Management system in the organization. Organization and management of the pedagogical process

Management process- this is an influence on an object in order to change its state or shape.

Control system is divided into two subsystems: managed and control.
Control subsystem performs production management functions. It includes the management apparatus with all employees and technical means. Managed subsystem carries out various management functions. It includes workshops, sections, teams.

Based on functionality, the control system is divided into subsystems:

• technical (machinery and equipment);
• technological (a number of processes, production stages);
• organizational;
• social (unity of social relations);
• economic.

The control system includes:

1. structural-functional subsystem (implements the principle of unity of structural and functional elements of the system);
2. information-behavioral subsystem (providing actions with the necessary information);
3. self-development subsystem (the principle of independence, independence of development of individual elements).

Subject of management

Purpose of the subject of management— ensure the controllability of the system as a whole.

Controllability— the ability of the system to perceive control input and respond to it accordingly.

Subjects of management- centers of activity, centers of responsibility.

Subject of management is a manager, collegial body or committee that exercises managerial influence. A manager can be either a formal or informal leader of a team. In turn, the subject of management can also be an object of the board (for senior managers).

The main goal of the functioning of the subject of management is to develop a management decision that ensures the efficiency of the system as a whole.

The goals of the management subject are considered at 2 levels:

1. at the integrative level - the management subject functions in order to lead the system to the goals set for it, therefore the degree of achievement of the goals of the system as a whole is a criterion for the effectiveness of the management subject's functioning;
2. at the local level (at the level of the system itself).

Requirements for the subject of management:

1. the subject of management must implement the law of necessary diversity (quantitative side);
2. The control system must have all those properties and characteristics that are inherent in a cybernetic system (these requirements characterize the qualitative side):
   • unity;
   • integrity;
   • organization;
   • emergence.
3. the subject of management must be fundamentally active, who knows the goals, knows the ways to achieve them and constantly generates functions. A fundamentally active system consists of active elements;
4. the management system should always be the center of responsibility;
5. the subject of management must be law-abiding;
6. the subject of management must be of a higher socio-cultural level in relation to the external environment in order to be able to adequately respond to the influence of the external environment and influence the development of this level;
7. the subject of management must have higher creative and intellectual potential in relation to the object.

As part of the management subject, when considering the element aspect, it is necessary to highlight the following subsystems:

1. system of management goals;
2. functional model of the control system;
3. structural model;
4. information model;
5. communication model (system of relations);
6. efficiency model;
7. control mechanism;
8. operating (technological) model.

Control object

The object of management is the socio-economic system and the processes that occur in it.

Control object- this is an individual or group that can be united into any structural unit and which is subject to managerial influence. Currently, the idea of ​​participative management is increasingly spreading, i.e. such management of the affairs of the organization, when all members of the organization, including ordinary people, participate in the development and adoption of the most important decisions. In this case, control objects become its subjects.

Management process in an organization

Management process- this is a certain set of management actions that are logically connected with each other to ensure the achievement of set goals by converting resources at the input into products or services at the output of the system.

The management process is a set of actions related to identifying problems, searching for and organizing the implementation of decisions made.

All management processes are divided into two groups:

1. permanent processes - represent functional areas human activity to achieve current goals;
2. periodic processes are active form management, caused by unforeseen situations and requiring the development of operational management decisions.

The main stages of the management process are shown in the figure.

The creation and stages of the management process are determined by its elements:

Target— each management process is carried out to achieve a specific result, goal. Goals in the management process must be operational in nature and transformed into specific tasks. They are a guideline for specifying the use of necessary resources.

Situation— represents the state of the controlled subsystem.

Problem is a discrepancy between the actual state of a managed object and the desired or specified one.

Solution- represents the choice of the most effective influence on the existing situation, the choice of means, methods, the development of specific management procedures, and the implementation of the management process.

Stages of the management process:

1. setting a specific goal;
2. Information Support;
3. analytical activity is a set of operations associated with assessing the state of a managed object and finding ways to improve the existing situation;
4. choice of action options;
5. implementation of solutions;
6. feedback - compares the result obtained from the implementation of the decision with the goal for the sake of which the management process was carried out.

Management mechanism

Management in an organization is carried out using management mechanisms. The economic mechanism solves specific problems of interaction in the implementation of socio-economic, technological, socio-psychological problems that arise in the process of economic activity.

Control mechanism is a subsystem of the control system, the purpose of which is to ensure the controllability of the system as a whole.

Components:

• methodology (patterns, principles, policies, rules);
• decision-making bodies;
• executive bodies;
• selected point of influence;
• method of influence;
• protective mechanisms that are built into any system (self-regulators);
• tools of influence;
• feedback;
• responsibility centers and control centers;
• forms of manifestation of influence.

The economic management mechanism consists of three levels:

1. intra-company management;
2. Production Management;
3. personnel Management.

In-house management:

• marketing;
• planning;
• organization;
• control and accounting.

Principles of intra-company management:

• centralization in management;
• decentralization in management;
• combination of centralization and decentralization;
• focus on long term goals development;
• democratization of management (employee participation in senior management management).

Manufacturing control:

• carrying out R&D;
• ensuring production development;
• sales support;
• selection of the optimal organizational management structure.

Personnel Management:

• principles of selection and placement of personnel;
• terms of employment and dismissal;
• training and professional development;
• personnel assessment and performance;
• forms of remuneration;
• team relationships;
• involving workers in management at the grassroots level;
• employee labor motivation system;
• organizational culture of the company.

Methods of influence in management

Management is considering management methods as a totality in various ways and techniques used by the administration of companies to enhance the initiative and creativity of people in the process of work and satisfy their natural needs.

The main goal of management methods is to ensure harmony, an organic combination of individual, collective and social interests. The peculiarity of methods as tools of practical management is their interrelation and interdependence.

Management methods can be:

1. economic;
2. organizational and administrative;
3. socio-psychological.

Economic methods affect the property interests of firms and their personnel. They are based on the economic laws of society, the market and the principles of remuneration for labor results.

Organizational and administrative methods are based on the objective laws of organizing and managing joint activities, the natural needs of people to interact with each other in a certain order.

Organizational and administrative methods are divided into three groups:

• organizational-stabilizing - establish long-term connections in management systems between people and their groups (structure, staff, regulations on performers, operating regulations, concepts of company management);
• administrative - provide operational management joint activities people and companies;
• disciplinary - designed to maintain the stability of organizational connections and relationships, as well as responsibility for certain work.

Social-psychological methods represent ways of influencing the social and psychological interests of firms and their personnel (the role and status of individuals, groups of people, firms, psychological climate, ethics of behavior and communication, etc.). They consist of social and psychological and must correspond to moral, ethical and social norms society.

Control functions

Control function- this is a type of human labor activity aimed at balancing the state of the organization with the external environment, while entering into a system of management relations.

Based on these characteristics, two main groups of management functions can be distinguished:

1. general management functions are functions that determine the type of management activity regardless of the place of its manifestation;
2. specific functions are functions that determine the focus of human labor on a specific object. They depend on the organization and its areas of activity. Specific management functions arise as a result of the horizontal division of labor.

TO general management functions relate:

• planning;
• organization;
• coordination;
• motivation;
• control.

Planning function involves deciding what the organization's goals should be and what members of the organization should do to achieve those goals. Planning is one of the ways in which management ensures that all members of the organization are aligned in their efforts to achieve common goals.

The purpose of planning as a management function is to strive to take into account in advance all internal and external factors that ensure favorable conditions for the normal functioning and development of enterprises (divisions) included in the company. This activity is based on identifying and forecasting consumer demand, analysis and assessment of resources, and prospects for the development of economic conditions.

Organize- means creating a certain structure. There are many elements that need to be structured so that an organization can carry out its plans and thereby achieve its goal.

Since people perform work in an organization, another important aspect of an organization's function is determining who exactly should perform each specific task. The manager selects people for specific work, delegating to individuals tasks and authority or rights to use the organization's resources. These delegates accept responsibility for the successful performance of their responsibilities.

Coordination as a management function, it is a process aimed at ensuring proportional and harmonious development of various aspects (technical, financial, production and others) of the management object with optimal labor, monetary and material costs for given conditions.

According to the method of implementation, coordination can be vertical or horizontal.

Vertical coordination subordination takes on the meaning - the subordination of the functions of some components to others, and in management - the official subordination of juniors to seniors, which is based on the norms of official discipline. The task of vertical coordination is to organize effective communication and balance structural units and their employees at various hierarchical levels.

Horizontal coordination consists of ensuring cooperation between managers, specialists and other employees of departments between whom there are no subordination relationships. As a result, a coordinated unity of views on common tasks is achieved.

Motivation- the process of motivating oneself and others to act to achieve a common goal. A manager must always remember that even the best laid plans and the most perfect structure of an organization are of no value if someone does not carry out the actual work of the organization. Therefore, the purpose of this function is to ensure that members of the organization perform work in accordance with the responsibilities delegated to them and according to the plan.

Control is the process of ensuring that an organization actually achieves its goals. Circumstances may force an organization to deviate from the main course planned by the leader. And if management fails to identify and correct these deviations from original plans before the organization is seriously damaged, achieving its goals will be jeopardized.

Management should be viewed as a process. The management process is a set of continuous, sequentially performed, interrelated actions to form and use the organization's resources to achieve its goals. These activities, which are very important to the success of an organization, are called management functions. Thus, the management process is the sum total of all functions.

Management functions are relatively independent, homogeneous, specialized and separate types of management activities that are objectively necessary to achieve the goals of the management system. In order to be considered as such, the management function must have a clearly defined content, a developed mechanism for its implementation and a certain structure within which its organizational isolation is completed. Content refers to the actions that must be carried out within a specific function.

The content of actions and functions carried out in the management process depends on the type of organization (administrative, public, educational, etc.), on the size and scope of its activities (production, trade, provision of services), on the level in the management hierarchy (highest level management, middle or lower), from the role within the organization (production, marketing, finance, personnel) and a number of other factors.

However, despite the diversity of management functions in an organization, there are homogeneous activities. Thus, almost a hundred years ago, A. Fayol identified six main types of activities, or operations, in the organization of production and enterprise management that management personnel have to perform:

Technical;

Commercial;

Financial;

Protective (for security);

Accounting (accounting);

Administrative.

