely related to method demonstrations method illustrations . Sometimes these methods are identified and not distinguished as independent.

The illustration method involves showing objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions, flat models, etc. Recently, the practice of visualization has been enriched with a number of new means (multicolor maps with plastic covering, albums, atlases, etc.).

The methods of demonstration and illustration are closely interrelated. Demonstration, as a rule, is used when students must perceive a process or phenomenon as a whole. When it is necessary to understand the essence of a phenomenon, the relationships between its components, they resort to illustrations.

When using these methods, certain requirements must be met:

Use clarity in moderation;

Coordinate the demonstrated clarity with the content of the material;

The visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students;

The item on display must be clearly visible to all students;

It is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential in the demonstrated object.

A special group consists of teaching methods, the main purpose of which is the formation of practical skills. This group of methods includes exercises, practical And laboratory methods.

Exercise repeated (repeated) performance of educational actions (mental or practical) in order to master them or improve their quality.

Distinguish oral, written, graphic And educational and labor exercises.

Oral exercises contribute to the development of speech culture, logical thinking, memory, attention, and cognitive abilities of students.

Main purpose writing exercises consists of consolidating knowledge, developing the necessary skills and abilities to apply them.

Closely related to written graphic exercises. Their use helps to better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material; promotes the development of spatial imagination. Graphic exercises include work on drawing up graphs, drawings, diagrams, technological maps, sketches, etc.

A special group consists of training exercises, the purpose of which is to apply theoretical knowledge in work. They promote mastery of skills in handling tools, laboratory equipment (instruments, measuring equipment), and develop design and technical skills.

Any exercises, depending on the degree of independence of students, can be worn reproductive, training or creative in nature.

To activate the educational process and consciously complete educational tasks, they are used commented exercises. Their essence lies in the fact that students comment on the actions being performed, as a result of which they are better understood and assimilated.

For exercises to be effective, they must meet a number of requirements. These include students' conscious approach to performing exercises; knowledge of the rules for performing actions; compliance with the didactic sequence in performing the exercises; taking into account the results achieved; distribution of repetitions over time.

Laboratory method is based on independent conduct by students experiments, experiments using instruments, tools, i.e. using special equipment. Work can be done individually or in groups. Students are required to be more active and independent than during a demonstration, where they act as passive observers rather than participants and performers of research.

The laboratory method not only ensures that students acquire knowledge, but also contributes to the formation of practical skills, which, of course, is its advantage. But the laboratory method requires special, often expensive equipment; its use is associated with significant energy and time expenditures.

Practical methods These are teaching methods aimed at applying acquired knowledge to solving practical problems. They perform the functions of deepening knowledge, skills, control and correction, stimulate cognitive activity, contribute to the formation of such qualities as thrift, economy, organizational skills, etc.

Some authors include in a special group active And intensive teaching methods . Scientists and practitioners began to pay close attention to these teaching methods in the 60s. twentieth century, and this was connected with the search for ways to activate students in the learning process. The cognitive activity of students is expressed in a stable interest in knowledge and in a variety of independent learning activities. Traditional teaching technology, aimed at ensuring that the student listens, remembers, and reproduces what the teacher says, poorly develops the student’s cognitive activity.

Active learning methods These are teaching methods in which the student’s activity is productive, creative, and exploratory in nature. Active learning methods include didactic games, analysis of specific situations, problem solving, learning using an algorithm, brainstorming, out-of-context operations with concepts and etc.

Intensive teaching methods are used to organize training in a short time with long one-time sessions (“immersion method”). These methods are used in teaching business, marketing, foreign languages, practical psychology and pedagogy.

Let's look at some of these methods.

Method of didactic games. Didactic (educational) games as a teaching method became very popular in the second half of the twentieth century. Some scientists classify them as practical teaching methods, while others place them in a special group. There are reasons for classifying didactic games into a separate group: firstly, they, absorbing elements of visual, verbal, and practical methods, go beyond them; secondly, they have peculiarities unique to them.

Didactic game This is a collective, purposeful educational activity when each participant and the team as a whole are united in solving the main problem and focus their behavior on winning.

The purpose of didactic games is training, development and education of students. A didactic game is an active educational activity involving simulation of the phenomena, processes, and systems being studied. The game reproduces and simulates reality and the operations of participants in a simplified form, simulating real actions.

Didactic games as a teaching method contain great potential for activation learning process.

Brain attack (brainstorming) a teaching method aimed at activating thought processes through a joint search for a solution to a difficult problem. This method was proposed by the American psychologist A. Osborne. Its essence is that participants put forward their ideas and proposals on the problem. All ideas, even the most unexpected ones, are accepted and undergo group examination and discussion. This method teaches a culture of joint discussion of ideas, overcoming stereotypes and patterns in thinking; reveals a person's creative potential.

Algorithm training as a teaching method used in programmed learning technology. An algorithm in pedagogy is understood as instructions for performing strictly sequential actions with educational material, which guarantees the solution of educational problems at a high level. (For more details, see the lecture “Teaching Technologies”.)

Currently, directions in pedagogy are being actively developed that use the hidden capabilities of students: suggestopedia And cyberneticosuggestopedia (G. Lazanov, V.V. Petrusinsky) teaching by means of suggestion; hypnopaedia sleep learning; pharmacopedia training with pharmaceuticals. Certain results have been achieved in their application in the process of studying foreign languages ​​and some special disciplines.

Teaching methods are used in conjunction with specific teaching aids.

Means of education ( didactic aids) These are sources of acquiring knowledge and developing skills.

The concept of “learning tools” is used in wide And in the narrow sense. When using this concept in in the narrow sense Teaching aids are understood as educational and visual aids, demonstration devices, technical means, etc. Broad meaning assumes that by means of teaching we understand everything that contributes to the achievement of the goals of education, i.e. the entire set of methods, forms, content, as well as special teaching aids.

Teaching aids are designed to facilitate direct and indirect knowledge of the world. They, like methods, perform teaching, educational and developmental functions, and also serve to motivate, manage and control the educational and cognitive activity of students.

In science there is no strict classification of teaching aids. Some scientists divide teaching aids into means used by the teacher to effectively achieve educational goals (visual aids, technical aids) and individual means of students (school textbooks, notebooks, writing materials, etc.). The number of didactic means also includes those with which both the activities of the teacher and the students are connected (sports equipment, classrooms, computers, etc.).

Sensory modality is often used as a basis for classifying didactic means.

In this case, didactic tools are divided into:

- visual (visual), which include tables, maps, natural objects, etc.;

- auditory (auditory) radios, tape recorders, musical instruments, etc.;

- audiovisual (visual-auditory) sound film, television, etc.

Polish didactic V. Okon proposed a classification in which teaching aids are arranged in order of increasing ability to replace the actions of the teacher and automate the actions of the student. He identified simple and complex means.

Simple remedies:

Verbal (textbooks and other texts);

Visual (real objects, models, paintings, etc.).

Complex means:

Mechanical visual instruments (diascope, microscope, overhead projector, etc.);

Auditory aids (player, tape recorder, radio);

Audiovisual (sound film, television, video);

Tools that automate the learning process (language labs, computers, information systems, telecommunication networks).

Didactic tools become a valuable element of the learning process if they are used in close connection with the other components of this process.

Selection of methods educational activities and teaching aids depends on many objective and subjective reasons, namely:

Patterns and principles of learning arising from them;

General goals of training, education and human development;

Specific educational tasks;

Level of learning motivation;

Features of the teaching methodology of a specific academic discipline;

The time allocated for studying this or that material;

Quantity and complexity of educational material;

Level of preparedness of students;

Age and individual characteristics of students;

Students' educational skills are developed;

Type and structure of the lesson;

Number of students;

Student interest;

The relationship between the teacher and students that developed in the process of educational work (cooperation or authoritarianism);

Logistics, availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means;

Peculiarities of the teacher's personality and qualifications.

Taking into account the complex of these circumstances and conditions, the teacher makes a decision on choosing a specific teaching method or their combination for conducting a lesson.

Control questions:

1. Define methods, techniques and teaching aids

2. List the main classifications of teaching methods

3. Expand the classification of teaching methods according to the nature of students’ cognitive activity (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.)

4. What are the conditions for using teaching methods and tools?

3. Pedagogical methods

Like any science, pedagogy is characterized not only by its own subject, but also by a specific set of methods. It is necessary to distinguish, firstly, methods of training and education , with the help of which the pedagogical process is managed, pedagogical goals are realized, and secondly, actual research methods, those. methods of obtaining pedagogical knowledge itself, which allows us to develop these goals and means of achieving them.

Methods of scientific and pedagogical research – these are ways of obtaining information in order to establish patterns, relationships, dependencies and build scientific theories.

Empirical research methods aimed at accumulating pedagogical facts, their selection, analysis, synthesis, quantitative processing: these are observation, survey methods, studying the products and processes of the activities of students and teachers, documentation and archival materials; compilation of monographic characteristics.

Theoretical level methods: selection and classification of material, study, analysis and synthesis of scientific literature on the topic of research, modeling, content analysis, etc.

Observation – this is a purposeful, relatively long-term, organized according to a special program perception of the pedagogical process, its individual types, aspects in natural conditions.

Observation can be continuous or selective. Selectivity can be determined in relation to the subjects of the activity (when observation in a lesson is not carried out for all students in the class, but only, for example, for “excellent students”) or in relation to the content of the activity and the forms of its organization (for example, explaining new material or exercising control) .

Based on observations, an expert assessment can be given. Their results are necessarily recorded. They are recorded in special protocols or observation diaries, where the names of the observed (observed), date, time and purpose are noted. The obtained data is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

The main specific feature of observation is that it does not influence the object of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to it, but waits for their natural expression. This, on the one hand, is an advantage of the observation method (since it allows one to record natural human behavior), and on the other hand, it creates certain difficulties for the researcher (since he is forced to wait until he can observe the phenomenon of interest to him, and therefore must remain indefinitely In standby"). Another disadvantage of this method is that its results are influenced by the personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) of the researcher.

Observation requires a special, pre-planned plan, which includes the following steps:

determining the purpose and objectives of observation (why observe);

choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe);

choosing an observation method (how to observe);

choosing registration methods (how to keep records);

processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result).

Types of observation: direct And indirect.

Direct observation characterized by direct observation of the process and, in turn, is divided into two types (included and non-included).

During participant observation, the researcher acts as the direct organizer of educational or educational work, activities and communication of students, which allows him to penetrate deeper into the essence of the phenomena being studied.

In non-participant observation, the researcher is outside the object being studied. With the help of non-participant observation, facts of overt behavior are recorded.

At indirect observation the researcher learns about the characteristics of the subject being studied through other persons.

To obtain the most objective data, observation must be carried out in compliance with certain rules: have a goal, a program, be carried out systematically and over a long period of time. Recording the process and results of observation must be continuous, thorough and detailed.

Survey methods : interviewing and questioning.

An interview is a method of oral conversation according to a program compiled by the researcher.

Types of interviews:

1) non-standardized (informal), in which the researcher, thinking through the questions in advance, can change them and clarify them during the conversation, depending on the circumstances;

2) a standardized interview, when the researcher asks the subject to precisely formulate answers in a certain sequence. The results of such an interview are quite accurate and easier to record. However, this type of interview does not sufficiently take into account the diversity of life situations;

3) a semi-standardized interview includes precisely formulated questions that can be changed.

