Currents in Russian literature of the 19th century. Main literary trends

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary.

Peculiarities:

1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard.

2. Rationalism. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself.

3. Classicism is interested only in the eternal, the unchangeable. He discards individual characteristics and traits.

4. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art.

5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” and “low” (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics. The leading genre is tragedy.

6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of “unity of place, time and action,” which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited to the duration of the performance, the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions .

Classicism originated and received its name in France (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, etc.). After the Great French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism went into decline, and romanticism became the dominant style of European art.

Romanticism

One of the largest trends in European and American literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. In the 18th century, everything factual, unusual, strange, found only in books and not in reality, was called romantic.

Main features:

1. Romanticism is the most striking form of protest against the vulgarity, everyday life and prosaicness of bourgeois life. The social and ideological prerequisites are disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general.

2. General pessimistic orientation - ideas of “cosmic pessimism”, “world sorrow”.

3. Absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. At the center of a romantic work there is always a strong, exceptional personality opposed to society, its laws and moral standards.

4. “Dual world”, that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. The romantic hero is subject to spiritual insight and inspiration, thanks to which he penetrates into this ideal world.

5. "Local color." A person who opposes society feels a spiritual closeness with nature, its elements. This is why romantics so often use exotic countries and their nature as a setting.

Sentimentalism

Currents in European and American literature and art of the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries.

Based on Enlightenment rationalism, he declared that the dominant of “human nature” is not reason, but feeling.

He sought the path to an ideal-normative personality in the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. Hence the great democracy of sentimentalism and its discovery of the rich spiritual world of ordinary people.

Close to pre-romanticism.

Main features:

1. True to the ideal of a normative personality.

2. In contrast to classicism with its educational pathos, he declared feeling, not reason, to be the main thing in human nature.

3. The condition for the formation of an ideal personality was considered not by the “reasonable reorganization of the world,” but by the release and improvement of “natural feelings.”

5. Unlike romanticism, the “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods, the impulsiveness of mental impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) Rationalistic tendencies are quite clearly expressed;

b) Strong moralizing attitude;

c) Educational trends;

d) Improving the literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms and introduced vernaculars.

Favorite genres of sentimentalists- elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose in which confessional motives predominate.

Naturalism

A literary movement that developed in the last third of the 19th century in Europe and the USA.

Characteristics:

1. Striving for an objective, accurate and dispassionate portrayal of reality and human character. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a scientist studies nature. Artistic knowledge was likened to scientific knowledge.

2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the act of cognition carried out in it.

3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself quite expressive. They believed that there were no unsuitable subjects or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists.

Realism

A true depiction of reality.

A literary movement that emerged in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century and remains one of the main trends in modern world literature.

The main features of realism:

1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.

2. Literature in realism is a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him.

3. Cognition of reality occurs with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality. Character typification in realism is carried out through the “truthfulness of details” of the specific conditions of the characters’ existence.

4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution to the conflict. Unlike romanticism, the philosophical basis of realism is Gnosticism, the belief in the knowability of the surrounding world.

5. Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development. It is capable of detecting and capturing the emergence and development of new social phenomena and relationships, new psychological and social types.

"Golden Age" of Russian literature of the 19th century

The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, and “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems are known. It is interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is felt). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

Directions in Russian literature of the 19th century

●Classicism − The term “classicism” translated from Latin means “exemplary” and is associated with the principles of imitation of images. Classicism arose in the 17th century in France as a movement outstanding in its social and artistic significance. In its essence, it was associated with absolute monarchy, the establishment of noble statehood...

●Sentimentalism - In the second half of the 18th century. In European literature, a movement emerged called sentimentalism (from the French word sentimentalism, which means sensitivity). The name itself gives a clear idea of ​​the essence and nature of the new phenomenon. The main feature, the leading quality of the human personality was proclaimed not reason, as was the case in classicism and the Enlightenment, but feeling, not the mind, but the heart...

●Romanticism is a movement in European and American literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. The epithet “romantic” in the 17th century served to characterize adventurous and heroic stories and works written in Romance languages ​​(as opposed to those created in classical languages)...