According to A. Fayol, administrative operations include the following five:

Foresight (forecast and drawing up a program of action);

Organization (creation of a double organism of the company - material and social);

Directing (activating the company’s personnel and eliminating detected deviations from a given program of action);

Coordination (or coordination, i.e. the correct combination of all actions and efforts);

Execution control.

IN contemporary works According to management theory, instead of the outdated concept of “administrative operations,” they prefer to talk about management functions.

Modern researchers have developed a slightly different list of management functions: planning, organization, management (or command), motivation, leadership, coordination, control, communication, research, evaluation, decision making, forecasting, information, cooperation, education, responsibility, personnel management, "public relations", representation, negotiations or conclusion of transactions and others. Almost every management job contains its own list of management functions, different from others.

They are components of any management process, regardless of the characteristics (size, purpose, form of ownership, etc.) of a particular organization;

They do not depend on the object, as they are applicable to any socio-economic systems and processes.

In this regard, these control functions are called general.

We adhere to the position of scientists who identify five general management functions:

Planning (selection of goals and action plan for achieving them);

Organization (distribution of tasks between departments or employees and establishment of interaction between them);

Motivation (stimulating performers to carry out planned actions and achieve their goals);

Control (correlation of actually achieved or achieved results with planned);

Coordination (ensures compliance and consistency between various parts of the managed system by establishing rational connections).

It should be noted that the listed general management functions are very close to the administrative operations of A. Fayol.

These general management functions are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision-making. The relationship between these functions can be represented by a pie chart showing the content of any management process (Fig. 3.1). The arrows in the diagram show that movement from planning to control is possible only by performing work related to organizing the process and motivating workers. At the center of the diagram is the coordination function, which ensures the coordination and interaction of all others.

Let us consider sequentially the content of each of the main management functions.

Rice. 3.1. Management process diagram 3.1.1. Planning

Planning is the first, most important function of the management process, which is the process of developing a plan that determines what needs to be done (achieved) and by what methods, in accordance with time and space.

If the planned indicators are not sufficiently justified, then no matter how well the organization performs at subsequent stages, the result will be poor. Therefore, the quality of management largely depends on correctly formulated plans.

The planning function is designed to answer the following questions:

Where are we currently? Managers must evaluate the organization's strengths and weaknesses in its core areas (finance, human resources, marketing, R&D) to determine what the organization can realistically achieve;

Where do we want to go? Managers must, by assessing the opportunities and threats in the organization's environment, determine what the organization's goals should be and what might hinder their achievement;

How are we going to do this? Managers decide what members of the organization should do to achieve goals.

Planning can be classified according to the following criteria:

By degree of coverage;

On the subject of planning;

By area of ​​operation;

By timing;

The main tasks of planning the organization’s activities:

Selecting the optimal strategy for the organization’s activities based on forecasts alternative options;

Ensuring the sustainability of the functioning and development of the organization;

Formation of an optimal portfolio of innovations and investments in terms of nomenclature;

Comprehensive implementation of plans;

Formation of organizational, technical and socio-economic measures to ensure the implementation of plans;

Coordinating the implementation of plans by tasks, performers, resources, deadlines and quality;

Stimulating the implementation of plans.

The main principles of planning include all scientific approaches to management: systemic, integrated, integration, marketing, functional, dynamic, reproductive, process, normative, quantitative, administrative, behavioral, situational. Compliance with them is a prerequisite for developing a sound plan.

Additional planning principles include:

Ranking objects according to their importance;

Accuracy;

Balance of the plan;

Flexibility;

Variation of the plan;

Continuity;

Economic feasibility of indicators;

Continuity of strategic and current plans;

Unity (means the connection of the planned link with the organization as a whole);

Automation of planning;

Consistency of the plan with the parameters of the external environment;

Participation (of those directly affected by the plan);

Social orientation of the plan;

Providing feedback from the planning system during management.

Analysis of the situation and factors of the external and internal environment;

Setting goals and objectives;

Developing strategies, programs and plans to achieve goals;

Evaluation of alternative plan options;

Determining the necessary resources and their distribution according to goals and objectives;

Communicating plans to everyone who must carry them out and who is responsible for their implementation.

In general, the planning function is carried out in modern organizations at two levels: strategic and operational. Strategic management and planning will be discussed in Chapter 4.

From strategic planning follows operational (usually annual) planning, which is built in sufficient detail. In accordance with this plan, the volume of activity is determined for each area of ​​the organization’s activities, plans are drawn up for attracting labor and capital investments, and production plans are drawn up. The annual plan details production and sales plans on a quarterly and monthly basis. At the same time, each department monthly updates its sales and cost forecasts and brings its plans into line with these updates.

Operational planning of an enterprise's activities is carried out in a number of cases on the basis of a business plan. It should define the course that the organization intends to follow in a certain period of time (usually a year, but in today’s Russian conditions of instability of the Russian economy, the business planning horizon can be reduced to 1-3 months).

A business plan is developed in the following main cases:

When developing new areas of the organization’s activities;

When creating new types of business;

When resolving issues of an organization’s exit from a non-payment crisis;

When privatizing state and municipal enterprises(to substantiate proposals for privatization and determine the range of tasks for the reorganization (improvement) of privatized enterprises);

When opening organizations;

When introducing new products;

When developing a business concept for the future.

Additionally, lenders or investors should review the business plan before investing in a business. At the same time, they should pay attention to the business reputation of the entrepreneur, cash flow for debt service, guarantees and share of equity capital.

The business plan is also essentially a benchmark against which the organization's actual performance can be compared.

Thus, a business plan is always the most important document. It should:

Set realistic goals;

Show ways to achieve them;

Determine required resources. The sections of the business plan are:

1) summary;

2) historical background;

3) main products and/or services;

4) market analysis and marketing;

5) production;

6) management;

7) organization and personnel; 8) property;

9) financial analysis; 10) risks and income;

11) tasks and main stages;

12) applications.

The dimensions of a business plan are determined by its purpose and intended recipients. It should be as concise as the need to present the subject fully and accurately allows.

Processes and management systems. A condition for improving the activities of an organization or a company is to change the management and control systems of current processes. Many organizations, firms, and institutions have built their organizational structure on a vertical-functional principle, which provides for the unification of specialists of the same profile into powerful divisions. Such an organization ensures the creation of an effective, healthy team that acts as one.

Unfortunately, most activities require horizontal rather than vertical organization of work. Distribution of work elements that form single processes among departments with the existing vertical organizational structure leads to miscalculations and duplication, which negatively affects efficiency and quality. A strategy that ensures the achievement of maximum effect, orienting all types of activities towards the final maximum effect for the enterprise, is process management.

The essence of process control. In the past, the focus was on process control. But efficiency can only be achieved through the management of all types of activities, as well as through the functioning of the organization as a single whole, consisting of several processes, and not only through managing the process of production of goods and services that are offered to the consumer.

The activities of all employees and workers can be considered as processes, the management of which is carried out by analogy with the management of production processes. Many types of employee activities, such as design and construction work, product sales, personnel issues, data and document processing, are not inferior in complexity and added value to production processes.

A process is a series of operations (activities) that are performed on a source material (process input), increase its value and lead to a certain result (process output). The value of the source material increases through the use of skilled labor and knowledge.

Process manager. The responsibilities of the process manager include ensuring the functioning of the entire process in conjunction with all organizational units, improving and increasing the efficiency of the process.

Most processes in organizations either do not have managers, or these functions are performed by several employees, which also means that they are not performed.

The primary task of the process manager is to clearly define its boundaries, taking into account the initial input by the “supplier” of the resources necessary for the process, and the final stage, which involves the transfer of the results to the “consumer”.

For example, the hiring process begins with the recognition of the need to hire a new employee and ends after the new hire has completed initial training, training and has begun work. Once the process boundaries are defined, the process improvement team can begin to be assembled.

Process Improvement Team. The process manager is responsible for creating a process improvement group that includes representatives from all departments associated with the process. Each team member is appointed by the head of the relevant department and is his representative in the group, which is responsible for identifying actions that ensure process improvement. The main responsibilities of the group are:

1. Development of a process route diagram.

2. Determination of control areas and feedback lines.

3. Process certification.

4. Development and implementation of process improvement plans

5. Preparation of reports on the quality of process results, its effectiveness and changes in it.

6. Development and implementation of a system operating on the “just in time” principle.

Development of a process route diagram. The process improvement group begins its activities by developing its route diagram. The diagram must indicate all connections between the employee and the process. As an example, here are five steps in the hiring process:

1. The manager prepares a draft employment order.

2. The secretary prints the order.

3. The manager checks and signs the order.

4. The secretary sends the order to a higher-level boss for signature.

5. A higher-level manager checks the correctness of his preparation, notifies the manager about the availability of the necessary amount to pay the employee being hired, and signs the order.

Other parts of the process can be broken down into steps in a similar way.

The next task of the process improvement team is to determine the procedures needed to perform each operation. The availability of documentation establishing the requirements for the preparation and training of personnel performing each operation is also determined.

A guarantee of the correctness and accuracy of the route diagram is an experienced check of the entire process carried out by team members. Here are some questions that group members should ask at each site:

1. What document is used to control this type of work?

2. What training and preparation have you received to perform this job?

3. Do you think the training met the requirements?

4. Where do you get the source material for this type of work?

5. How do you determine whether an operation has been performed correctly?

6. What errors do you encounter in source materials?

7. Do you have any problems doing this work?

8. Do you have any suggestions for improving your work?

9. What makes it difficult to get work done?

This analysis allows the team to list problems identified in the workplace, develop a list of proposals for process improvements, determine the adequacy of the education and training program, and identify the strengths and weaknesses of the process.

posted in the section:

Starting, for example, with the management system born in such a dialogue at one of the presentations in a highly respected and authoritative (in its field) organization: I (author of this article): How do you manage dedicated processes?Speaker (young system manager): Why manage them?

There is a complete fundamental misunderstanding of the essence of the process approach, which consists not in presenting graphical form processes and the flows connecting them (to which too many are limited), but in ensuring the management of the organization through these processes. Unfortunately, such an “understanding” of the process approach is quite common.