Questionnaire – a method that is widely used in pedagogy.

A questionnaire is a written survey that is a set of precisely selected questions.

The method has age restrictions, as it cannot be applied to those who do not have reading and writing skills. Therefore, questioning in the practice of the educational process is used starting from the middle level of secondary schools.

One of its main advantages is the massive nature of information collection. An open questionnaire contains questions without accompanying ready-made answers. The closed-type questionnaire is structured in such a way that for each question the respondent is asked to choose one of the answer options (often the choice is “yes” or “no”). A mixed questionnaire contains elements of both types.

In pedagogical practice, up to 30-40 minutes are allotted for questioning. The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method. The obtained data is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing. However, when processing closed questionnaires, qualitative analysis is practically impossible, since while the choices (“yes” or “no”) are similar among different people, the reasons for such choices remain unclear and cannot be compared.

The main requirements that a survey must meet are representativeness and homogeneity of the sample.

Representativeness of the sample – this property of a sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population totality.

General population – it is the entire population or that part of it that the sociologist intends to study.

Sample population (sample) is a part of the population being studied or a set of people whom a sociologist interviews.

The survey method assumes the possibility of using the principle of anonymity, which can influence the degree of frankness in answers (for example, a questionnaire revealing students’ attitudes towards academic subjects and teachers).

The questionnaire can also be designed to obtain material concerning other individuals (for example, a survey of teachers or parents about the characteristics of children’s learning).

Sociometry – a method of scientific research that allows, based on surveys or recording behavior, to identify the structure of relationships; used to study the structure of groups and teams, organizational and communicative properties of the individual.

Based on the sociometric diagnostic procedure, the founder of which is J. Moreno, in educational practice it is possible to determine the informal leader of a group, class, teaching staff, status hierarchy in the group, group cohesion, etc.

Each individual in the group has his own sociometric status, which can be determined by analyzing the sum of preferences and rejections received from other members.

The totality of all statuses specifies status hierarchy in Group:

Sociometric stars - the highest status members of the group, having the maximum number of positive choices with a small number of negative choices. These are the people to whom the sympathies of the majority, or at least many, members of the group are directed.

High status, average status and low status members of the group, determined by the number of positive choices and not having large number negative elections. There are groups in which there are no sociometric stars, but only high-, medium-, and low-status members.

Isolated – subjects who lack any choices, both positive and negative. The position of an isolated person in a group is one of the most unfavorable, since it indicates that other group members are completely indifferent to this individual.

Les Misérables – those group members who have a large number of negative choices and a small number of preferences.

Neglected or outcasts – members of a group who do not have a single positive choice while having negative ones.

An example of a sociometric technique . Each group member is given a group list and a questionnaire with instructions and two criteria for emotional content such as:

Who from the group do you communicate with or would like to communicate with in your free time?

Which member of the group do you communicate with least often or would least like to communicate with in your free time?

Processing the results:

Based on the questionnaire data, a sociometric matrix is ​​filled out according to the criterion of emotional gravity.

The number of positive (“+”) choices for each group member is counted. It is equal to the number of “+” choices in each column of the matrix.

The number of positive (“+”) points for each participant is calculated. For the first choice the subject is assigned 2 points, for the second - 1 point, for all subsequent choices - 0.5 points.

The number of rejections (“-” choices) for each participant is counted.

The number of points for rejections (“-” points) is calculated for each participant (points are assigned in the same way as points for positive choices only with a “-” sign).

If the application of the five listed criteria for an unambiguous determination of status is not enough, then the participant’s serial number is used as an additional alphabetical list. So, for example, if two or more participants have the same values, then the higher place is taken by the participant who has a lower place in the group list.

A sociogram is being constructed. It is a graphic representation of the (usually) emotional connections between group members. In the diagram, the group members are symbolically designated (by codes), their choices and the direction of these choices are indicated (by arrows).

the value of the indicator of emotional cohesion of the group is determined: C = N B /(N(N – 1)), where C is the emotional cohesion of the group; N B – number of mutual elections in the group; N – number of group members; N(N – 1) – the total possible number of mutual elections in the group.

Pedagogical experiment – scientifically conducted experience in the field of educational or educational work with the aim of identifying the interdependence between the phenomena under study.

The main difference between an experiment and an observation is that the experimenter influences the object under study in accordance with the research hypothesis.

The study of pedagogical phenomena is carried out in specially created controlled conditions. A pedagogical experiment offers active intervention in the educational process.

Types of experiment:

1) laboratory, which is carried out in specially created conditions and allows you to accurately record the nature of the impact on the subjects and their responses;

2) natural experiment, carried out under normal educational conditions, when the subjects do not know that they are taking part in an experiment.

The introduction of an experiment makes it possible to test the effectiveness of curricula, programs for educational work, forms and methods of education and training, etc.

The following stages are usually distinguished in an experiment:

1) theoretical– formulation of the problem, definition of the goal, object, subject, tasks and hypothesis, which can be tested experimentally;

2) methodical– development of research methodology for the plan, program, methods of processing the received data;

3) the experiment itself– creation of experimental situations, observation, management and correction of experimental effects;

4) analytical– quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the data obtained, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.

To establish general patterns of development, the experiment is carried out on large samples. And then it becomes extremely important to comply with the general, identical conditions for its implementation (wording of instructions, appearance and placement of stimulus material, time to complete buildings, etc.).

The results of the experiment, as well as during observation, are recorded in special protocols, where, in addition to information about each subject (last name, first name, age, etc.), his reactions (emotional and behavioral), verbatim speech statements, and time for completing tasks are recorded.

A properly designed experiment allows you to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships and relationships, without limiting yourself to stating correlations between variables.

There are traditional and factorial types of experimental designs. The traditional one assumes changes in only one independent variable, while the factorial one assumes changes in several. In the second option, it becomes possible to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. In this case, analysis of variance is used to statistically process the experimental results.

If the area under study is relatively unknown and there is no system of hypotheses, then a pilot experiment is used, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis.

When planning and conducting an experiment, it is necessary to take into account the socio-psychological effects that influence its course and results. The most noticeable effects include:

Audience effect . It is determined by the fact that the presence of an audience, even a passive one, in itself affects the rate of learning of the subject or his performance of the proposed task. Typically, the presence of spectators at the initial stages of training rather confuses the subject, and at the stage of performing an already mastered action (or an action that requires physical effort), on the contrary, it facilitates its implementation. This effect must be taken into account in psychological and pedagogical research and in pedagogical practice, since training, as a rule, takes place in a group form.

Boomerang effect. It consists in the fact that with some influences of a source of information on individuals or a group, a result opposite to the expected one is obtained. As a rule, this is observed if:

1. trust in the source of information has been undermined;

   the transmitted information for a long time has a monotonous character that does not correspond to the changed conditions;

   the subject transmitting information causes hostility among those who perceive it.

In pedagogical practice, this effect can be observed in the “teacher-student” relationship and negatively affect students’ assimilation of educational material.

3. First impression effect . It is expressed in the fact that often when perceiving a person, his appearance and character, the greatest importance is attached to the first impression and subsequent information about this person, if it contradicts it, can be ignored, and observed manifestations that do not fit into the created image are considered random and uncharacteristic. The first impression effect is very close in content to the halo effect.

4. Halo effect . Acts as a dissemination of the general evaluative impression of a person on the perception of his actions and personal qualities. It is observed, as a rule, in conditions of a lack of information about a person. In other words, the first impression of a person determines his subsequent perception and assessment, allowing into the consciousness of the perceiver only that which corresponds to the first impression, and filtering out what is contradictory. When forming a first impression, the halo effect can act as:

"positive halo"- positive evaluative bias, i.e. if the first impression of a person is generally favorable, then all his behavior is overestimated in a positive direction, positive aspects are exaggerated, and negative ones are underestimated or ignored;

"negative halo"- negative evaluative bias, i.e. if the first impression of a person is unfavorable, then even his positive qualities and actions are later not noticed or underestimated against the background of hypertrophied attention to shortcomings.

The first impression effect and the halo effect must be taken into account by the organizers of experimental research and especially by teachers, since due to their specific nature professional activity must constantly assess the level of learning of students; rigid assessment can be a psychologically traumatic factor. Overcoming these effects (as, indeed, many others) requires a certain amount of work from the teacher, primarily a constant reflexive analysis of his activities.

5. Hawthorne effect . It says that If subjects know the hypothesis accepted by the experimenter, then it is likely that they will involuntarily or intentionally behave in accordance with the experimenter's expectations. In general, just participating in an experiment has such an impact on the subjects that they often perform as the experimenters expect them to. To reduce the Hawthorne effect, it is enough to keep subjects unaware of the accepted hypotheses and give them instructions in as emotionally neutral a tone as possible.

6. Pygmalion effect (Rosenthal effect). Associated with the experimenter's expectations. When he is deeply convinced that the reactions of the subjects will change, then, even with his desire to maintain objectivity, there is a high probability of involuntary transmission of these expectations to the subjects, and this can affect their behavior. American psychologist Rosenthal so called the phenomenon that an experimenter, firmly convinced of the validity of his assumptions, involuntarily acts in such a way that he receives confirmation of them.

Simulation method , which is based on the creation of models of the object of study.

A special role in the development of science is played by mathematical models, the importance of which in research is increasingly expanding. In pedagogical research, objective models of objects and subjects of scientific research are distinguished: models of the process of teaching and upbringing, school lessons, university forms and methods of teaching and upbringing, control and assessment of knowledge, skills, models of a student of a certain level of performance, etc.

Studying school documentation (personal files of students, medical records, class registers, student diaries, minutes of meetings) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.

Theoretical methods are related to studying literature : works of classics on issues of human science in general and pedagogy in particular; general and special works on pedagogy; historical and pedagogical works and documents from periodical pedagogical press; fiction about school, education, teachers; reference pedagogical literature, textbooks and teaching aids on pedagogy and related sciences.

Studying the literature makes it possible to find out which aspects of the problem have already been sufficiently well studied, which scientific discussions are ongoing, what is outdated, and which issues have not yet been resolved.

Working with literature involves the use of methods such as:

compiling a bibliography - a list of sources selected for work in connection with the problem under study;

abstracting – a concise presentation of the main content of one or more works on a general topic;

note-taking – keeping more detailed records, the basis of which is highlighting the main ideas and provisions of the work;

annotation – a brief record of the general content of a book or article;

citation – a verbatim recording of expressions, factual and numerical data contained in a literary source.

Mathematical and statistical methods in pedagogy they are used to process the data obtained by survey and experiment methods, as well as to establish quantitative dependencies between the phenomena being studied. They help evaluate the results of an experiment, increase the reliability of conclusions, and provide grounds for theoretical generalizations.

Examples of such statistical methods are:

factor analysis;

cluster analysis;

analysis of variance;

regression analysis;

latent structural analysis;

multidimensional scaling, etc.

Factor analysis is to identify and interpret factors. A factor is a generalized variable that allows you to collapse part of the information, i.e. present it in a convenient form. For example, the factor theory of personality identifies a number of generalized characteristics of behavior, which in this case are called personality traits.

Cluster analysis allows you to identify the leading feature and the hierarchy of feature relationships.

Analysis of variance – a static method used to study one or more simultaneously acting and independent variables for the variability of an observed characteristic. Its peculiarity is that the observed feature can only be quantitative, while at the same time the explanatory features can be both quantitative and qualitative.

Regression analysis allows you to identify the quantitative (numerical) dependence of the average value of changes in the resulting characteristic (explained) on changes in one or more characteristics (explanatory variables). As a rule, this type of analysis is used when it is necessary to find out how much the average value of one characteristic changes when another characteristic changes by one unit.

Latent structure analysis is a set of analytical and statistical procedures for identifying hidden variables (signs), as well as the internal structure of connections between them. It makes it possible to explore the manifestations of complex relationships between directly unobservable characteristics of psychological and pedagogical phenomena. Latent analysis can become the basis for modeling these relationships.

Multidimensional scaling provides a visual assessment of the similarities or differences between certain objects described by a large number of different variables. These differences are represented as distances between the objects being assessed in multidimensional space.

The most common in pedagogy are also: grouping, ranking, scaling, etc.

Grouping – combining, according to essential characteristics, units of the object under study into homogeneous populations. The grouping procedure is preceded by a thorough analysis of the problem being studied. During this analysis, the basis of the grouping is determined, i.e. main features, semantic units, etc., according to which the studied population is divided into homogeneous groups. The selected groups can be easily compared, compared, which means it is possible to analyze more deeply this or that psychological and pedagogical statement.

The scientific validity of the grouping also depends on compliance with the basic principles of the grouping in the process of its implementation: the division of heterogeneous phenomena into homogeneous ones; finding common and similar phenomena; determining the characteristics by which types should be distinguished; determining the transition interval from one type to another.

In pedagogical research, the following types of grouping are used:

1) grouping using simple summation

homogeneous characteristics , due to which the absolute numbers of their manifestations in the studied population are determined;

2) ranging, i.e. groupings of the studied units of the population depending on the increase or decrease of the characteristic being studied;

3)scaling – grouping based on logically identified features using a pre-developed ordinal or interval scale. Scaling makes it possible to organize, quantify, and determine the lowest and highest levels of the phenomenon under study;

tabulation – construction of statistical tables.

The results of statistical work, in addition to tables, are often presented graphically in the form of diagrams, figures, etc. The main methods of graphically representing statistical quantities are: the method of points, the method of straight lines and the method of rectangles. They are simple and accessible to every researcher. The technique of using them is drawing coordinate axes, establishing a scale and writing out the designations of segments (points) on the horizontal and vertical axes.

Using statistical methods, the average values ​​of the obtained indicators are determined: arithmetic mean; median - indicator of the middle of the series; degree of dispersion - dispersion, or standard deviation, coefficient of variation, etc. To carry out these calculations, there are corresponding formulas and reference tables are used. The results processed using these methods make it possible to show a quantitative relationship in the form of graphs, diagrams, and tables.

3. The relationship between the concepts of “pedagogical technology” and “methods of teaching and education”

Defining the concept " educational technology", we used the terms: method, technique, method, means. The same terms are used when defining the methodology of teaching a certain subject or the methodology of educational work. However, these concepts are different.

Under methodology usually understood set of methods and means of implementation pedagogical activity in the process of training and education. At the same time, methodology is a pedagogical science that studies 1) the patterns, content, methods and means of teaching a specific academic subject (private methodology); 2) features of the organization of the educational process in various educational institutions (methodology of educational work). However m methodology studies a variety of methods (techniques) and means of the pedagogical process, without arranging them in a certain logic, according to a certain algorithm.

Technology differs from the methodology precisely in its algorithmic and targeting a specific diagnosable result. In passing, we note that pedagogical technology is not reduced to an algorithm as an exact reproduction of actions, since it takes into account and allows for within certain limits creativity of teachers and students.

There are other approaches to distinguishing the concepts under consideration. The technique reveals to a greater extent teacher activity system in a lesson or in extracurricular educational work (what to present and in what sequence, what means to use, how to organize the various stages of the lesson, etc.). Technology, along with the activities of the teacher, describes the activities of the students themselves. In addition, the methods have a soft, recommendatory nature, while technologies more strictly prescribe a certain sequence of actions for students and the teacher, deviation from which may hinder the achievement of planned results. Technologies provide the opportunity to reproduce them, but methods are much more difficult to reproduce. They are largely based on intuition, tradition, and personal qualities of the teacher. The technology is always scientifically substantiated, based on certain philosophical, psychological or pedagogical theories that do not depend on the personality of the teacher.

The question of which of these concepts is broader - pedagogical technology or methodology - is debatable. We should agree with N.I. Zaprudsky is that this question cannot be answered unambiguously. Within the framework of technology, a teacher can use local proprietary methods and, conversely, within the framework of the author’s methodology, he can use elements of well-known technologies.

4. Classification of pedagogical technologies

Exist different reasons for classification of educational technologies. Thus, it is possible to group technologies according to the level of application, according to the philosophical basis, according to the leading factor of mental development, according to the concept of assimilation, according to organizational forms, according to the approach to the child, according to the predominant method, according to the category of students, according to the nature of the content and structure, according to the direction of modernization of the existing traditional systems (G.K. Selevko, G.D. Levites, etc.), by the degree of generalization, by the level of subjectivity of the performer (S.S. Kashlev), by the type of organization and management of cognitive activity (V.P. Bespalko). Let us name some of the most important classifications from the point of view of a practicing teacher.

By level of application There are general pedagogical, specific methodological and local technologies. General pedagogical technology characterize the holistic pedagogical process (pedagogical system) in a given region or educational institution. Private methodological(subject or educational) technology characterizes the totality of goals, content, methods and means of activity of the teacher and students within the framework of one subject or area of ​​education. Local (narrow subject, modular) technology characterizes individual parts of the educational process, the process of solving individual didactic or educational problems.

By degree of generality distinguish macro-technologies, which determine the philosophy and strategy of the pedagogical process, and micro-technologies - the tactics of pedagogical interaction, its specific techniques. Examples of macro-technologies are the technology of collective creative activity, the system of developmental education, information Technology etc., microtechnologies - discussion technology, travel game, etc.

By the nature of the content and structure technologies are: teaching and educational, secular and religious, general education and professionally oriented, humanitarian and technocratic, as well as monotechnologies, polytechnologies (complex) and penetrating technologies. For example, in monotechnologies the entire educational process is built on any one dominant, priority idea or concept. IN complex technologies use elements of various monotechnologies. Technologies whose elements are most often included in other technologies and at the same time play the role of catalysts are called penetrating.

According to the level of subjectivity of the performer Pedagogical technologies can be classified into production (reproductive), social (problematic) and humanitarian (creative). At the same time, under production or reproductive technology is understood as an algorithmic technology that can be fully reproduced, regardless of the user’s identity. These include, for example, technologies of programmed training, modular training, and university education. Social(problematic technology) involves taking into account the user’s identity. Social technologies are: project-based learning technology, cooperative learning technology, Dalton technology, etc. Humanitarian or creative technologies are own technologies created by the teacher in the process of professional activity.

The basis of the classification by type of organization and management of cognitive activity the nature of the interaction between teacher and student is determined. This interaction, according to V.P. Fingerless, maybe open(uncontrolled and uncorrected activity of students); cyclical(with control, self-control and mutual control); absent-minded(front) or directed ( individual); manual(verbal) or automated(using educational tools). The combination of these features determines different types of technologies (learning systems):

1) classical lecture learning (open-ended, scattered, manual);

2) training with the help of audiovisual technical means (open-ended, scattered, automated);

3) “consultant” system (open-loop, directed, automated);

4) learning with the help of a textbook (open-ended, directed, automated);

5) system of “small groups” (cyclical, scattered, manual);

6) computer training (cyclical, scattered, automated);

7) “tutor” system (cyclical, directed, manual);

8) “programmed training” (cyclical, directed, automated).

In practice, various combinations of these monotechnologies are usually found: modern traditional training, programmed training, group and differentiated teaching methods, etc.

In the direction of modernizing the existing traditional system The following groups of technologies are distinguished:

A ) technologies based on humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations characterized by the priority of personal relationships, an individual approach, the democratic nature of management, the humanistic orientation of the content, and procedural orientation. These include: pedagogy (technology) of cooperation, humane-personal technology Sh.A. Amonashvili and others.

b) technologies based on the activation and intensification of student activities. These are, for example, gaming technologies, problem-based learning technology, learning technology based on circuit and symbolic models (reference signals) V.F. Shatalov, technology of project-based learning, etc.

V) technologies based on the effectiveness of organizing and managing the learning process. Examples are: technology of programmed learning, technology of differentiated learning, technology of individualization of learning, technology of advanced learning (S.N. Lysenkova), technology based on collective learning methods, information and computer technologies.

G) pedagogical technologies based on methodological improvement and didactic reconstruction of educational material: technology for enlarging didactic units (P.M. Erdniev), technology “Dialogue of Cultures” (V.S. Bibler, S.Yu. Kurganov), pedagogical system “Ecology and Dialectics” (L.V. Tarasov), etc.;

d) p nature-conforming, using folk pedagogy methods based on the natural processes of child development: training system L.N. Tolstoy, the pedagogical system of M. Montessori, etc.

e) alternativetechnologies: Waldorf pedagogy, technology of free labor S. Frenet and others.

With all the variety of pedagogical technologies in each of them, the following classification characteristics can be distinguished:

Level of application;

Philosophical basis;

Targets and orientations;

The main factor in personality development

Scientific concept of knowledge acquisition;

The child’s position in the pedagogical process;

Features of the content of education (focus on personal structures, volume and character, etc.);

The predominant method of teaching or upbringing;

Forms of the pedagogical process;

Management of the pedagogical process (diagnosis, planning, etc.);

When analyzing pedagogical technology, you should pay attention to its software and methodological support: curricula and programs, teaching aids, didactic materials, visual aids and technical teaching aids; diagnostic tools.

Teaching methods are ways of joint activities between the teacher and children, aimed at achieving their educational goals. Skills - learn to quickly and accurately, intuitively, visually or aurally recognize (distinguish, guess) the studied animal objects and flora.

When teaching, the teacher develops children to think, observe, and act. To teach, we must find ways for the child to learn and achieve a certain level of knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Teaching methods are methods that encourage students to think and practice in the process of mastering educational material.

Training in educational activities based on mastering the content of academic subjects should be developed in accordance with its structure and characteristics. This topic is relevant in pedagogy, since it implies a search for the scientific foundations of learning, which would recognize the individual capabilities of each child and their changes in the process of age-related development.

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Municipal autonomous educational institution

additional education

"Center of children's creativity"

r.p. Red Baki, Nizhny Novgorod region.

Essay

"Pedagogy"

"Teaching methods"

Prepared

additional education teacher

Pogodina Nadezhda Yurievna

2014

Introduction 3

1. Teaching methods. 3-6

2. Observation. 6-7

3. Experiences and experimentation. 7-11

4.Modeling. 11-12

5. Game methods. 12-13

6. Verbal teaching method. 13-14

6. Basic concepts of didactics. 14-15

8. The principle of clarity. 15-17

Conclusion. 17-18

Bibliography. 19

Introduction.