One of the last straws that overflowed my patience both as a teacher and as an auditor was the representation of the process model, shown below in Fig. 1, that was accidentally discovered in the depths of the Internet. 5, which we will discuss later. (Despite the fact that I have doubts: what if this presentation was intended to show HOW NOT TO MANAGE A PROCESS. But an inexperienced reader may take it as recommendations for building management).

Due to the oblivion of basic requirements against the backdrop of modern fashionable concepts of strategic development of an organization, let us recall some "Capital truths" from which we will need for analysis (emphases are highlighted by me).

Basic provisions of quality management systems (ISO 9000)

2.1. Justification of the need for quality management systems

A systems approach to quality management encourages organizations to analyze customer requirements, identify processes that contribute to the production of products acceptable to customers, and maintain those processes in a controlled state.

The organization must:

a) define the processes required for the quality management system and their application throughout the organization (1.2); b) determine the sequence and interaction of these processes; c) determine the criteria and methods necessary to ensure effectiveness both in the implementation and in the management of these processes. ... f) take the measures necessary to achieve the planned results and continuously improve these processes. The organization shall manage these processes in accordance with the requirements of this International Standard.

• The advantage lies in the continuity of control that it provides at the interface of individual processes within their system, as well as in their combination and interaction.
• When applied in a quality management system, this approach emphasizes the importance of:

  a) understanding and fulfilling the requirements;

  b) the need to consider processes from the point of view of added value;

  c) achieving the results of the implementation of processes and their effectiveness;

  d) continuous process improvement based on objective measurement.

Top management needs to create a customer-focused organization by:

a) identifying systems and processes that can be clearly understood, controlled and improved in terms of effectiveness and efficiency;

b) ensuring the effective and efficient execution and management of processes, indicators and data to determine the satisfactory performance of the organization.

Examples of activities to create a customer-oriented organization include: identifying and promoting processes that lead to improved organizational performance;

• Processes must be controlled
• It is necessary to take the measures necessary to achieve the planned results and continuously improve these processes, i.e. processes need to be managed
• Continuity of management is ensured at the interface of processes
• It is necessary to determine the criteria and methods necessary to ensure effectiveness in both the implementation and management of processes

So, the work is devoted to considering the following main problems:

What is process management and what are the features of its implementation?

What is management?

Management is considered as a generalized purposeful (i.e. to achieve a goal) influence on an object, carried out in a variety of ways - by transforming connections in the system, introducing new elements or actions, correcting control algorithms, varying parameters, etc. Managing processes in a management system means making certain efforts and influencing the process to achieve certain goals. It is obvious that WITHOUT such influence the process “by itself” will not reach the goal. Any process, any activity must be managed! And this is one of the main tasks of management. In this context (the context of quality management systems), it is the activity that needs to be managed to achieve a result (obtaining a product that meets specified requirements), and not the result itself (the product, the management of which, in the case of its material embodiment, can only be reduced to its movement in space)

One of the most famous management methods in quality management is following the Deming (Shewhart-Deming) cycle. It consists of four steps: Plan - Defining goals and activities, Do - Carrying out planned activities, Chek - Checking the implementation of activities, ACT - Assessing and responding to a new situation. The essence of management comes down to changing goals, plans, forming new planned activities, etc. based on the results of checking the work performed. Management assessment is carried out in different ways at different levels. In strategic management tasks (business performance management), it can be successfully carried out using the BSC balanced scorecard system.

BSC is a system of performance indicators grouped into four aspects, or perspectives, of a company's performance - finance, clients, internal business processes, training and development. The BSC concept was conceived precisely as an expanded system for measuring the performance of a company. At the tactical level, KPIs - key performance indicators - can be used to evaluate management. These are indicators that evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of actions, management functions, the effectiveness of a specific production (and other) system, i.e. the degree of achievement of the goals set for the system. When managing individual processes at the operational level, it is necessary to formulate the goals of the processes and indicators of their achievement so that management efforts can be directed toward approaching the goal and achieving it. Therefore, choosing the purpose of each process is an important task of the management system. In the absence of a clearly defined goal, it is impossible to manage the process and the entire system as a whole. Only by ensuring the controllability of all processes can we talk about the controllability of the organization, the ability of it to achieve tactical and strategic goals, the choice of one or another development methodology ("20 Keys", "Lean Manufacturing", Six Sigma", etc., etc.). Process management is the ABC of any management system, and without the ABC it is impossible to move forward, which, unfortunately, is often forgotten by “advanced” organizations that immediately strive for the “shining” (as it often turns out later – to the “gaping”) heights of management (“Six Sigma”, etc.) (One of the students from a law firm during a class on ISO 9001 said with pathos: “We have already passed and now we are going to implement”).

So: What is needed for management: Management goal (Where are we going?) Indicators of goal achievement (Where are we going?) Management resources (How are we influencing?) Law of management (How are we influencing?)

Before moving on to justifying the choice of process goals, which should be the output of the process, we will consider existing approaches to presenting processes.

About Process Model Concepts

In management practice, the following representation of the process has been established (see Fig. 1).

Control processes are those processes that generate the limiting framework for the operational management of the process. For example: requirements of the organization’s policy, requirements of the Laws of the Russian Federation, GOSTs, standardized methods, etc. These requirements “limit” our ability to control the process. In this sense they are "stewards".

Supporting processes are those processes that generate influence on the process to achieve its specified goals.

Essentially, these are management resources. By changing them when managing the process, we ensure movement towards the goal. For example: changing the qualifications of personnel, the organization of work, the type of raw material or production resource (i.e. equipment), the amount of financing, etc. We provide managerial control over the process.

As outputs in quality management systems (quality management), you need to take those goals that must be achieved during the implementation of the process. It is to achieve these goals that the process itself and process management are carried out. Unfortunately, when creating a QMS, they tend to take all possible factors (major, non-major, secondary and generally not determining the quality of the process) factors as outputs. This significantly complicates process management (try to achieve a dozen goals when you have only 2...4 control actions!) and often causes fair dissatisfaction with the system by personnel (purely psychological aspect staff rejection of excessive documentation of their activities).

Let us consider the features of perception of this model.

Currently, in practice, both industrial enterprises, and in other areas of activity (educational and medical institutions, etc.), two seemingly slightly different approaches to developing a process model are common. In fact, deep differences in these approaches, especially at the beginning of building a management system, lead to incorrect formulation of process management tasks. Let's look at these approaches in more detail.

Technological concept of the process model.

The process is considered by analogy with the production process, i.e. at the input: raw materials, energy, and at the output - “products”. All attention is paid mainly to the products. In production processes, material products are usually considered as products: products (production process), documents (pre-production process, marketing, etc.), etc. In processes educational institutions Such “products” are: groups for conducting training (recruitment process), educational and methodological handouts (process of preparing the educational process), an auditorium for conducting classes (process of preparing the classroom fund), etc. Usually, the requirements for the quality of processes fade into the background or are completely forgotten about, understanding the process as the transformation of raw materials into a product. At the same time, the concept of process management appears separately (if at all) as an activity to ensure a given quality, as a rule, of a product. This is usually done not by organizers-managers, but by specialists in a specific area of ​​work. Repairmen provide repairs to heating, lighting, furniture, proofreaders ensure that there are no errors in methodological materials, production workers provide a plan for the production of products in terms of quantity and quality, etc. With such management, technology, equipment, raw materials, personnel, etc. usually remain unchanged. But the input material, raw materials, information and energy flows change. Typically, this approach to describing the process does not set goals for releasing products on time, reducing downtime, increasing productivity, and many others. It’s just that such “output streams” of the process are absent in the considered approach to describing the process.

This understanding of processes can be used to describe the technology scheme and the content of flows. Often they limit themselves to this without setting or solving process management problems, which is the basis of the management system.

The approach under consideration usually follows from traditional engineering education.

Unfortunately, in such a situation the question rarely arises: What are we building:

technological process or organizational management system? Looking back at the "truths", we can say that it is not the production process. It is obvious that the QMS quality management system (quality management system) is an organizational system, the main task of which is to organize the management of activities and the position of ensuring its quality in a certain sense.

Managerial concept of the process model.

The process in accordance with the standard is considered as an activity to ensure the requirements for the process. Those. at the input are the requirements that are presented to the process, and at the output is the measure of satisfaction of these requirements. Let us pay attention to the fundamental difference: in fact, there is nothing at the input of the process; we ourselves “apply” to the input the requirements that we impose “to the output” of the process.

Those. we say: “It is necessary to fulfill certain requirements for the entire process (product properties, productivity, cost, delivery time, etc.)” and we consider these requirements as input. But in essence, these are not input flows into the production process, but input information for the manager, for the manager, in accordance with which he must build his management activities.

And this is the main thing in the management system - to ensure that the requirements for the PROCESS are met. Thus, the product of the process itself (material, informational, etc.) is not the main thing, but the main thing is ACTIVITY. Requirements for the activity, i.e. to the process can be much wider than to the product. Product requirements are a special case of general process requirements.

The main requirement for a process as an activity is usually to ensure specified performance indicators, cost, profitability, deadlines for completing work, product quality, etc. Here management is implemented differently: by qualifications and placement of personnel, distribution of resources (not only raw materials, but also production assets ) etc.

Because management system is, first of all, an organizational system, then the second approach to understanding processes directly corresponds to the tasks of managerial management in any field of activity, in contrast to the first considered approach, which, by the way, often does not provide management of activities (i.e. guaranteeing the receipt of a given result ) both in the material sphere of production and in the field of services, for example, in educational institutions.

Of course, when understanding management tasks, you can “smoothly move” from the first understanding of the process to the second, complementing and expanding it. But this is only possible if you have experience, qualifications, and finally, an understanding of the differences between the process and its management. The task of teachers and consultants is to reduce this period of time of “accumulation of understanding”, so you need to pay attention to the essence of the process approach that clients develop. To do this, it is necessary to immediately orient the personnel of organizations towards the second (managerial) approach to understanding processes.

Example. The process of product design at an industrial enterprise is considered.

Obviously, the first (“technological”) approach will lead to the fact that the output of the process will be design materials (drawings, explanatory notes, calculations, etc.). (This situation had to be met more than once). It seems natural, because... the project is the result of the process of its preparation. But with such an output of the process, how to ensure the preparation of the project on time, if the deadline is not an output indicator? How can you take into account the productivity of the developers of this project when evaluating a process, since this is not the “output indicator” of the process? Finally, this project can be done, but it will not suit the one who set the task of developing it in terms of content and a number of other quality indicators of the subject of design (reliability of the designed product, its delivery schedule, dimensions, weight, etc.).

From here it is clear that the output of the process should be satisfaction of the requirements for the design process both in terms of timing, costs, and quality of this project (the latter - in terms of the result). If at the first stage of creating a QMS we write that the output is “a project that meets the specified requirements (including deadlines, quality, composition, etc.)”, then of course we need to know and record these requirements, then even This option allows you to “remember” the requirements and organize the design process in such a way (i.e., manage it as a manager) to fulfill these requirements. Those. in fact, the second approach to understanding the process will be used.

How to select process outputs, i.e. determine its goals in the management system?

It is not difficult to do this for the entire production, guided by the ISO 9000 standard (this is Customer satisfaction) (see Fig. 1). Requirements for the production process (or for a set of interrelated processes) are formed by the market (Customer). But a similar approach should exist for all internal processes that interact with each other, for example, in the form of a sequential chain. Therefore, the process requirement must form the next process (internal to the system or external). It is his “requirements” that any current process must “satisfy”. In other words, the goal of any process should be to satisfy the needs of the next process. But the organization also has other operational goals arising from its Mission, Vision, and Development Strategy. In addition to satisfying the Customer, you need to strive for your strategic goals.

It follows that the goals of the entire set of processes should be those that:

a) satisfy the Customer (in terms of timing, requirements, volume, etc.),

b) contribute to their development strategy.

Rice. 3. Scheme for forming process goals

In Fig. Figure 3 shows a diagram of the formation of goals for the sequence of processes. Let's explain this with an example.

Let the organization have in the Mission: “Introduce advanced technologies into production”, in the Vision: “An organization in Russia that produces products in demand on the world market”, in the Development Strategy: “Ensuring the versatility of manufactured units” and the Customer needs to supply an assembly unit of a certain reliability, weight and strength for a given period of a given volume (these are the Customer’s requirements).

It is these requirements (or part of them) that the last process (for example, “Production”) must implement. This is one of his goals. In order to meet these requirements, components with certain strength characteristics, material properties (density necessary to meet mass requirements) must be supplied to production from the previous process (“Pre-production”), and the qualifications of workers must be ensured (for the reliability of the unit) , production capacity, delivery schedule for components and raw materials, etc. These are the requirements of the Manufacturing process for the previous process. Thus, these requirements are the goals of the Pre-Production process. This process must achieve its goals in order to support the next process, and ultimately the Customer's requirements.

In addition to meeting the listed requirements of the Customer, it is necessary to set as goals those that contribute to the achievement of the intentions stated in the strategy and Vision. Such goals, in particular, may be: “Use of a more productive technology for assembling a unit (changing technology regularly at least once every six months” - from here to the previous process (“Preparing for production”) there will be an additional requirement to switch to a new assembly technology for the production process ; “Ensuring the expansion of the functionality of the unit” - from here to the previous process there will be an additional requirement to introduce into the characteristics of the produced unit new functions that are useful in a specific area of ​​application without significantly increasing the cost of the product, etc.

Without these additional goals, the organization in question will not move in a controlled manner towards its goals in the field of Mission, Vision, Development Strategy, i.e. it will not be any different from dozens of its competitors in this area, it will not be unique, it will not provide new qualities of its products that are unexpected for consumers, which can actually lead to stagnation.

Unfortunately, in real conditions it is not always possible to achieve all these goals for various reasons: there is no material (a replacement will need to be selected), insufficient qualifications of workers (there is an urgent need to train personnel or redistribute work), production equipment is occupied for other tasks (the loading schedule needs to be changed) equipment), etc. and so on.

All this leads to the need for managerial control of processes, the search for ways to achieve the goal or ("as a last resort") to allow some deviations from the goal. The control process is shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 5 shows a process control diagram borrowed from the Internet (which was the “last straw” mentioned in the introduction). On it, the lower feedback actually implements both considered process concepts. Management is carried out both by changing input flows (material, energy, information) - a “technological” concept, and by resources in the form of personnel, equipment - a “managerial” concept. However, in addition to this, the circuit provides feedback through regulatory requirements(standards, methods)! It turns out that if something does not suit us in the measured output values, then we can “adapt” the standards and methods and thereby satisfy the output requirements! In this scheme, there is essentially no task for management: there are no requirements for the process! It is to the process, and not to its result! And two different analyzes can lead to conflicting impacts on material and information inputs, which is not conducive to sustainable management.

Rice. 5. Scheme of process control from the Internet

Sometimes you hear the statement that if the result is achieved, then the process went correctly and was managed well. However, this statement is fundamentally false! If the desired result is obtained, this does not mean that it will be obtained next time, because it may be random(fundamentals of statistical process control -).

But if the whole process is carried out correctly, then the desired result will definitely be obtained! A properly conducted process guarantees the right result. That is why auditors seek to obtain evidence that the process is carried out as recorded in the documents. This is both a guarantee of quality and a guarantee of stability (the other side of quality).

About goals An important operation in the process approach is process decomposition, i.e. presenting it as a set of “smaller” subprocesses. In general, a subprocess does not have any features as an integral part of a process model compared to a process. The number of levels of process representation (subprocesses A 1, subprocesses A 2, etc.) is limited only by the needs of the organization in managing the main process (Process A 0). The last level of indivisible activities is usually called a "process step." The hierarchical decomposition of processes, and, accordingly, goals, is best represented in the ideology of DFD - Data Flow Diagram - descriptions of top-level business processes.

When decomposing processes, the goals of underlying processes (subprocesses) are formed taking into account the connection with the underlying ones. As a rule, in order to achieve its goals, the overlying process requires the lower ones to solve certain problems, which are, on the one hand, a means of achieving their goals, and on the other, the goals of the underlying processes.

Rice. 7. Decomposition of goals

What is a goal for one level of the hierarchy is a means for another; they are easy to confuse. This is one of the problems of forming goals for processes. The concepts of concretization and highlighting the logical connection “means - results obtained” can help here. Specification means subdividing (breaking down) a goal into more detailed lower-level goals, which helps clarify the meaning of a more general goal. Goals at a lower level can also be considered means to achieve goals at a higher level. By specifying general (global) goals, i.e., breaking them down into more detailed goals, we build a top-down hierarchy. Let us give several examples illustrating the replacement of goals with means of achieving them.

Procurement process in an organization with an integrated management system. Purpose of the process: to ensure compliance of purchased materials and components with the requirements for impact on product quality, emissions environment and the safety of personnel. This seems to be the most important goal of this process. How close we will get to it when implementing the process depends on the available financial resources, on the “interests” of buyers, on the possibility of delivery on time and a number of other factors. Very often the objectives of the procurement process are considered: " right choice supplier", "conducting tenders (or quotations)", "coordination of the list of purchased materials", "approval of procurement estimates", etc., etc. But all these are means to achieve the goal! These may be tasks for other, smaller ones component processes. The solution of these tasks by lower-level subprocesses (achieving their goals) is a condition for achieving the main goal of the procurement process, and not the goal of the process.

The learning process in educational institution. Goal: to prepare a specialist with the required qualifications, determined on the one hand by the state educational standard (state educational standard), and on the other by the requirements of the labor market. The means to achieve this goal can be (often appearing as the goals of this particular process): “compliance with the schedule”, “production of the necessary teaching materials”, “ensuring the qualifications of teachers”, “the number of unsuccessful students” and many others. It is obvious that in all cases the goals are formulated incorrectly; they are means to achieve the goal. But all of the above can be the goals of other auxiliary subprocesses (if it is advisable to separate them).

Replacing the goal of a process with means of achieving it incorrectly concentrates the efforts of managers and often leads to a scattering of forces and resources and a decrease in the quality of activities.

If certain management resources (financial, human, raw materials, etc.) are available, opportunities arise to achieve the set goal. But there are always not enough resources and therefore a certain “area of ​​achievability” of the goal appears (see Fig. 8), beyond which the goals are generally unattainable. The "size" of this area depends on the number of resources and their volume.

Establishing knowingly unattainable goal– a waste of resources: the goal will not be achieved anyway. In addition, the fundamental unattainability of the goal “corrupts” the staff; they will not make any efforts to achieve it, realizing that the goal is still unattainable. For example, in the old production areas, on old equipment, on the old intellectual baggage of the staff, the task is set to “catch up and surpass” the competitor in terms of volume and quality of products. Without seeing the real conditions, other than “the old stick and the stale carrot,” the staff will not only not solve the task, but will not solve it, pretending to intensify work.

Establishment good goal– in this case, management efforts are required to achieve it, the involved personnel will consider its achievement as their own interest, while it is possible to get closer to the goal and even in some cases achieve it, but in general, such a goal is almost unattainable. In this case, the assigned tasks are carried out intensely; it is necessary to find organizational efforts from management and staff in order to complete the plan.

Establishment "bad" goal– in this case, the goal is achieved easily, which means that the manager has excess, irrationally used resources at his disposal. These excess resources are better used to achieve other goals. For example, the planned quarterly task was completed in two months. It is obvious that the department has excess personnel: the same result, but in the planned three months, can be achieved with fewer people, and therefore more economically. And transfer excess personnel to other areas of work.

In any case, it is necessary to evaluate the achievement of the goal. For this purpose, indicators of the quality of process management are introduced.

Process management quality indicators

Indicators of the quality of process management characterize the measure of approach to the goal and, in a sense, replace goals. The indicators are required to be as similar as possible to the goals, so that management by indicators corresponds to the maximum approximation to the goal, i.e. management by goals.

An indicator is in some way a similarity to a goal, its approximation, a model. It must be comprehensive and measurable so that it can be used by the decision maker.

The indicator is comprehensive, if the decision maker, knowing the value of the indicator in a certain situation, fully understands to what extent the corresponding goal is achieved. In any management problem related to the adoption management decision, it is important that the set of indicators used is full - covered everything important aspects process, effective - could be usefully used in management, non-redundant - did not duplicate other indicators. Very often in practice proxy indicators are used. This is an indicator that only indirectly characterizes the degree of achievement of the associated goal, but is not a means of direct measurement for this goal. Thus, proxy indicators only indirectly measure the achievement of the formulated goal.