Teaching methods are ways of joint activities between the teacher and children, aimed at achieving their educational goals. Skills - learn to quickly and accurately, intuitively, visually or aurally recognize (distinguish, guess) the studied objects of the animal and plant world.

When teaching, the teacher develops children to think, observe, and act. To teach, we must find ways for the child to learn and achieve a certain level of knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Teaching methods are methods that encourage students to think and practice in the process of mastering educational material.

Training in educational activities based on mastering the content of academic subjects should be developed in accordance with its structure and characteristics.This topic is relevant in pedagogy, since it implies a search for the scientific foundations of learning, which would recognize the individual capabilities of each child and their changes in the process of age-related development.

The main goal of training isachieving optimal general development every child, acquisition of knowledge, skills, development of cognitive and creative abilities.

Teaching methods.

The success of the educational process largely depends on the teaching methods used.A teaching method is a system of consistent interconnected ways of working for teachers and students, which are aimed at achieving didactic objectives.

There are several classifications of training:

1.Practice . Practical methods include exercises, illustrations, diagrams, educational games. Practical method better than others in teaching children to conscientiously complete a task. They are forming

the habit of carefully organizing the work process, including awareness of the goals of the work ahead, analysis of the task and the conditions for its solution, a work plan, preparation of materials and tools, careful control of the quality of work, analysis of conclusions. Exercises are the systematic, organized, repeated performance of actions in order to master them or improving their quality. Without properly organized exercises, it is impossible to master educational and practical skills.

2. Visual – observation, demonstration.Thus, visual methods are used at all stages of the pedagogical process. Their role is to provide comprehensive, imaginative perception, to serve as a support for thinking.

The principle of clarity says: everything that is possible must be explained and shown to the child on objects, pictures, and visual examples. This is explained by the fact that the leading forms of thinking at this age are visual-effective and visual-figurative. The conceptual form of thinking in preschool age manifests itself only in its simplest forms (visual-schematic thinking). Therefore, visual explanations are always more accessible. IN kindergarten Various types of visualization are used:

• natural (real objects, plants, animals),
• picture and picture-dynamic (photos, drawings, paintings, filmstrips, etc.),
• three-dimensional visibility (models, dummies),
• audiovisual (movies, videos),
• graphic (diagrams, drawings), experimental (elementary experiments).

Requirements for visibility: must really reflect the surrounding reality, correspond to the level of development of children, be highly artistic in content and design.

3. Verbal - explanation, story, reading, conversation.

Verbal methods and techniques - their effectiveness largely depends on the teacher’s own speech culture, on its imagery, emotional expressiveness, and accessibility for children’s understanding.

A form of education is a method of organization that is carried out in a certain order and mode. The main form of organizing the education of children in a preschool institution is classes. They are organized and conducted by the teacher in accordance with the program.

There are 3 forms of training organization:

• individual,
• group, (with subgroup),
• frontal (with the whole group).

The individual form of training organization contains many positive factors. The teacher has the opportunity to determine the task, content, methods and means of teaching in accordance with the level of development of the child, taking into account the pace of his assimilation of the material, the characteristics of mental processes, etc.

Group forms of training assume that classes are conducted with a subgroup of no more than 6 people. The basis for recruitment may be personal sympathies, common interests, but in no case a coincidence in levels of development. Each subgroup should have children with different levels of development, then the “strong” ones will become “beacons” for those who are often classified as lagging behind. Ensuring such interaction between children in the educational process is the main function of the group form of education.

Frontal classes are also necessary in a modern preschool. Their content may be an activity of an artistic nature. In these classes, the effect of “emotional influence of empathy” is important, which leads to increased mental activity and encourages the child to express himself.

Methods, content, organization training sessions with kids preschool age are significantly dependent on the teacher’s understanding of the principles of teaching and the ability to apply them in their activities.

By purpose - this is the acquisition of knowledge, the formation of skills, the application of knowledge, creative activity, the consolidation of knowledge and the testing of knowledge, abilities and skills.

Observation - this is a child’s purposeful, systematic perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, in which perception, thinking and speech actively interact. Using this method, the teacher directs the child’s perception to highlight the main, essential features in objects and phenomena, to establish cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies between objects and phenomena.
Different types of observations are used in teaching children:
I) recognizing nature, with the help of which knowledge is formed about the properties and qualities of objects and phenomena (shape, color, size, etc.);
2) changes and transformations of objects (growth and development of plants and animals, observation of fish, cats and kittens, etc.) - provides knowledge about

processes in objects of the surrounding world;

3) reproductive nature, when, based on individual characteristics, it is established

the state of an object, in part – a picture of the entire phenomenon.

Observations can be short-term or long-term. Short-term observations are fully included in classes and are carried out with handouts. Long-term observations are carried out in nature (for example, observing the emergence and development of a seedling from a seed - radishes after 1-2 days, onions - 1-2 weeks, carrots - 3-4 weeks, etc. .d.

Even small children peer with interest at unfamiliar objects, try to grasp, touch, and taste them. No means of visualization: neither a collection, nor an educational table, nor a screen can replace observations of plants and animals in nature.

The demonstration method includes various techniques:

Display of objects (everything we can show) - children look at doll furniture and clothing, dishes, household items, tools, equipment for drawing, modeling, appliqué, etc.

Showing a sample is one of the techniques used when teaching visual arts and design. A sample could be

drawing, applique, craft;

Demonstration of actions - used in classes on the development of movements, must be accurate, expressive, divided into parts; may be complete or partial;

Demonstration of paintings and illustrations helps children imagine those sides and

properties of the objects and phenomena being studied that they cannot directly perceive.

Experiences and experimentation.

This is when the student acts on an object in order to learn properties and connections.Experiments and experiments are carried out in different ways: demonstration (the teacher himself conducts the experiment and demonstrates it; children follow the progress and

results) and frontal (the objects of the experiment are in the hands of

children) - both teach children to observe, analyze, and draw conclusions.

Children experience great joy, surprise and even delight from their

small and large “discoveries” that make them feel

Satisfaction from the work done.

In the process of experimentation (independent or under the guidance of a teacher), children have the opportunity to satisfy their inherent curiosity (why? why? how? what will happen if...?), to feel like a scientist, researcher, discoverer.

Experimentation acts as a teaching method if it is used to transfer new knowledge to children. At this age, the goal of experimentation is to help children think through a plan for its implementation, and carry out the necessary actions together with the children. Gradually involving children in predicting the results of their actions: “What will happen if we blow on a dandelion?” It is necessary to teach children to select and find the necessary material and equipment, perform simple actions, see the result of the activity, thereby developing children’s own research activity. In class, the teacher poses a problem and outlines a strategy and tactics for solving it; the child has to find the solution on his own.

The teacher poses a problem, but the children look for a method to solve it on their own (at this level a collective search is allowed).

Experimental work causes in children interest in the study of nature, develops mental operations (analysis, synthesis, classification, generalization, etc.), stimulates the child’s cognitive activity and curiosity, activates the perception of educational material on familiarization with natural phenomena, the basics of mathematical knowledge, the ethical rules of life in society and etc.

Conducting experiments and experimentation delights children. Experience is fun and exciting, but at the same time, in each experience the cause of the observed phenomenon is revealed, children are led to judgment, conclusion, their knowledge about the properties and qualities of objects, about their changes is clarified. Each experience helps to find solutions to all kinds of problems and makes it possible to understand why everything happens this way and not otherwise, encourages an independent search for reasons, methods of action, and creativity.

A preschool child by nature is characterized by an orientation towards understanding the world around him and experimenting with objects and phenomena of reality. Already at a young preschool age, learning about the world around him, he strives not only to look at an object, but also to touch it with his hands, tongue, smell it, knock it, etc. At an older age, many children think about such physical phenomena as the freezing of water in winter, the propagation of sound in air and water, the different colors of objects in the surrounding reality and the ability to achieve the desired color themselves, “walk under the rainbow,” etc.

IN everyday life Children often experiment on their own with various substances, trying to learn something new. They disassemble toys, watch objects falling into the water (drowning or not drowning), testing metal objects with their tongues in severe frost, etc. But the danger of such “amateur activities” lies in the fact that the preschooler is not yet familiar with the laws of mixing substances and basic safety rules. An experiment, specially organized by a teacher, is safe for the child and at the same time introduces him to the various properties of surrounding objects, the laws of life of nature and the need to take them into account in his own life. Initially, children learn to experiment in specially organized activities under the guidance of a teacher, then the necessary materials and equipment for conducting the experiment are brought into the spatial-subject environment of the group for independent reproduction by the child, if this is safe for his health. In the process of experimentation, the child needs to answer not only the question like me I do this, but also to questions, Why that's exactly what I dothis way and not otherwise, whyI do what I want find out what to get as a result. Mastering a system of scientific concepts and experimental methods will allow the child to become a subject of learning, learn to learn, which is one of the aspects of preparation for school. However, preschoolers’ acquaintance with the physical phenomena of the world around them differs in content and methods from school education. In a preschool educational institution, the acquisition of knowledge about physical phenomena and methods of knowing them is based on the child’s keen interest and curiosity and is carried out in a fun way without memorizing, memorizing and repeating rules and laws.Experiment in kindergartenallows children to be introduced to specific research methods, various measurement methods, and safety rules when conducting experiments. Children, first with the help of adults and then independently, go beyond the knowledge and skills acquired in specially organized activities and create a new product - a building, a fairy tale, air saturated with smells, etc. Thus, the experiment connects creative manifestations with the aesthetic development of the child.

The basis of a child’s cognitive activity in experimentation is the contradictions between existing knowledge, skills, acquired experience in achieving results by trial and error and new cognitive tasks, situations that arose in the process of setting the goal of experimentation and achieving it. The source of cognitive activity is overcoming this contradiction between the learned experience, which allows the child to show independence and creativity when completing a task. The development of children's ability to experiment is a certain system, which includes demonstration experiments carried out by the teacher in specially organized activities, observations, laboratory work performed by children independently in the spatial-subject environment of the group (for example, gaining experience with magnets, various ways of measuring objects and etc.). Each fundamental natural science concept with which we propose to introduce children (temperature, time, liquid, gas, solid, gravity, movement, light, sound, etc.) is experimentally substantiated and clarified for the child in the process of observation, mental and real experimentation. As a result, we can conclude that the fundamental laws of nature are deduced by the child independently, as a result of experiment.

Thus, familiarizing preschoolers with the phenomena of inanimate nature (physical phenomena and laws) occupies a special place in the system of diverse knowledge about the world around them, since the subject of familiarization is present, regulates, exerts its influence and continuously influences the development of the child.

A generalization of many years of experience of teachers, analysis of methods and programs allows us to conclude that experimental and research activities carry great opportunities for the comprehensive development of children: it develops their thinking, enriches their knowledge, active and passive vocabulary, and encourages the desire to create rather than destroy.

When experimenting with preschoolers, we should not forget that the main thing is not the child’s acquisition of memorized knowledge, but the formation in him of a caring, emotional attitude towards the world around him and skills of environmentally literate behavior. There is no need for children to remember as many different names as possible. You can always do without using terms that are complex and incomprehensible to a child. It is much more important to instill in children a cognitive interest in natural objects, the desire and ability to observe, experiment, and understand that everything in the world around them is interconnected.