In essence, all indicators are “proxies”, since nothing can be measured absolutely. The best example here would be the metrics “revenue” and “profit”, which are associated with the often stated goal of “maximizing profit.”

However, is the main goal accumulation for the sake of accumulation, or accumulation for the sake of something else - for the sake of consumption, the opportunity to realize one’s ideas, etc. - everything that can be achieved with money? Perhaps in many cases the latter is more important, so profits can be considered a proxy indicator.

Another similar example relates to the metric “market share” that many large firms use to assess their relative position. But this indicator can often be a proxy indicator for such “elusive” phenomena as prestige and power. Or “market share” may be a proxy for future earnings, which in turn may be a proxy for other, more general measures.

In many problems, the introduction of proxy indicators is simply necessary in order to effectively eliminate many difficulties.

Reflect the requirements of customers (downstream processes) and other interested parties.

Reflect the measure of achievement of the goal, i.e. characterize the result of the process (for example: the number of days behind planned date, the volume of non-fulfillment of the planned task, the number of unmet requirements, etc. At the same time, the planned deadline, the volume of product release, etc. are the goal we strive for).

Reflect your own internal goals of the process (division) (for example: to measure the goal of “improving the microclimate in the division”, the pursuit of which will increase the manageability of the division, the organization as a whole, and improve the quality of activities, the indicator can be the results of a survey of employees: the proportion of employees who positively assess the microclimate in department, etc. Although, on the other hand, “improving the microclimate in the department” is just a means (tool) to achieve another goal of the main process).

Be quantifiable; One measurement option could be the number of employees who responded positively to the questionnaire.

Can be used for comparative assessment of the quality of activities (the higher/lower the indicator, the better the process).

Reflect losses (additional costs) for the activity management process. Thus, indicators of the quality of process management cannot be: “No defects during assembly,” “Fulfillment of orders on time,” “No industrial accidents,” etc. These are goals to strive for. And an indicator of the quality of management in such cases can be, respectively: “The number of defects during assembly” (the fewer there are, the better we manage the process), “The number of days (or hours) behind the planned deadline” (the fewer, the better we manage the process), “Number of accidents” (the fewer, the better we manage the process of ensuring occupational safety), etc. In all the examples given as an example, the quality indicator characterizes the management process and is a measure of achieving the goal (which, in principle, can be achieved, then the indicator will be equal to zero). The number of indicators should be the minimum necessary to assess the quality of the process: unnecessary indicators only complicate the assessment of the quality of the process.

Figure 9 shows a diagram explaining the essence and purpose of the indicators. Changing resources and trying to get from the initial state to the goal, we, for many reasons ("thanks to" the presence of which we need control), still do not get there, but only get closer to it. The value of the indicator is a measure of this approximation, a measure of the effectiveness of our activity (process) management. The area whose boundaries we have approached is highlighted in the figure by an ellipse-shaped sphere.

The concept of “criterion” is often introduced. IN various areas knowledge of this term is given different meanings, including one that is close in meaning to the term “quality indicator of the management process”. However, the “criterion” is more often used (and this interpretation of the term can be recommended for use in management) as the level (magnitude) of an acceptable deviation from the goal. Those. if the indicator of management quality as a measure of approach to the goal is less than a predetermined value - criterion, then such a deviation can be considered acceptable, acceptable. In this case, the criterion is a measure for comparison with a threshold specified deviation in order to make a binary (“yes” - “no”, “acceptable” - “unacceptable”) decision.

Process management

The purpose of the control is security achieving the goal - management by goals. Achieving the goal does not exhaust the list of system requirements: The organization will only be satisfied when the appropriate quality of processes is also guaranteed. The organization assigns the process control system the task achieving the goal with the proper quality of processes occurring in the system.

The process of achieving the goal is illustrated in Fig. 9 in the form of trajectories of transition from the initial state to the final state - to the goal. Obviously, the goal can be achieved in different ways, i.e. come to it in different ways. Choosing a path is the art of management, the qualifications of managers. Each path characterizes the costs of the management process. Who needs such an integral indicator of management quality in the form of total costs (time, financial resources, personnel, etc.)? This indicator is important for the manager and performers of the process and the system as a whole to assess its effectiveness, to assess the possibility of its improvement, even though the planned result (in the form of requirements in the product!) is achieved.

For example, the requirement: production of products that meet GOST or TU. Better - no need. But this output can be achieved at lower costs, so they will be characterized by the “trajectory” of achieving the goal, i.e. costs to obtain a given product. In addition, this information is necessary for analyzing the process and developing measures to improve it to solve internal problems of reducing production costs and increasing productivity. The basic classification feature for constructing control systems, which determines the appearance of the system and its potential capabilities, is the method of organizing control - the law (principle) of control.

The simplest control law is software control. It comes down to ensuring a given sequence (program) of actions-steps in the implementation of control. This principle can be applied when there is firm confidence that each step is always performed correctly and no unforeseen situation can arise that prevents the process from continuing (“planned - done”).

The following two management principles are familiar to quality professionals as warning (based on disturbance) and corrective (based on deviation) control. The first of these is to analyze the conditions for the possibility of continuing to carry out the planned steps, i.e. Are there “disturbances” that prevent you from continuing your steps painlessly? If such a disturbance occurs, then some pre-planned additional action is performed that neutralizes (fully or partially compensating) the influence of the disturbance. (“Check: if there is no obstacle to completing the next step, do it”). The implementation of the second principle comes down to analyzing the execution of the current step: if the desired result is obtained at a step, then the next one can be performed. (“Check: if done, continue”). If the result is not obtained, then this uncompleted step is returned and repeated.

Both principles dramatically increase the likelihood of achieving the planned result by eliminating (or reducing the impact of) all current inconsistencies in the process of managing activities. True, only those for which the reaction (additional management decision) is provided in advance.

Please note that the Deming cycle implements only one control principle - by deviation. Those. correction (Act) occurs only when something planned (Plan) is not received at the execution stage (Do), which is detected after completion of the work at the result verification stage (Check).

Naturally, in real cases all three principles can be combined, i.e. be present at the same time.

It should be noted that both management principles require additional costs for analysis, repeated or additional actions, i.e. they somehow “delay” the process. Therefore, you need to carefully select the location of control points, i.e. those places where to conduct additional analysis and make decisions about the further course of the process.

Checkpoints required:

• For internal process correction (internal control).
• To control the intermediate state of a process to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the process.
• To identify the causes of nonconformities.

Typically, control points are chosen between subprocesses, between process steps, taking into account the possibility of measurement (state assessment), the possibility of process correction, and the impact of delays in making management decisions. Critical points contribute to the controllability of the process not only during the process, but in a statistical sense.

The number of branches from the planned course of the process provides the necessary information about the quality of process control. By reducing the number of times we hit the “side branch” of the control algorithm, we improve the progress of the process. Therefore, in the case of transfer of control to the “side branch” (see Fig. 10), registration of this transition (record) is necessary.

Subsequent statistical analysis of the repeated execution of process control will help identify the causes of delays in the process (due to repeated or additional actions) and identify ways to improve process control, and therefore the process itself. Such control provides the possibility of statistical control of a process of any nature: both technological and organizational. Thus, if registration of the control process at critical points is not implemented, then not all process control capabilities are realized. In addition, recording the status or results of individual steps (recording) in a process provides evidence to the auditor that process control progress is being made.

Below is a graphical illustration of the various principles of process control (in one diagram). When describing lower-level processes, it is preferable to use process diagrams called WFD - Work Flow Diagram. A work flow diagram (WFD) is more compact, faster, and more visual than other known methods of representing process control diagrams; it has a real simplified representation in the form of flowcharts of algorithms. How, for example, can you show process management when “there are 40 processes in total, each of them in the IDEF0 methodology occupies about 40 screens on a computer, and each screen is a set of rectangles with a myriad of connections between them” (from the presentation of one of the certified management systems in educational institution. The expression “countless number” is an emotional representation of the author of the article, although there really were a lot of them on the diagram).

As a rule, at the end of the management process it is necessary to provide a step (or several) for processing the information accumulated during the process about management costs and current inconsistencies in order to analyze the effectiveness and efficiency of the process. This step should be performed based on the information accumulated during the management process.

conclusions

The analysis of modern views and approaches to process management presented in the work shows that process management itself is a multifaceted, complex phenomenon in the management system. Management includes several components, the most important of which are the choice of management goals, indicators for achieving the goal, management resources and management laws. In addition, it is shown that the generation of records in the control process is the basis for the use of statistical process control (SPC) of any nature.

Insufficient attention to the problems of process management (both excessive formalization, detail, and neglect of management) makes management systems ineffective and does not allow obtaining appropriate results from modern management strategies: 6 Sigma, TQM, lean manufacturing, etc., which are based on effective process management at the lowest operational level.

2.

4. Indicators of accuracy and stability of technological processes. Methods for assessing technological processes. Basic conditions for intensifying the technological process.

1. The concept of the production process. Basic principles of organizing the production process.

Modern production is a complex process of transforming raw materials, materials, semi-finished products and other items of labor into finished products that meet the needs of society.

The totality of all actions of people and tools carried out at an enterprise for the production specific types products is called production process.

The main part of the production process are technological processes that contain targeted actions to change and determine the state of objects of labor. During the implementation of technological processes, changes occur in the geometric shapes, sizes and physical and chemical properties of objects of labor.

Along with technological ones, the production process also includes non-technological processes that do not aim to change the geometric shapes, sizes or physical and chemical properties of objects of labor or check their quality. Such processes include transport, warehouse, loading and unloading, picking and some other operations and processes.

In the production process, labor processes are combined with natural ones, in which changes in objects of labor occur under the influence of natural forces without human intervention (for example, drying painted parts in air, cooling castings, aging of cast parts, etc.).

Varieties of production processes. According to their purpose and role in production, processes are divided into main, auxiliary and servicing.

Main are called production processes during which the production of the main products manufactured by the enterprise is carried out. The result of the main processes in mechanical engineering is the production of machines, devices and devices that make up production program enterprise and corresponding to its specialization, as well as the production of spare parts for them for delivery to the consumer.

TO auxiliary include processes that ensure the uninterrupted flow of basic processes. Their result is products used in the enterprise itself. Auxiliary processes include equipment repair, tooling manufacturing, steam generation and compressed air etc.

Serving are called processes during the implementation of which services are performed that are necessary for the normal functioning of both main and auxiliary processes. These include, for example, the processes of transportation, warehousing, selection and assembly of parts, etc.

IN modern conditions, especially in automated manufacturing, there is a trend towards integration of core and service processes. Thus, in flexible automated complexes, basic, picking, warehouse and transport operations are combined into a single process.

The set of basic processes forms the main production. At mechanical engineering enterprises, the main production consists of three stages: procurement, processing and assembly. Stage production process is a complex of processes and works, the implementation of which characterizes the completion of a certain part of the production process and is associated with the transition of the subject of labor from one qualitative state to another.

TO procurement stages include the processes of obtaining workpieces - cutting of materials, casting, stamping. Processing the stage includes the processes of turning blanks into finished parts: machining, heat treatment, painting and electroplating, etc. Assembly stage - the final part of the production process. It includes assembly of components and finished products, adjustment and debugging of machines and devices, their testing.

The composition and mutual connections of the main, auxiliary and servicing processes form the structure of the production process.

In organizational terms, production processes are divided into simple and complex. Simple are called production processes consisting of sequentially carried out actions on a simple object of labor. For example, the production process of making one part or a batch of identical parts. Difficult a process is a combination of simple processes carried out on many objects of labor. For example, the process of manufacturing an assembly unit or an entire product.

Principles of organizing production processes

Activities related to the organization of production processes. The diverse production processes that result in the creation of industrial products must be properly organized, ensuring their effective functioning in order to produce specific types of high-quality products and in quantities that meet the needs of the national economy and the country's population.

The organization of production processes consists of uniting people, tools and objects of labor into a single process for the production of material goods, as well as ensuring a rational combination in space and time of basic, auxiliary and service processes.

The spatial combination of elements of the production process and all its varieties is implemented on the basis of the formation of the production structure of the enterprise and its divisions. In this regard, the most important activities are the selection and justification of the production structure of the enterprise, i.e. determining the composition and specialization of its constituent units and establishing rational relationships between them.

During the development of the production structure, design calculations are performed related to determining the composition of the equipment fleet, taking into account its productivity, interchangeability, and the possibility of effective use. Rational layouts of departments, placement of equipment, and workplaces are also being developed. Organizational conditions are created for the uninterrupted operation of equipment and direct participants in the production process - workers.

One of the main aspects of the formation of a production structure is to ensure the interconnected functioning of all components of the production process: preparatory operations, main production processes, and maintenance. It is necessary to comprehensively substantiate the most rational organizational forms and methods for carrying out certain processes for specific production and technical conditions.

An important element of the organization of production processes is the organization of labor of workers, which specifically implements the connection of labor with the means of production. Methods of labor organization are largely determined by the forms of the production process. In this regard, the focus should be on ensuring a rational division of labor and determining on this basis the professional and qualification composition of workers, the scientific organization and optimal maintenance of workplaces, and the comprehensive improvement and improvement of working conditions.

The organization of production processes also involves the combination of their elements in time, which determines a certain order of execution of individual operations, a rational combination of execution time various types works, determination of calendar and planning standards for the movement of objects of labor. The normal flow of processes over time is also ensured by the order of launching and releasing products, the creation of the necessary stocks (reserves) and production reserves, and the uninterrupted supply of workplaces with tools, workpieces, and materials. An important area of ​​this activity is the organization of rational movement of material flows. These tasks are solved on the basis of the development and implementation of operational production planning systems, taking into account the type of production and technical and organizational features of production processes.

Principles of production organization. A rational organization of production must meet a number of requirements and be built on certain principles:

Principles of organizing the production process represent the starting points on the basis of which the construction, operation and development of production processes are carried out.

Principle of differentiation involves dividing the production process into separate parts (processes, operations) and assigning them to the relevant departments of the enterprise. The principle of differentiation is opposed to the principle combining, which means the unification of all or part of diverse processes for the production of certain types of products within one site, workshop or production. Depending on the complexity of the product, production volume, and the nature of the equipment used, the production process can be concentrated in any one production unit (workshop, area) or dispersed across several units. Thus, at machine-building enterprises, with a significant production of similar products, independent mechanical and assembly production and workshops are organized, and for small batches of products, unified mechanical assembly shops can be created.

The principles of differentiation and combination also apply to individual workplaces. A production line, for example, is a differentiated set of jobs.

In practical activities in organizing production, priority in using the principles of differentiation or combination should be given to the principle that will ensure the best economic and social characteristics production process. Thus, flow production, characterized by a high degree of differentiation of the production process, makes it possible to simplify its organization, improve the skills of workers, and increase labor productivity. However, excessive differentiation increases worker fatigue, a large number of operations increases the need for equipment and production space, leads to unnecessary costs for moving parts, etc.

Principle of concentration means the concentration of certain production operations for the manufacture of technologically homogeneous products or the performance of functionally homogeneous work in separate workplaces, areas, workshops or production facilities of the enterprise. The feasibility of concentrating homogeneous work in separate areas of production is due to the following factors: commonality technological methods, causing the need to use the same type of equipment; capabilities of equipment, such as machining centers; increasing production volumes of certain types of products; economic feasibility concentration of production of certain types of products or performance of homogeneous work.

When choosing one direction or another of concentration, it is necessary to take into account the advantages of each of them.

By concentrating technologically homogeneous work in a department, a smaller amount of duplicating equipment is required, production flexibility increases and it becomes possible to quickly switch to the production of new products, and equipment utilization increases.

By concentrating technologically homogeneous products, the costs of transporting materials and products are reduced, the duration of the production cycle is reduced, the management of production is simplified, and the need for production space is reduced.

The principle of specialization is based on limiting the variety of elements of the production process. The implementation of this principle involves assigning to each workplace and each department a strictly limited range of works, operations, parts or products. In contrast to the principle of specialization, the principle of universalization presupposes an organization of production in which each workplace or a manufacturing unit is engaged in the manufacture of a wide range of parts and products or in performing dissimilar manufacturing operations.

The level of specialization of jobs is determined by a special indicator - the coefficient of consolidation of operations TO z.o, which is characterized by the number of detail operations performed at the workplace over a certain period of time. Yes, when TO z.o = 1 there is a narrow specialization of jobs, in which one detail operation is performed at the workplace during a month or quarter.

The nature of the specialization of departments and jobs is largely determined by the volume of production of parts of the same name. Specialization reaches its highest level when producing one type of product. The most typical example of highly specialized industries are factories for the production of tractors, televisions, and cars. Increasing the range of production reduces the level of specialization.

A high degree of specialization of departments and jobs contributes to the growth of labor productivity due to the development of labor skills of workers, the possibility of technical equipment of labor, and minimizing the costs of reconfiguring machines and lines. At the same time, narrow specialization reduces the required qualifications of workers, causes monotony of work and, as a result, leads to rapid fatigue of workers and limits their initiative.

In modern conditions, there is an increasing tendency towards the universalization of production, which is determined by the requirements of scientific and technological progress to expand the range of products, the emergence of multifunctional equipment, and the tasks of improving the organization of labor in the direction of expanding the labor functions of the worker.

Principle of proportionality consists in a natural combination of individual elements of the production process, which is expressed in a certain quantitative relationship between them. Thus, proportionality in production capacity presupposes equality of site capacities or equipment load factors. In this case throughput procurement workshops correspond to the needs for blanks of mechanical workshops, and the throughput of these workshops corresponds to the needs of the assembly workshop for the necessary parts. This entails the requirement to have in each workshop equipment, space, and labor in such quantities that would ensure the normal operation of all departments of the enterprise. The same throughput ratio should exist between the main production, on the one hand, and auxiliary and service units, on the other.

Proportionality in the organization of production presupposes compliance with the throughput (relative productivity per unit of time) of all departments of the enterprise – workshops, sections, individual workplaces for the production of finished products. The degree of proportionality of production a can be characterized by the magnitude of the deviation of the throughput (power) of each stage from the planned rhythm of production:

where m – the number of processing steps or stages of product manufacturing; h – throughput of individual stages; h 2 – planned rhythm of production (production volume according to plan).

Violation of the principle of proportionality leads to imbalances, the emergence of bottlenecks in production, as a result of which the use of equipment and labor deteriorates, the duration of the production cycle increases, and backlogs increase.

Proportionality in labor force, areas, equipment are installed during the design of the enterprise, and then specified during the development of annual production plans by carrying out so-called volumetric calculations - when determining capacity, number of employees, and the need for materials. Proportions are established on the basis of a system of standards and norms that determine the number of mutual connections between various elements of the production process.

The principle of proportionality involves the simultaneous performance of individual operations or parts of the production process. It is based on the proposition that parts of a dismembered production process must be combined in time and carried out simultaneously.

The production process of making a machine consists of a large number of operations. It is quite obvious that performing them sequentially one after another would cause an increase in the duration of the production cycle. Therefore, individual parts of the product manufacturing process must be carried out in parallel.

Under parallelism refers to the simultaneous execution of individual parts of the production process in relation to different parts of the overall batch of parts. The wider the scope of work, the shorter, other things being equal, the duration of production. Parallelism is implemented at all levels of the organization. In the workplace, parallelism is ensured by improving the structure of the technological operation, and primarily by technological concentration, accompanied by multi-tool or multi-subject processing. Parallelism in the execution of the main and auxiliary elements of the operation consists in combining the time of machining with the time of installation and removal of parts, control measurements, loading and unloading of the apparatus with the main technological process, etc. Parallel execution of the main processes is realized during multi-subject processing of parts, simultaneous execution of assembly - installation operations on identical or different objects.

Concurrency b is achieved: when processing one part on one machine with several tools; simultaneous processing various parts one batch for a given operation at several workplaces; simultaneous processing of the same parts in various operations at several workplaces; simultaneous production of different parts of the same product at different workplaces. Compliance with the principle of parallelism leads to a reduction in the duration of the production cycle and the laying time of parts, saving working time.