Modeling.

Modeling is a visual and practical teaching method. The model is a generalized image of the essential properties of the modeled object (room plan, geographical map, globe, etc.)

The modeling method is that a child’s thinking is developed with the help of special schemes, models that reproduce the hidden properties and connections of a particular object in a visual and accessible form.

The modeling method is based on the principle of substitution: the child replaces a real object with another object, its image, or some conventional sign.

Initially, the ability to substitute is formed in children through play (a pebble becomes candy, sand becomes porridge for a doll, and he himself becomes a dad, a driver, an astronaut). The experience of substitution also accumulates during the development of speech and in visual activities.

Modeling carried out in the process of teaching and raising children serves to develop their abilities, deepen their knowledge of the basics of science and materials processing technology. It promotes the connection between theory and practice, the formation of practical skills, and is a means of broadening the horizons of children.Different types of models are used in preschool education. First of all, substantive ones, in which the design features, proportions, and interrelationships of parts of any objects are reproduced. These can be technical toys that reflect the principle of the mechanism; building models.

Older preschoolers have access to subject-schematic models in which essential features and connections are expressed using substitute objects and graphic signs.

Game methods.

In order for a preschooler to develop the plot of the game and model this or that activity of adults, he must understand its meaning, motives, objectives and norms of relations that exist between adults. The child cannot do this on his own. Only familiarization with the types of work available to preschool children, prepared by the teacher, reveals to them the meaning of the labor relationships of adults and the significance of the actions they perform. On this basis, play arises, and the child, realizing the role he has taken, begins to delve deeper into the meaning, understand the motives and goals of people’s activities, as well as the meaning of his role and his actions.

Didactic games go very well with teaching. The inclusion of didactic games and playful moments makes the learning process interesting and entertaining, creates a cheerful working mood in children, and makes it easier to overcome difficulties in mastering educational material. A variety of play activities, with the help of which one or another mental task is solved, support and enhance children’s interest in the academic subject. Play should be viewed as a powerful, indispensable lever for a child’s mental development.

During the game, children develop the habit of focusing, thinking independently, developing attention, and the desire for knowledge. Being carried away, children do not notice that they are learning: they learn, remember new things, navigate unusual situations, replenish their stock of ideas and concepts, and develop their imagination. Even the most passive children join the game with great desire, making every effort not to let their playmates down. During the game, children are usually very attentive, focused and disciplined. Play is one of the most important means of mental and moral education of children. A.S. Makarenko attached great importance to play as an educational tool: “What a child is like at play, so in many ways he will be at work when he grows up. Therefore, the education of a future leader occurs, first of all, in play.”

Verbal teaching methods.

Verbal teaching methods include story, lecture, conversation, etc. The conversation method involves a conversation between the teacher and the children. The conversation is organized using a carefully thought-out system of questions that gradually leads children to master a system of facts, a new concept or pattern. Conversations are possible during which students recall, systematize, generalize what they have previously learned, draw conclusions, and look for new examples of using a previously studied phenomenon in life. Any conversation creates an interest in knowledge and develops a taste for cognitive activity. Conversations can be of different levels: some conversations are conducted after observing a narrow range of observed objects (for example, a conversation about migratory birds, about the wintering of animals in the forest, etc.), others touching a wider range of phenomena (for example, conversations about the seasons), to systematize children’s knowledge about the phenomena of inanimate nature, about the life of plants, about animals, about the work of people. In the first part of the conversation, in order to prepare children for generalization, the teacher’s questions to the children are also included: “Which birds fly first? How did we recognize the rooks? Where did we see them? What were the rooks doing in the field? What do rooks eat?” When the teacher and the children find out all this, he asks: “Why do rooks arrive earlier than other birds?” (Similarly about other birds - starling, swallow, etc.) In the second part of the conversation, you can ask a question that requires generalization: “Why don’t all birds arrive at the same time?”Reliance on children's experience and a logical sequence of questions ensures greater interest and active mental activity of children.

A story is a verbal teaching method, the study of material that clearly and emotionally conveys new knowledge, facts, and events.

There are several types of stories: introductory story, exposition story, conclusion story. Terms effective application The story consists of carefully thinking through the plan, choosing the most rational sequence for revealing the topic, successfully selecting examples and illustrations, and maintaining the proper emotional tone of the presentation.

Explanation – interpretation of concepts, laws, rules with the widespread use of calculations, observations and experiments. The explanation can be scientific, business, analytical, evidential and technical.

Briefing is an explanation of the progress of upcoming work, methods of performing tasks, and a safety warning. Instruction differs from explanation in practicality, specificity and brevity. Briefing can be introductory, ongoing and final.

According to the purpose of the conversation, there are:

1. Introductory or organizing;
2. Communication of new knowledge;
3. Synthesizing or fixing;
4. Control and correction.

Basic concepts of didactics.

Didactics is a branch of pedagogy aimed at studying and revealing the theoretical foundations of organizing the learning process (patterns, principles, teaching methods), as well as searching and developing new principles, strategies, techniques, technologies and teaching systems.

Functions of education: The educational function is to equip children with a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, and teach them how to use them in practice. Knowledge in pedagogy is defined as understanding, storing in memory and reproducing facts of science, concepts, rules, laws, theories. The acquired knowledge is characterized by completeness, awareness and effectiveness. This means that during the learning process, children receive the necessary information on the basics of science and types of activities.
The developmental function of education means that in the process of learning and assimilation of knowledge, children develop. This development occurs in all directions: the development of speech, thinking. Learning leads to development. We can say that all learning develops due, first of all, to the content of education and, secondly, due to the fact that learning is an activity. And personality, as is known from psychology, develops in

process of activity.

The educational function of teaching follows from its very content, forms and methods. It consists in the fact that in the process of learning, moral and ethical ideas, a system of views on the world, the ability to follow the norms of behavior in society, to comply with the laws adopted in it are formed. However, education in the learning process is complicated by the merging of external factors (family, microenvironment, etc.), which makes parenting a more complex process. During the learning process, the needs of the individual are also formed.

The principle of didactics refers to a certain system of requirements for the learning process, the fulfillment of which ensures its necessary objectivity.

The age and mental characteristics of the child are “generalization of experience” or “intellectualization of affect.” In other words, the child tries to build his behavior independently in accordance with certain rules and requirements.

The principle of visibility.

This principle plays an important role in teaching preschool children, since the thinking of a preschooler is visually effective and visually imaginative. Using various types of visualization - observing living objects, looking at objects, paintings, illustrations, samples, using diagrams, etc. – promotes a conscious perception of those phenomena and objects that an adult introduces children to. The principle of clarity corresponds to the basic forms of thinking of a preschooler.Visualization ensures lasting memorization.

The principles of learning imply an objective patternthe starting points that guide the teacher.

There are a number of principles:

1. The principle of developmental education is based on the doctrine of zones of actual development, which presupposes not only the previous result of the child’s existing knowledge, but also the highest result achieved with the help of the teacher.
2. The principle of educational training involves filling the content of training with positive feelings and images that convey the characteristic features of a person’s perception of the world around him.
3. The principle of accessibility in education meets the requirements for the age and level of development of the child. The principle of accessibility requires that the volume and content of the material be within the capabilities of children, correspond to the level of their mental development and the existing stock of knowledge, skills and abilities.

The principle of accessibility presupposes the fulfillment of the following conditions - didactic rules: a) follow in teaching from simple to complex; b) from easy to difficult; c) from the known to the unknown.

1. The scientific principle requires that the proposed material meets modern scientific achievements. That elementary knowledge about the world around us that children receive in younger age, should not be rejected subsequently, but should only be expanded and enriched.
2. The principle of systematicity and consistency is based on developments in which established knowledge should be given constantly, but not in one form, but in different forms and should become more complex from simple to complex, from understandable to incomprehensible.
3. The principle of consciousness and activity of children in acquiring knowledge.

Consciousness in learning is a positive attitude of children towards learning activities, their understanding of the essence of the problems being studied, and their conviction in the significance of the knowledge they receive. Children's activity is their intense mental and practical activity in the learning process. Activity acts as a prerequisite, condition and result of the conscious acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities.

1. The principle of an individual approach to children is one of the main principles of pedagogy. The very problem of an individual approach is creative in nature, but there are main points in implementing a differentiated approach to children - knowledge and understanding of children; love for children; the teacher’s ability to think and analyze. Children should always feel supported by the teacher.

Conclusion.

Thus, we can draw the following conclusions: Education is the purposeful cognitive activity of children under the guidance of a teacher, the goal of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by children, the development of cognitive and creative abilities.

Teaching methods are ways of joint activities between the teacher and children, aimed at achieving their educational goals. Skills - learn to quickly and accurately, intuitively, visually or aurally recognize (distinguish, guess) the studied objects of the animal and plant world. It is methodically correct, in compliance with all safety measures, to check the processing of the objects being studied in order to comprehensively determine (study) them. Develop dedication, patience, endurance and objectivity when observing objects, processes and their subsequent assessment. Master the methodology of research, establishment, conduct, completion, generalization and conclusions of school experimentation.

Principles of teaching are the basic provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with this

goals and patterns.

The main principles of teaching are: the principle of scientific learning, the principle of accessibility, the principle of consciousness and activity, the principle of clarity, the principle of systematicity and consistency, the principle of the strength of knowledge acquisition, the principle of educational training, the principle of connecting theory with practice and the principle of appropriateness of training to age and age.

individual characteristics of children. D educational principles are generally accepted; they form the basis of the traditional teaching system.

Persistence in learning potentially increases with age. This means that older children are capable of longer studies, but the extent to which this ability is realized largely depends on the attitudes and interests of the children.”

Literature

1. Babansky Yu. K. Choice of teaching methods in secondary school. / M., 1981.
2. Dyachenko V.K. New didactics. M., TKVelby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2001
3. Lerner I. Ya. Didactic foundations of teaching methods. M., 1981.
4. Okon V. Introduction to general didactics. M., 1990.
5. Podlasy I. P. Pedagogy. New course: Textbook for students. ped. universities: In 2 books. Book 1. M.: VLADOS, 2005.
6. Repkin V.V., Repkina N.V. Teaching methods: theory and practice - Tomsk, 1997.
7. Slastenin V. A., Isaev I. F., Shiyanov E. N. General pedagogy: Textbook. aid for students higher textbook institutions / Ed. V. A. Slastenina: At 2 o’clock. M., 2002.
8. Modern didactics: theory and practice / Ed. I. Ya. Lerner, I. K. Zhuravlev. M., 2004.

A variety of teaching methods (including language) allow teachers to teach rationally to both schoolchildren and students. The second generation federal educational standards include a section devoted to this issue.

Pages of history

During the existence of Ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Syria, there was lively trade between the countries, there were cultural ties, so even then the first methods of teaching a foreign language appeared. Particular attention was paid to the Latin language, which for fifteen centuries was considered the basis of European culture. Possession of it was considered an indicator of a person’s education. To teach this language, a translation method of teaching was used, which was subsequently borrowed when studying German, French, English languages. The natural teaching method solved a practical problem - teaching speaking skills.