The level of parallelism in the production process can be characterized using the parallelism coefficient Kn, calculated as the ratio of the duration of the production cycle with parallel movement of objects of labor T pr.c and its actual duration Tc:

,

where n is the number of redistributions.

In the conditions of a complex multi-link production process, everything higher value acquires continuity of production, which ensures accelerated turnover of funds. Increasing continuity is the most important direction of production intensification. At the workplace, it is achieved in the process of performing each operation by reducing auxiliary time (intra-operational breaks), on the site and in the workshop when transferring a semi-finished product from one workplace to another (inter-operational breaks) and at the enterprise as a whole, reducing breaks to a minimum in order to maximize accelerating the turnover of material and energy resources (inter-shop storage).

The principle of rhythm means that all individual production processes and a single process for the production of a certain type of product are repeated after specified periods of time. Distinguish between the rhythm of production, work, and production.

The principle of rhythm presupposes uniform production and rhythmic progress of production. The level of rhythm can be characterized by the coefficient Kp, which is defined as the sum of negative deviations of the achieved output from the given plan

,

where EA – the amount of daily products not delivered; n – duration of the planning period, days; P – planned product release.

Uniform production means producing the same or gradually increasing quantities of products at equal intervals of time. The rhythm of production is expressed in the repetition at regular intervals of private production processes at all stages of production and the “carrying out at each workplace at equal intervals of time the same amount of work, the content of which, depending on the method of organizing workplaces, may be the same or different.

The rhythm of production is one of the main prerequisites for the rational use of all its elements. Rhythmic work ensures that the equipment is fully loaded, its normal operation is ensured, and the use of material and energy resources and working time is improved.

Ensuring rhythmic work is mandatory for all production departments - main, service and auxiliary departments, logistics. Irrhythmic work of each link leads to disruption of the normal course of production.

The order in which the production process is repeated is determined production rhythms. It is necessary to distinguish between the production rhythm (at the end of the process), operational (intermediate) rhythms, and the start-up rhythm (at the beginning of the process). The leading factor is the rhythm of production. It can only be sustainable in the long term if operating rhythms are observed at all workplaces. Methods for organizing rhythmic production depend on the specialization of the enterprise, the nature of the products being manufactured and the level of organization of production. Rhythm is ensured by the organization of work in all departments of the enterprise, as well as timely preparation and comprehensive maintenance.

Rhythmicity release is the release of the same or uniformly increasing (decreasing) quantity of products at equal time intervals. Rhythmicity of work is the completion of equal volumes of work (in quantity and composition) at equal intervals of time. Rhythmic production means maintaining a rhythmic output and rhythm of work.

Rhythmic work without jerks and storming is the basis for increasing labor productivity, optimal loading of equipment, full use personnel and guarantee of high quality products. The smooth operation of an enterprise depends on a number of conditions. Ensuring rhythm is a complex task that requires improvement of the entire organization of production at the enterprise. Of paramount importance proper organization operational production planning, maintaining the proportionality of production capacity, improving the production structure, proper organization of logistics and technical maintenance of production processes.

Continuity principle is implemented in such forms of organization of the production process in which all its operations are carried out continuously, without interruptions, and all objects of labor continuously move from operation to operation.

The principle of continuity of the production process is fully implemented on automatic and continuous production lines, on which objects of labor are manufactured or assembled, having operations of the same or multiple duration to the line cycle.

Continuity of work within the operation is ensured primarily by the improvement of labor tools - the introduction of automatic changeover, automation of auxiliary processes, and the use of special equipment and devices.

Reducing interoperational interruptions is associated with the selection of the most rational methods for combining and coordinating partial processes over time. One of the prerequisites for reducing interoperational interruptions is the use of continuous transport means; the use of a rigidly interconnected system of machines and mechanisms in the production process, the use of rotary lines. The degree of continuity of the production process can be characterized by the continuity coefficient Kn, calculated as the ratio of the duration of the technological part of the production cycle T c.tech and the duration of the full production cycle T c:

,

where m – total redistribution.

Continuity of production is considered in two aspects: continuous participation in the production process of objects of labor - raw materials and semi-finished products and continuous loading of equipment and rational use of working time. While ensuring the continuity of the movement of objects of labor, at the same time it is necessary to minimize equipment stops for readjustment, while waiting for the receipt of materials, etc. This requires increasing the uniformity of work performed at each workplace, as well as the use of quickly adjustable equipment (computer-controlled machines), copying machines machine tools, etc.

In mechanical engineering, discrete technological processes predominate, and therefore production with a high degree of synchronization of the duration of operations is not predominant here.

The intermittent movement of objects of labor is associated with breaks that arise as a result of the laying of parts at each operation, between operations, sections, and workshops. That is why the implementation of the principle of continuity requires the elimination or minimization of interruptions. The solution to such a problem can be achieved on the basis of compliance with the principles of proportionality and rhythm; organizing parallel production of parts of one batch or different parts of one product; creating such forms of organization of production processes in which the start time of manufacturing parts in a given operation and the end time of the previous operation are synchronized, etc.

Violation of the principle of continuity, as a rule, causes interruptions in work (downtime of workers and equipment), leading to an increase in the duration of the production cycle and the size of work in progress.

Under straightness understand the principle of organizing the production process, in compliance with which all stages and operations of the production process are carried out under the conditions of the shortest path of the subject of labor from the beginning of the process to its end. The principle of direct flow requires ensuring rectilinear movement objects of labor in the technological process, eliminating various kinds of loops and return movements.

One of the prerequisites for production continuity is directness in the organization of the production process, which is ensuring the shortest path for a product to pass through all stages and operations of the production process, from the launch of raw materials into production to the output of the finished product. Direct flow is characterized by the coefficient Kpr, which represents the ratio of the duration of transport operations Ttr to the total duration of the production cycle T c:

,

where j – number of transport operations.

In accordance with this requirement, the relative arrangement of buildings and structures on the territory of the enterprise, as well as the placement of the main workshops in them, must comply with the requirements of the production process. The flow of materials, semi-finished products and products must be progressive and shortest, without counter or return movements. Auxiliary workshops and warehouses should be located as close as possible to the main workshops they serve.

Complete straightness can be achieved by spatially arranging operations and parts of the production process in the order of technological operations. When designing enterprises, it is also necessary to achieve the location of workshops and services in a sequence that provides minimum distance between adjacent departments. You should strive to ensure that parts and assembly units of different products have the same or similar sequence of stages and operations of the production process. When implementing the principle of direct flow, the problem of optimal arrangement of equipment and workplaces also arises.

The principle of direct flow is manifested to a greater extent in the conditions of continuous production, when creating subject-closed workshops and sections.

Compliance with straight-line requirements leads to streamlining of cargo flows, reduction of cargo turnover, and reduction of costs for transportation of materials, parts and finished products.

To ensure full use of equipment, material and energy resources and working time, the rhythm of production is important, which is fundamental principle of production organization.

The principles of production organization in practice do not operate in isolation; they are closely intertwined in every production process. When studying the principles of organization, you should pay attention to the paired nature of some of them, their interrelation, transition into their opposite (differentiation and combination, specialization and universalization). The principles of organization develop unevenly: at one time or another, some principle comes to the fore or acquires secondary importance. Thus, the narrow specialization of jobs is becoming a thing of the past; they are becoming more and more universal. The principle of differentiation is beginning to be increasingly replaced by the principle of combination, the use of which makes it possible to build a production process based on a single flow. At the same time, in conditions of automation, the importance of the principles of proportionality, continuity, and straightness increases.

The degree of implementation of the principles of production organization has a quantitative dimension. Therefore, in addition to current methods of production analysis, forms and methods for analyzing the state of production organization and implementing its scientific principles must be developed and applied in practice.

Compliance with the principles of organizing production processes is of great importance practical significance. The implementation of these principles is the responsibility of all levels of production management.

The current level of scientific and technological progress requires compliance with the flexibility of production organization. Traditional principles of production organization focused on the sustainable nature of production - a stable product range, special types of equipment, etc. In the context of rapid updating of the product range, production technology is changing. Meanwhile, a quick change of equipment and restructuring of its layout would cause unreasonably high costs, and this would be a brake on technical progress; it is also impossible to change frequently production structure(spatial organization of links). This has put forward a new requirement for the organization of production - flexibility. In element-by-element terms, this means, first of all, the rapid readjustment of equipment. Advances in microelectronics have created technology that is capable of a wide range of uses and, if necessary, performs automatic self-adjustment.

Wide possibilities for increasing the flexibility of production organization are provided by the use of standard processes for performing individual stages of production. It is well known to construct variable production lines on which various products can be manufactured without restructuring them. So, now at a shoe factory on one production line they are producing various models women's shoes with the same type of bottom fastening method; on car assembly conveyor lines, without readjustment, cars are assembled not only different colors, but also modifications. It is effective to create flexible automated production based on the use of robots and microprocessor technology. Great opportunities in this regard are provided by the standardization of semi-finished products. In such conditions, when transitioning to the production of new products or mastering new processes, there is no need to rebuild all partial processes and production links.

2. The concept of the production cycle. Structure of the production cycle.

The main and auxiliary production of an enterprise constitute an inseparable complex of processes occurring in time and space, the measurement of which is necessary in the course of organizing the manufacture of products.

The time during which the production process takes place is called production time.

It includes the time during which raw materials and some production assets are in stock, and the time during which the production cycle takes place.

Production cycle– calendar time for manufacturing a product, starting from the launch of raw materials into production and ending with the receipt of finished products. It is characterized by duration (hours, days) and structure. The production cycle includes working time and breaks in the labor process.

Under production cycle structure the relationship between its various components is understood. It is of fundamental importance specific gravity production time, especially technological operations and natural processes. The higher it is, the better composition and the structure of the production cycle.

The production cycle, calculated without taking into account the time of breaks associated with the operating mode of the enterprise, characterizes the level of organization of the production of a given product. With the help of the production cycle, the start time for processing raw materials in individual operations and the time for putting the corresponding equipment into operation are established. If all types of breaks are taken into account in the calculation of the cycle, then the calendar time (date and hours) is set for the start of processing of the planned batch of products.

There are the following calculation methods composition and duration of the production cycle:

1) analytical (using special formulas, used mainly in preliminary calculations),

2) graphical method (more visual and complex, ensures calculation accuracy),

To calculate the cycle duration, you need to know the components into which the product manufacturing process is broken down, the sequence of their implementation, duration standards and methods of organizing the movement of raw materials over time.

The following are distinguished: types of movement raw materials in production:

1) consistent type of movement. Products are processed in batches. Each subsequent operation begins after completion of processing of all products in a given batch.

2) parallel type of movement. The transfer of objects of labor from one operation to another is carried out piece by piece, as the processing process is completed at each workplace. In this regard, in certain periods, all processing operations for a given batch of products are carried out simultaneously.

3) parallel-serial type of movement. Characterized by mixed processing of products in separate operations. At some workplaces, processing and transfer to the next operation is carried out individually, at others - in batches of various sizes.

3. Technological processes used in the production of products (services).

Technological process, - the sequence of technological operations necessary to perform a certain type of work. Technological processes consist of technological (working) operations, which, in turn, consist of technological transitions.

Technological process.. this is a part of the production process that contains targeted actions to change and (or) determine the state of the subject of labor.

Depending on the application in the production process to solve the same problem, various techniques and equipment are distinguished as follows: types of technical processes:

· Unit technological process (UTP).

· Standard technological process (TTP).

· Group technological process (GTP).

To describe the technological process, route and operational maps are used:

· Technological map - a document that describes: the process of processing parts, materials, design documentation, technological equipment.

· Operational map - a list of transitions, settings and tools used.

· Route map - a description of the routes of movement around the workshop of the manufactured part.

A technological process is an expedient change in the shape, size, condition, structure, position, and location of objects of labor. A technological process can also be considered as a set of sequential technological operations necessary to achieve the goal of the production process (or one of the particular goals).
The labor process is a set of actions of a performer or a group of performers to transform objects of labor into its product, performed at workplaces.
Technological processes according to the source of energy necessary for their implementation can be divided into natural (passive) and active. The first occur as natural processes and do not require additional human-transformed energy to influence the object of labor (drying raw materials, cooling the metal under normal conditions, etc.). Active technological processes occur as a result of direct human influence on the subject of labor, or as a result of the influence of means of labor set in motion by energy expediently transformed by man.

Production combines the labor actions of people, natural and technical processes, as a result of the interaction of which a product or service is created. Such interaction is carried out using technology, that is, methods of consistently changing the state, properties, shape, size and other characteristics of the object of labor.

Technological processes, no matter what category they belong to, are continuously improved following the development of scientific and technical thought. Three stages of such development can be distinguished. The first, which was based on manual technology, was discovered by the Neolithic revolution, when people learned to make fire and process stones. Here the main element of production was man, and technology adapted to him and his capabilities.

The second stage began with the first industrial revolution of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, which ushered in the era of traditional mechanized technologies. Their pinnacle was the conveyor belt, based on a rigid system specialized equipment for serial or mass assembly of complex standardized products forming a line. Traditional technologies assumed minimizing human intervention in the production process, using low-skilled labor, saving on costs associated with search, training, and remuneration. This ensured that the production system was almost completely independent of humans and turned the latter into its appendage.

Finally, the second industrial revolution (modern scientific and technological revolution) marked the victory of automated technologies, the main forms of which we will now consider.

First of all, this is an automatic production line, which is a system of machines and automatic machines (universal, specialized, multi-purpose), located along the production process and united by automatic devices for transporting products and waste, accumulating reserves, changing orientation, controlled by a computer. Lines can be single- and multi-subject, with piece and multi-part processing, with continuous and intermittent movement.

A type of automatic production line is a rotary one, which consists of working and transport rotors, where the processing of products of several standard sizes using similar technology is carried out simultaneously with their transportation.

Another form is a flexible production system (FPS), which is a set of high-performance equipment that carries out the main process; auxiliary devices (loading, transport, storage, control and measuring, waste disposal) and information subsystem, combined into a single automated complex.

The basis of GPS is computer-controlled group technology, which allows for rapid changes in operations and allows the processing of various parts according to a single principle. It assumes the presence of two flows of resources: material and energy, on the one hand, and information, on the other.

GPS can consist of flexible production modules (numerically controlled machines and robotic systems); the latter can be combined into flexible automated lines, and those, in turn, into sections, workshops, and, in conjunction with computer-aided design, entire enterprises.

Such enterprises, being much smaller than before, can produce products in the required volumes and at the same time be as close as possible to the market. They improve the use of equipment, reduce the duration of the production cycle, reduce defects, reduce the need for low-skilled labor, reduce the labor intensity of manufacturing products and reduce overall costs.

Automation is once again changing the place of humans in the production system. He leaves the power of equipment and technology, standing next to them or above them, and they adapt not just to his capabilities, but to provide him with the most convenient, comfortable working conditions.

Technologies are distinguished by a set of specific methods for obtaining, processing, processing feedstock, materials, and semi-finished products; the equipment used for this purpose; sequence and location of production operations. They can be simple or complex.

The degree of complexity of technology is determined by the variety of ways of influencing the subject of labor; the number of operations that are performed on it; accuracy of their implementation. For example, to produce a modern truck it is necessary to carry out several hundred thousand operations.

All technological processes are usually divided into main, auxiliary and servicing. The main ones are divided into procurement, processing, assembly, finishing, information. Within their framework, goods or services are created in accordance with the goals of the company. For a meat processing plant, this is, for example, the production of sausage, dumplings, and stewed meat; for a bank - accepting and issuing loans, selling securities, etc. But in fact, the main processes form only the “tip of the iceberg”, and its “underwater part”, invisible to the eye, consists of service and auxiliary processes, without which no production is possible.

The purpose of auxiliary processes is to create the conditions necessary for the implementation of the main ones. Within their framework, for example, monitoring the technical condition of equipment, its maintenance, repair, production of tools necessary for work, etc. take place.

Service processes are associated with the placement, storage, and movement of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, and finished products. They are carried out by warehouse and transport departments. Service processes can also include the provision of various social services to company employees, for example, providing them with food, medical care, etc.

A feature of auxiliary and servicing processes is the possibility of performing them by other specialized organizations for which they are the main ones. Since specialization, as is known, leads to improved quality and lower costs, purchasing this type of service externally is often more profitable, especially for small firms, than setting up its own production.

It is currently customary to classify all technological processes according to six main characteristics: the method of influence on the object of labor, the nature of the connection between the initial elements and the result, the type of equipment used, the level of mechanization, the scale of production, discontinuity and continuity.

Impact on the subject of labor within the framework of the technological process can be carried out both with the direct participation of a person - it does not matter whether we are talking about direct impact, or only about regulation, or without it. In the first case, an example of which is processing parts on a machine, creating a computer program, entering data, etc. such impact is called technological; in the second, when only natural forces act (fermentation, souring, etc.) - natural.

Based on the nature of the connection between the initial elements and the result, three types of technological processes are distinguished: analytical, synthetic and direct. In analytical ones, several products are obtained from one type of raw material. An example of this is the processing of milk or oil. Thus, gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, oils, diesel fuel, fuel oil, and bitumen can be extracted from the latter. In synthetic ones, on the contrary, one product is created from several initial elements, for example, a complex aggregate is assembled from individual parts. In a direct technological process, one initial substance is transformed into one final product, say, steel is smelted from cast iron.

Based on the type of equipment used, technological processes are usually divided into open and hardware. The first are associated with mechanical processing of the object of labor - cutting, drilling, forging, grinding, etc. An example of the latter is chemical, thermal and other processing, which no longer occurs openly, but in isolation from the external environment, for example, in various types of furnaces, distillation columns, etc.

Currently, there are five levels of mechanization of technological processes. Where it is absent altogether, for example when digging a ditch with a shovel, we are talking about manual processes. When mechanizing the main operations and manually performing auxiliary ones, machine-manual processes take place; for example, processing a part on a machine, on the one hand, and its installation, on the other. When the equipment functions independently, and a person can only press buttons, they speak of partially automated processes. Finally, if not only production, but operational control and control, for example, using computers, complex automated processes take place.

A relatively independent element of any technological process is an operation performed on a certain object of labor by one worker or team at one workplace. Operations differ according to two main characteristics: purpose and degree of mechanization.

By purpose, they primarily distinguish technological operations that ensure a change in the qualitative state, size, shape of the object of labor, for example, smelting metals from ore, casting blanks from them and their further processing on appropriate machines. Another category of operations are transport and loading and unloading operations, which change the spatial position of an object within the framework of the technological process. Their normal implementation is ensured by maintenance operations - repair, storage, cleaning, etc. Finally, measurement operations are used to verify that all components of the production process and its results meet specified standards.

According to the degree of mechanization, operations are divided into manual, mechanized, machine-manual (a combination of mechanized and handmade); machine (performed entirely by machines controlled by people); automated (performed by machines under the control of machines with general supervision and control by humans); instrumental (natural processes, stimulated and controlled by an employee, occurring in a closed artificial environment).

The production operations themselves, in turn, can be divided into separate elements - labor and technological. The first includes labor movements (single movements of the body, head, arms, legs, fingers of performers during the operation); labor actions (a set of movements performed without interruption); work methods (the totality of all actions on a given object, as a result of which the set goal is achieved); a set of labor techniques - a combination of them, combined either by technological sequence or by the commonality of factors influencing the execution time.

The technological elements of operations include: installation - permanent fastening of the workpiece or assembly unit being processed; position - a fixed position occupied by a permanently fixed workpiece or assembled assembly unit together with a device relative to a tool or a stationary piece of equipment; technological transition - a completed part of a processing or assembly operation, characterized by the constancy of the tool used; auxiliary transition - part of the operation that is not accompanied by a change in shape, size, or state of surfaces, for example, installing a workpiece, changing a tool; pass - a repeating part of the transition (for example, when processing a part on lathe a transition can be considered the entire process, and a passage is a single movement of the cutter over its entire surface); working stroke - a completed part of the technological process, consisting of a single movement of the tool relative to the workpiece, accompanied by a change in the shape, size, surface finish or properties of the workpiece; auxiliary move - the same, not accompanied by changes.