What are teaching methods

The teaching method is the most important component of the educational process. Without the use of certain techniques and techniques, it is impossible to achieve the goals set and make the process meaningful and of high quality.

In domestic pedagogy, the term “teaching method” implies not only general teaching, but is also used to consider individual sections - theory and practice.

Modern teaching methods are a multidimensional, complex pedagogical phenomenon. They usually mean options for achieving a set goal, a set of operations and techniques for theoretical or practical mastery of reality, and solving specific problems depending on the academic discipline being taught.

The teaching method is a system of purposeful actions of the teacher, organizing the practical and cognitive activity of the student, which ensures that he masters the content of education.

The importance of methodological techniques

It is thanks to pedagogical techniques and methods that interaction between student and teacher is carried out, various

Many domestic scientists are convinced that the teaching method in teaching any academic discipline is the main tool of a teacher’s professional activity. This implies not only the organization of the teaching work of the teacher and the educational and cognitive activity of the student, but also the relationship between them, as well as activities that are aimed at achieving the educational, developmental, educational goals of education.

In order to intensify the cognitive activity of students, the teacher acts as a mentor, with the help of which the student comes from ignorance to knowledge, from a complete lack of knowledge to a solid base.

Classification

Due to the appearance of various names, methods of teaching disciplines must be divided according to certain characteristics and components. Among the main characteristics by which they are divided into separate groups are:

1. Presence (absence) of the initial stock of knowledge during training. This group is characterized by the use of mixed, transfer, direct teaching methods.
2. The relationship between theory and practice in developing speaking skills. This group uses consciously comparative, practical teaching methods.
3. Application of specific mental states of students studying any academic discipline. The use of relaxation, auto-training, and sleep state is expected.
4. Alternative (suggestive) and traditional (standard) disciplines.

In addition, methods and techniques for teaching a foreign language are divided into two groups according to the method of organizing educational activities. Management of mental activity can be taken over by the teacher or the students themselves.

Basic teaching methods

In didactics, teaching methods are distinguished according to the specific activities of students and teachers. This:

• work with educational literature;
• story;
• demonstration experiments;
• briefings;
• conversations;
• exercises;
• lectures.

By source of knowledge acquisition

The second generation Federal State Educational Standards allow the use of visual and verbal methods by teachers of any academic discipline.

For example, when studying chemistry, it is optimal to use a combination of visualization and laboratory experiments. Thanks to problem-based learning, cognitive interest in studying this complex but interesting science is motivated.

In geography lessons, the teacher actively uses visual tables, and in history he offers the children a video describing historical events in order to build a logical chain together with their students.

Thanks to the modeling of problem situations in social studies lessons, children receive information about social and public relations and independently solve specific problems proposed by the teacher of this academic discipline.

Analytical method

It was used in France, England, Switzerland, but in Russia it was practically not used. The basis of this method of learning was vocabulary. To create a sufficient vocabulary, students mechanically memorized original literary works in their native and foreign languages, then line-by-line literal translation was used, and the meaning of what they read was analyzed.

Swiss Alexander Chauvanne was convinced that it was possible to begin full-fledged education only after schoolchildren had developed skills in their native language, as well as other academic disciplines related to the choice of a future profession: mathematics, physics, biology, geography, chemistry.

It was they who proposed the parallel study of native and foreign languages, based on the connection of several academic disciplines. Instead of an abstract study of grammar, this approach involved the analysis of various situations and the accumulation of vocabulary. Only after the student had formed a sufficient vocabulary did the teacher begin to explain

In modern schools, forms and methods of teaching are divided according to the degree of activity of schoolchildren into explanatory, search, illustrative, problem-based, and research types. They are used by teachers of different subjects, trying to synthesize several methods taking into account the individual characteristics of children.

According to the logic of the approach, methods, in addition to analytical, are also divided into deductive, inductive, and synthetic.

Hamilton's technique

James Hamilton based the educational process on the use of original texts, as well as on the use of interlinear literal translation. This approach has found application in Russian and foreign languages.

First, the teacher read the text many times, then the students read it out, and then individual phrases were analyzed. The specificity of the teacher’s work was that the initial text was repeated many times, both collectively and individually by each student.

Grammatical analysis was carried out after the teacher understood that the students were reading the text consciously and they had fully grasped its meaning. The emphasis was on developing oral communication skills.

Jacotot technology

Jean Jacotot believed that any person is capable of achieving the goal he set, because he has good natural abilities for this. He was confident that any original text includes the necessary linguistic facts, which, having mastered, the student will be able to master grammatical basis foreign speech, understand the theoretical foundations of any subject of the scientific and humanitarian cycle.

In psychology, a similar method is called analogy; in modern schools it is used in chemistry, biology, geography, and mathematics lessons.

Features of the pedagogical process

Over a long period of time, the learning process at school consisted of three stages:

• mnemonic part, which involves rote memorization of the proposed sample;
• analytical part, consisting in the analysis of acquired information;
• synthetic part, which consisted of using the acquired knowledge in relation to new material.

In order to consolidate new knowledge in the learning process, written and oral exercises, stories, laboratory and practical work, analysis of individual text fragments, and dialogues were used.

The lexical-translation method has become a more progressive option for teaching schoolchildren language and other academic disciplines, which is why it is still in demand today.

Mixed method

It was quite actively used in the 30s of the twentieth century in our country. Its essence was the development of speech activity, in which learning to read was highlighted as a priority. Teachers of secondary schools were given the task of raising a patriot of their country who can communicate in several languages, knowledgeable mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geography.

Methodists were convinced that it was necessary to divide material into receptive and productive types. At the initial stage, it was meant to be a “practical” study of the material on an intuitive level, and due attention was not paid to its awareness.

Conclusion

Currently, among the numerous methods and techniques used by teachers of secondary schools, the system-activity communicative method is one of the most progressive. It is used by teachers of various academic disciplines and consists of using scientific material discussed in lessons as a means of socialization and interpersonal communication.

New state federal standards introduced into educational institutions, are aimed at developing students’ desire for self-development and self-improvement, therefore teachers actively use in their work the technologies of personal learning, individual approach, project and research activities, and the technology of creating problem situations.

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Introduction

1. Characteristics of active learning methods

2. Methods of problem-based learning

3. Interactive teaching methods

4. Methods of “practical modeling” in the process of activating students’ mental activity

Introduction

The organization of training from the standpoint of reproducing acquired knowledge, which is currently prevalent in the teaching practice of secondary specialized educational institutions, constantly gravitates towards a methodology that reduces the preparation of a specialist to memorizing the knowledge that makes up the content of the academic discipline.

This technique is poorly focused on the development of his personality, capable of not only assimilating ready-made knowledge, but also creatively processing it.

With such an organization of the educational process, the activity of the student, i.e. educational activity itself is reduced to the process of assimilation of disciplinary knowledge. Indeed, there is a clear simplification of educational activity, reducing it to the student obtaining ready-made knowledge in the disciplines being studied.

However, simplification does not make the acquisition of science simple and accessible. On the contrary, this technique complicates true assimilation, forcing the student to engage in something unnatural for a creative person - memorizing, cramming “disciplinary knowledge”, which is memorized for each discipline separately without any visible connection with each other and often without connection with future profession. As for the development of the creative side of the individual, such training has a rather negative impact on it.

Ultimately, the type of organization of teaching that prevails in the practice of secondary educational institutions implies the accumulation of a sum of knowledge from all academic disciplines that constitute the total intellectual basis of the profession, supposedly sufficient for future activities.

Thus, the main result of learning is knowledge, and not a person who is able to create, create new knowledge in his professional field, constantly learning in the process of activity independently. It is clear that such an organization of learning needs to be reoriented: from focusing on memorizing ready-made knowledge, it is necessary to move on to the formation of personal new formations, the ability to learn creatively, processing scientific knowledge and social experience in relation to the needs of practice.

If this is so, then self-study and teaching of academic disciplines should be based on methodological principleIphysical approach, in the implementation of which it is not the teacher who teaches, but the student who learns himself in the process of his own activities.

The more active the learner’s cognitive activity, the higher the effectiveness of learning.

The role of the teacher in these conditions turns into the role of an organizer of the student’s educational activities, and not a person who literally teaches him, passing on his knowledge during teaching.

The teacher organizes the student’s educational activity in such a way that he does not passively perceive and absorb the text of educational material or the teacher’s words, but actively thinks, extracting the necessary scientific information from both sources.

Therefore, the teacher is the organizer of the student’s educational activities both at the lecture, and in the process of independent work, and in practical and laboratory classes. Thanks to such an organization, the student is not a passive consumer of information, but an active “getter” and producer of it.

Teaching methods that provide such learning activities are called active learning methods. “Active learning methods mean those methods thatO which make it possible to organize learning as a productive creative activity associated with the achievement of a socially valuable product in conditions of both joint and nindividual educational activities" -

Research problem: will be determined by the need to use active learning methods in the practice of training specialists and the insufficient development of their organizational support in the teaching process in secondary educational institutions.

This work poses purpose reveal the features of various active learning methods in the learning process in secondary educational institutions.

Research objectives:

1. Define and characterize the main methods of active learning.

2. Reflect the specifics of their application in the learning process at secondary school.

Teaching methods: analysis of pedagogical literature on the problem under study, observation, analysis of teaching experience.

1. Characteristics of active learning methods

First of all, it is necessary to consider the classification of active methods from the point of view of psychology. They can be divided into the following groups of methods that are most interesting for use in the learning process. These are methods: problem-based learning and interactive (communicative) learning, practical modeling.

Let us briefly consider them from a psycho-pedagogical aspect in order to understand what explains their effectiveness in the formation of various types of thinking and thereby ensuring high learning results.

2. Methods of problem-based learning

The quality of a student's educational activity is often assessed mainly by the presence of knowledge in his memory. And what is the degree to which students truly assimilate this knowledge, that is, the ability to apply it creatively in their daily activities? In most cases, this most important aspect of the matter is left for future practice: when life demands it, then, they say, the graduate will show his ability to apply the acquired knowledge. During study, only the degree of memorization is checked. This is mainly due to the inability to correlate theoretical knowledge and practical skills of students.

Meanwhile, the ability to apply the studied theory in practice is a necessary professional skill that must be developed in students in the process of development and learning.

In the field of education, thinking, which underlies cognitive activity, acts as a process based on the need to have knowledge about the laws and patterns of development of the world in order to use this knowledge for correct orientation in this world, for correct practical actions.

It is best to trace the connection between a student’s studies and the functioning of his thinking through problem-based learning, which, unlike the so-called traditional (reporting, narrating, informing) constantly puts the student in a problem situation, the solution of which certainly requires the work of thinking.

Placing a student in a problem situation is the creation of an intellectual difficulty for him, which he can cope with only with the help of thinking.

What opportunities for developing students’ thinking are contained in problem-based learning?

According to research by the famous psychologist A.M. Matyushkin, with problem-based learning, the majority of students (more than 70%) cope with tasks of the highest, fifth level of difficulty (tasks were divided into five levels of difficulty), and with traditional learning - only the most capable students (about 15% of subjects).

Why does problem-based learning produce better results?

When analyzing experimental data from foreign (A.I. Gebos, L. Szekely) and domestic psychologists (A.M. Matyushkin, T.V. Kudryavtsev) and teachers (I.Ya. Lerner, N.G. Dairi, M.I. Makhmutov) It was concluded that the reasons for the higher effectiveness of problem-based learning are, firstly, the greater intellectual activity of the student, caused by a cognitive need - the desire to find the unknown unknown at all costs, without which he will not be able to solve the problem.

Secondly, knowledge is acquired as certain general patterns or methods of action, allowing them to be used in the future when solving a wide class of other problems, and not as an illustration of a particular case related to the pattern being studied, which in traditional teaching is usually communicated to students in a ready-made form.

How are the theoretical principles of the psychology of problem-based learning implemented methodologically, that is, how are problem situations created for the student so that he has a need to solve an intellectual problem, a desire to think?

To get an answer to this question, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with such basic pedagogical concepts as problematic task, problematic question, problematic task, problematic nature as a principle of teaching.

Problem task- this is a didactic concept that denotes an educational problem with clear conditions set by the teacher (lecturer) or identified and formulated by one of the students (students), and due to this, received a limited search field (as opposed to objectively arising in front of a person life problem) and became available for solution by all trainees (students).

Problematic question- this is a part of a problematic task or a separate educational question (question-problem), requiring an answer to it through thinking. A question that requires recall from memory is not problematic.

Problematicexercise-- this is an educational task compiled by a teacher, methodologist, author of a textbook in the form of a problematic task or problematic question (question-problem) in order to put trainees (students) in a problematic situation.

Problematicism as a principle of learning- this is a didactic principle that is only beginning to be established in practical teaching methods (it does not yet exist in the theory of pedagogy). Its essence is this: when organizing the learning process, the content of the educational material is not presented to students in a form ready for memorization, but is given as part of a problem task as an unknown unknown. It can become known and assimilated by students only as a result of their own search mental activity to solve a problematic problem.

Thus, problem-solving as a principle of learning not only requires (precisely requires) to organize the content of acquired knowledge in a special way, but also dictates a special method of assimilating it - through the mental actions of the student to search for this content.

3 . Interactive teaching methods

Interactive learning is training that is based on the psychology of human relationships and interactions. In the teacher’s activity, the central place is occupied not by the individual student as an individual, but by a group of interacting students who, when discussing issues, argue and agree with each other, stimulate and activate each other. When using interactive methods, the most powerful effect on intellectual activity is the spirit of competition, rivalry, and adversarialism, which manifests itself when people collectively search for the truth. In addition, this applies psychological phenomenon, as an infection (not imitation, but infection), and any thought expressed by a neighbor can involuntarily evoke its own, similar or close to the one expressed or, conversely, completely opposite.

During such a lesson, the teacher is required to be much more active and creative than when it takes place passively, in the form of retelling truths read in books or long-known. Interactive methods will bring the greatest effect, not only teaching, but also educational, when the teacher influences the discussion not only by expressing a scientifically reasoned point of view, but also by expressing his personal attitude to the problem, his ideological and moral position. The forms of teacher participation in student discussions can be very diverse, but in no case by imposing one’s opinion. This is best done through finely calculated management of the course of discussions, through the formulation of problematic issues that require productive thinking and a creative search for truth. The teacher expresses his point of view only in order to draw conclusions from student statements and reasoned refutation of erroneous judgments. His position may coincide with the opinions of the students, since they arose as a result of the teacher’s leading questions. With such techniques, one can not only direct the substantive, intellectual and cognitive side of the discussion of theoretical issues, but also construct joint productive activities, thereby influencing the personal position of students, turning their educational activities into teaching and educational activities.

Thus, with interactive teaching methods, the joint educational activity of students, thanks to the participation of the teacher himself in discussions with them as if on equal terms, turns into a kind of model of social communication of individuals in real creative (productive) activity, and not just an interaction of activities (teaching and educational ). “The personal components of educational interactions during joint educational activities, and not the knowledge acquired by students themselves, have a direct impact on their inner world and are the main carriers of the educational function of the educational situation.”

Interactive learning methods may include the following:

1) heuristic conversation,

2) discussion method,

3) “brainstorming”,

4) round table method,

5) the “business game” method and some others, used by individual teachers - enthusiasts of active learning methods.

Let's briefly look at each of them.

Heuristic conversation. The method received its name from the teaching method “heuristics”, which dates back to Socrates (gr. - I find, discover, seek). The method in its ancient Greek version was a teaching system based on the so-called Socratic conversations. In them, through skillfully formulated leading questions and examples, they encouraged the student to come to an independent correct answer to the question posed.

In this context, we are talking about a teaching method that is different from the Socratic one, but, of course, is similar to it in one essential characteristic - the function of obtaining answers from students through activating their thinking through skillfully posed questions. By its psychological nature, heuristic conversation is collective thinking or conversation as a search for an answer to a problem. Therefore, in pedagogy, this method is generally considered to be a method of problem-based learning, along with the so-called problem-search conversation, from which heuristic conversation is psychologically no different. Pedagogy draws a formal-quantitative boundary between them: if in a heuristic conversation it is supposedly possible to touch on only one element of a topic, then in a problem-search conversation - a whole series of problem situations. However, such a distinction does not stand up to criticism, since in practice, when the conversation really unfolds in class, this invisible boundary between “just one” and “a whole series” of problems is impossible to notice: the conversation between the teacher and the audience turns into a conversation on many issues, relevant to the topic, that is, it imperceptibly turns into a discussion. But this is a different teaching method, about which a little later.

It is necessary to pay attention to why heuristic conversation is not considered among the methods of problem-based learning, although it is built on a mental search for a solution to a learning problem. If in a conversation, a mental search turns into a collective search, where there is an exchange of opinions, guesses, assumptions, various options for intermediate solutions, when students seek the truth in interaction and mutual assistance, activating each other’s thinking. That is why it is logical to consider it as a method of interactive learning.

Posing questions to develop a conversation in a heuristic manner is subject to the same conditions that are observed when using problem-based learning methods. And the process of an extensive heuristic conversation caused by a problematic situation is nothing more than the implementation of one of the methods of interactive teaching, which requires a special art of management from the teacher.

Discussion method is an “overflowing” heuristic conversation, or, more accurately, a specially programmed free discussion of theoretical issues of the curriculum, which usually begins with the formulation of a question and unfolds initially as a heuristic conversation. The fact that it gradually turns into a discussion is a normal course of the lesson.

The discussion method is used in group forms of classes at seminars-discussions, workshops, interviews to discuss the results (or progress and methods) of completing assignments in practical and laboratory classes, when students need to speak out. Sometimes lecture-discussions are also practiced, when the lecturer, in the course of presenting the material, addresses the audience with individual questions that require short and quick answers. A discussion in the full sense cannot unfold at a lecture, but a debatable question that prompted several different answers from the audience at once, without leading to the choice of the final, most correct one (since there was no discussion), already creates a psychological atmosphere of collective reflection and a willingness to listen carefully to reasoning lecturer answering this debatable question.

Brainstorming method as a teaching method has not yet managed to take root in the practice of university teaching. The name of the method itself was born in the management system, as well as in the field of scientific research. It is especially widely used in economic management activities and management. What is the essence of brainstorming in its original sense, without regard to learning? It consists of searching for an answer from specialists to a complex problem through intensive expressions of all kinds of ideas that come to mind, guesses, assumptions, random analogies, as well as necessary and unnecessary associations spontaneously arising among those present. Then, from this entire conglomerate of recorded opinions, random remarks, even abstract words-exclamations, through careful analysis, ideas that are most interesting in their proximity and the intention of the organizer of the brainstorming session are selected and used for further in-depth discussion on the essence of the issue. The golden rule of a brainstorming session is to not question or criticize anything said by the conversation participants, but to ensure complete freedom to express any ideas, even absurd ones. Such psychological freedom allows you to behave uninhibitedly, not be embarrassed by “stupid thoughts”, not be afraid to embarrass yourself with an unsuccessful remark, seem like a funny klutz, and so on. In such an environment, a truly intense “ferment of minds” occurs (especially when the participants get used to it), the most incredible, truly crazy ideas are born, many of which, however, are no good (at least for solving this problem), but unexpectedly arise what you need. This is why a brainstorming session is started. But this is used to find a successful solution in management, scientific research.

How can this rather original method be used in secondary educational institutions? It must be said that the range of possibilities for its use in teaching is still extremely narrow, but the brainstorming method can be used when the goal is to convince students of the difficulties of solving a problem.

The round table method was borrowed by pedagogy from the fields of politics and science. “Round tables” are usually organized to discuss a problem by representatives of different political and scientific trends. The exchange of opinions allows us to find some common ground, so that in further work they can serve as a starting point for the search for common conclusions - obtaining scientific truth or achieving political stability in society.

In teaching, the round table method is used to increase the efficiency of mastering theoretical problems by considering them in different scientific aspects, with the participation of specialists in different fields, and so on. heuristic interactive training seminar

Business game method originally appeared not in the education system, but in the practical sphere of management. Now business games are used in a variety of areas of practice: in research work, in the process design developments, in the collective development of decisions in real production situations, as well as in military affairs. By the way, the prototype of the modern “business game” as a training method is precisely war games, practiced since ancient times to train troops not in real situations of combat and war, but in situations of war games that simulate the conditions of battle and combat operations. Games in military affairs are “business games”, where they teach the commander to control troops, and the soldier - to control himself in tense battle conditions.

In the professional training of specialists in various fields, the business game is most often used to teach management activities.

The essence of the business game method as a teaching method lies in the educational modeling of situations of the activity that students are to be taught, so that on models, and not on real objects teach future

4. Methods of “practical modeling” in the process of activating students’ mental activity

As you know, the word “model” comes from Latin word“modus”, which means image, measure, method. Researchers note that the model acts as an intermediate link through which the practical and theoretical development of an object is mediated. Consideration of the main forms of development and stages of use of models leads to the general conclusion that in modern scientific knowledge there is a tendency to generalize the information contained in the term “model”. Thus, the scope of application is constantly expanding and the variety of its forms is growing while maintaining a certain, single common basis for all types and types of models.

A number of works by foreign authors deny the possibility of a general definition of a model; having described the functions of models, it is possible to determine how to use the model, but it is impossible to determine what a model is. Some explain this phenomenon by the fact that each phenomenon has countless analogues, but only some of them that satisfy a number of requirements can be considered models. The main and most general requirement are the significant similarity and non-significant difference between the model and the original in terms of a specific cognitive task.

V.A. Shtoff understands a model as a mentally represented or materially realized system, which, reflecting or reproducing the object of study, is capable of replacing it so that its study gives us new information about this object.

In this definition R.V. Gabdreev included four signs:

a model is a mentally represented or materially realized system;

it reproduces or reflects the object of study;

it is capable of replacing an object;

its study provides new information about the object.

I.B. Novik, A.I. Uemov explains modeling as the study of objects of educational and scientific knowledge on their models.

The learning process will be more effective if methods are used that develop students' research skills and prepare them for independent creative work.

The side of the modeling method relating to the learning activities of teaching is analyzed in the works of S.I. Arkhangelsky. He examines models of scientific research and the educational process, which act as clearly expressed and mentally represented starting systems for scientific and pedagogical research.

One of the most important requirements for the model, as V.T. writes. Kuzdryavtsev, - its reproducibility - is carried out in this way: the pedagogical system in a pedagogical college, promoting the formation of characteristics contained in the optimal model of a professional’s activity, performs the functions of teaching the basics of professional skills.

In reality, a variety of elements are subject to modeling, which, in general, could represent almost the entire system of secondary specialized education: curricula, programs, educational activities of students, activities of teachers, personality and psychological qualities of specialists, their knowledge, abilities and skills, work activities of specialists in in general.

Using modeling, you can obtain information about the object being studied that could not be obtained using other methods. The modeling process itself is especially valuable for the student, since creating a model contributes to the development of his creative activity.

It is well known that any work can be made attractive and interesting if there is an element of creativity in it. Of course, the process of creativity must be understood broadly; it manifests itself in a person in any activity: these are ways of comprehending and processing educational material, methods of mental activity, the nature of the implementation of knowledge in certain production situations, that is, ways of solving professional problems.

A person’s whole life, his work activity is the solution of tasks set before him by life, the process of work and study. It is no coincidence that many scientists paid great attention to educational tasks and emphasized the role of tasks not so much in consolidating knowledge, but in the formation of a research style of mental activity.

Solving problems ensures the formation of skills to apply knowledge in new conditions and contributes to the most active accumulation and assimilation of knowledge. AND I. Lerner writes: “Cognitive tasks are intended only to complement existing teaching aids and must be in an appropriate combination with all traditional means and elements of the educational process.”

A.A. Golikov, Yu.N. Kushelev believe that with a skillful combination of various forms, methods of teaching, and their complex application, conditions are created for the active assimilation of knowledge and the development of creative activity of students (18).

It is noted that setting tasks is a necessary condition in the development of students’ creative activity. Psychology claims that every mental activity is a solution to a problem. Every problem contains a question, the answer to which is not immediately found; you have to look for it yourself. Numerous studies conducted by psychologists and didactics have shown that solving search problems contributes to the development of creative activity and therefore the use of cognitive and practical problems should take place not only in mathematics, physics, chemistry, but also in teaching humanities.

Psychological aspects of the use of tasks in learning were studied by N.A. Menchinskaya, A.F. Esaulov. A.F. Esaulov believes that until recently there was almost no generalized and generally accepted definition of the very concept of “task”.

In the literature devoted to problems, signs, tasks, its types, individual methods of solution are considered; different meanings are attached to the definition of the very concept of “task”. The English scientist W.R. has an interesting approach to this issue. Reitman, who defines a problem as a system that has or is given a description of something, but it does not have anything that would satisfy this description.

Clarifying this definition, A.F. Esaulov notes that a task is an inconsistent or even contradictory relationship that creates a need for their transformation. The essence of the solution lies precisely in the search for overcoming ways of such inconsistency, which for a whole class of problems can reach a pronounced contradiction. Here the characteristics characteristic of the tasks are noted. In relation to the educational process, the following formulation is appropriate: task- this is a system that informs about any phenomenon, object, process, in which only part of the information is clearly defined, and the rest is unknown, it can only be found on the basis of solving a problem, or the information is formulated in such a way that between individual concepts, provisions there are inconsistencies and contradictions that require a search for new knowledge, evidence, transformation, and coordination.

That definition draws attention to the fact that:

1) the constituent elements of the problem are the given, the sought (unknown), the question (condition, requirement);

2) the most important feature of cognitive tasks is the presence of inconsistency and contradiction.

M.I. Makhmutov notes that the task is an objective phenomenon and turns into a subjective one only after the student understands and perceives it. In this process, the student, relying on what is known to him, conducts a further search and assimilation of new knowledge, methods and means of solving the problem. The task stimulates students' thinking, brings their educational activities closer to scientific research, to a certain extent introduces them to the stages, methods, and means of scientific knowledge and, of course, prepares students for their future practical activities.

It is well known that a student can often present the material he has read, but is sometimes unable to apply it in his activities. To prevent such situations and organize active cognitive activity, various tasks are very useful, the solution process of which is characterized by high mental stress, independent search, evidence, and reasoning.

Solving problems maximally mobilizes and develops such mental operations as analysis and synthesis, abstraction, comparison, concretization, generalization, and teaches students the correct application of these operations in their cognitive activity. This process brings emotional revitalization to the lesson and increases interest in this discipline.

However, the role and importance of tasks should not be overestimated. Solving problems gives positive results only when it is used in combination with other methods and means and when the teacher methodologically correctly determines the place of the problem in the educational process.

L.G. Semushina, B.R. Borshanskaya, N.S. Podlesskaya believe that tasks can play different roles in learning. They are used for the purpose of: 1) providing a more convincing explanation of individual theoretical principles in the classroom; 2) effective organization applying knowledge in practice and demonstrating practical significance theoretical provisions; 3) repetition, reproduction and consolidation of knowledge; 4) control and self-control of knowledge and skills; 5) developing skills for creative use of knowledge in new conditions; 6) organizing targeted preparation of students for the next lecture, seminars, practical and other classes.

The tasks can be used in lectures, seminars, practical classes, consultations, during educational and industrial practice, and so on.

The use of cognitive tasks in the educational process requires taking into account the following features: 1) tasks in these disciplines were not used in high school, therefore school graduates are not prepared to solve such problems and methods for solving them have not been developed by university didactics; students should be taught to solve problems; 2) tasks in social and humanitarian disciplines have their own specifics, which reflect the peculiarities, the nature of social phenomena, and the characteristics of the humanities.

A special type of organization of collective, cognitive activity is business training games. The origins of the business game can be traced back to the magical rites of the ancients. The immediate predecessor of the business game can be considered a military game, which originated in the 17th century. The first business game, called the organizational and production test, was developed and conducted in Leningrad in 1932 by M.M. Birshtein. However, for a number of reasons, the business game did not receive serious development and application at that time and was revived in the USA only in 1957, where it was carried out using a computer. Currently, business games have become an integral part of most curricula and training programs (24).

Some define play as a biological, historical, social phenomenon. The sphere of gaming activity covers large expanses of the material and ideal world: real and abstract, known and unknown, simple and complex, past, present and even future.

A.V. Petrovsky notes that in our country, business games became the object of research and development in the 60s, and are now intensively used in many teacher training colleges. Interest in them is due to those opportunities to achieve the goals of training and education that cannot be provided by other, traditional or new forms and methods of teaching.

The specific features of socio-economic systems allow for different approaches to the formation of simulation methods of active learning. One of them is method of analyzing specific situations. It is traditionally believed that the method of specific situations consists in the fact that the teacher organizes problem situations when students solve a number of specific scientific, industrial, managerial and other problems. In essence, the method of specific situations is a problematic presentation of knowledge with the subsequent organization of independent cognitive activity of students.

The training requirement is collective decision-making in a given situation.

V.Ya. To intensify the activity, Platov advises forming several competing groups, each of which develops its own version of the solution and then condemns them. During the discussion, it is possible to organize a preliminary review, and public defense of decisions, and other ways of creating and maintaining emotional stress trainees.

Sometimes two most interesting techniques for analyzing specific situations stand out: : incident method and method of acting out the situation in roles. In the first case, “micro-situations”, service incidents, instructive stories are analyzed, in which the teacher succinctly outlines the essence of the problem, the conditions for its occurrence and involves students in resolving it. Usually, these are clear examples from life, which are quickly absorbed by students and, as a rule, are well improvised in exams.

Using the method of analyzing specific situations in the educational process allows students to develop skills in solving professional problems. The effectiveness of a manager depends on his ability to manage people.

Accordingly, there is a need for teaching methods. Such methods are role-playing and simulation games.

In “role-playing,” students perform their future job responsibilities. The difference is that students, acting out the “main characters,” make their own decisions. In such performances, they have the opportunity to observe the reaction of their comrades to their words, actions, and behavior. This method is aimed largely at developing team behavior skills and the ability to analyze the nature of interpersonal relationships.

V.Ya. Platov notes that the main difference between simulation games and role-playing games is the absence of a model of the socio-economic environment; the work of specific managers and specialists is not modeled. All that remains is the model of the environment. These games imitate some economic, legal, socio-psychological and other principles that determine people's behavior and their interaction.

V.Ya. Platov highlights organizational, activity andGry, the leadership of which is usually represented by specialists in various fields who perform different functions in the game. The tasks of the researcher's leader are to obtain a solution to the problem posed. The task of the leader - the organizer of the game - is to ensure the collective activity of the participants and their interpersonal and intergroup communication at all stages of solving the problem.

A.V. Petrovsky gives the following definition of a business game: “A business game is a form of recreating the objective and social content of a future professional figure bskills of a specialist, modeling those systems of relations, toOwhich are characteristic of this activity as a whole" (24).

The business game synthesizes the characteristic features of the method of analyzing specific situations and role-playing games. This makes it the most effective of the active learning methods, but also the most time-consuming to develop.

The first thing that distinguishes a business game from other methods of active learning is that its basis can only be a model of the socio-economic system as a whole, and not its individual elements.

The second fundamental difference is that in a business game the modeled system is considered dynamic. In the game this manifests itself in the form of a so-called “decision chain”. Based on the information received, players develop a solution at the next control step, which affects the object, and so on. In the intervals between the impacts of management decisions on the object, business communication and joint activities of game participants take place. Thus, the presence of a “decision chain” is special, distinguishing a business game from all active learning methods (2).

In a business game, only the most typical, generalized professional situations are reproduced in a compressed time scale. The problems of modeling as a way to study various objects of nature and society are now very widespread in science.

It is common knowledge that simulation is widely used in scientific research. However, this method does not find such wide and systematic application in teaching students. Simulation in combination with other methods allows students to learn more complete knowledge, ensures a high scientific level and creative nature of specialist training. Unfortunately, this method has not been sufficiently studied and the experience of its use has not been generalized. In addition, it requires special experimental research.

List of used literature

1. Badmaev B. Ts. Methods of teaching psychology: Educational method. manual for teachers. and graduate students of universities. M.: Tumanit, published. VLADOS center, 1999.

2. Bashmakov M.I., Pozdnyakov S.P., Reznik N.A. Design of information environments // School technologies. - No. 5. -M., 2000.

3. Bespalko V.P., Tatur Yu.G. Systematic and methodological support of the educational process of training specialists: Educational method. allowance. -M.: Higher. school, 1989.

4. Fingerless. P. Programmed learning (didactic foundations). - M.: Higher. school, 1970.

5. Badmaev B. Ts. Psychology in the work of a teacher: In 2 books. M.: Tumanit, published. VLADOS center, 2000.

6. Galperin P.Ya. To the doctrine of interiorization // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

7. Galperin P. Ya. Development of research on the formation of mental actions // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

8. Galperin P.Ya. Psychology of thinking and the doctrine of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

9. Galperin P. Ya. Organization of mental activity and

effectiveness of teaching // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

10. Galperin P. Ya. On the psychological foundations of programmed learning // New research in pedagogy. sciences - Issue IV. -M., 1965.

11. Lerner I. Ya. Problem-based learning. -- M., 1974.

12. Lyaudis V.Ya. Methods of teaching psychology. -M. , 1989.

13. Talyzina N.F. Theoretical problems of programmed learning. -M., 1969.

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