●Realism - In any work of fine literature, we distinguish two necessary elements: objective - the reproduction of phenomena given in addition to the artist, and subjective - something put into the work by the artist on his own. Focusing on a comparative assessment of these two elements, theory in different eras - in connection not only with the course of development of art, but also with other various circumstances - attaches greater importance to one or the other of them.

February 5, 2016

Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated with the rapid flowering of culture. Spiritual uplift and important historical processes are reflected in the immortal works of writers and poets. This article is dedicated to representatives of the Golden Age of Russian literature and the main trends of this period.

Historical events

Literature in the 19th century in Russia gave birth to such great names as Baratynsky, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Fet, Yazykov, Tyutchev. And above all Pushkin. A number of historical events marked this period. The development of Russian prose and poetry was influenced by the Patriotic War of 1812, the death of the great Napoleon, and the passing of Byron. The English poet, like the French commander, for a long time dominated the minds of revolutionary-minded people in Russia. The Decembrist uprising and the Russian-Turkish war, as well as the echoes of the French Revolution that were heard in all corners of Europe - all these events turned into a powerful catalyst for advanced creative thought.

While revolutionary movements were taking place in Western countries and the spirit of freedom and equality began to emerge, Russia strengthened its monarchical power by executing the Decembrists and suppressing uprisings. This could not go unnoticed by artists, writers and poets. Literature of the early 19th century in Russia is a reflection of the thoughts and experiences of the advanced strata of society.

Classicism

This aesthetic movement is understood as an artistic style that originated in European culture in the second half of the 18th century. Its main features are rationalism and adherence to strict canons. Classicism of the 19th century in Russia was also distinguished by its appeal to ancient forms and the principle of three unities. Literature, however, in this artistic style began to lose ground already at the beginning of the century. Classicism was gradually replaced by such movements as sentimentalism and romanticism.

Masters of artistic expression began to create their works in new genres. Works in the style of historical novels, romantic stories, ballads, odes, poems, landscape, philosophical and love lyrics gained popularity.

Realism

Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated primarily with the name of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Closer to the thirties, realistic prose took a strong position in his work. It should be said that the founder of this literary movement in Russia is Pushkin.

Journalism and satire

Some features of European culture of the 18th century were inherited by the literature of the 19th century in Russia. We can briefly outline the main features of poetry and prose of this period - satirical nature and journalisticism. The tendency to depict human vices and shortcomings of society is observed in the works of writers who created their works in the forties. In literary criticism, a literary movement was later defined that united the authors of satirical and journalistic prose. “Natural school” was the name of this artistic style, which, however, is also called “Gogol’s school.” Other representatives of this literary movement are Nekrasov, Dal, Herzen, Turgenev.

Criticism

The ideology of the “natural school” was substantiated by the critic Belinsky. The principles of the representatives of this literary movement became the denunciation and eradication of vices. Social issues became a characteristic feature of their work. The main genres are essay, socio-psychological novel and social story.

Literature in the 19th century in Russia developed under the influence of the activities of various associations. It was in the first quarter of this century that there was a significant rise in the journalistic field. Belinsky had a huge influence on literary processes. This man had an extraordinary ability to sense the poetic gift. It was he who was the first to recognize the talent of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky.

Pushkin and Gogol

The literature of the 19th and 20th centuries in Russia would have been completely different and, of course, not so bright without these two authors. They had a huge influence on the development of prose. And many of the elements that they introduced into literature have become classical norms. Pushkin and Gogol not only developed such a direction as realism, but also created completely new artistic types. One of them is the image of the “little man,” which later received its development not only in the works of Russian authors, but also in foreign literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Lermontov

This poet also had a significant influence on the development of Russian literature. After all, it was he who created the concept of “hero of time.” With his light hand, it entered not only literary criticism, but also public life. Lermontov also took part in the development of the psychological novel genre.

The entire period of the nineteenth century is famous for the names of talented great personalities who worked in the field of literature (both prose and poetry). Russian authors at the end of the eighteenth century adopted some of the merits of their Western colleagues. But due to a sharp leap in the development of culture and art, Russian classical literature eventually became an order of magnitude higher than the Western European literature that existed at that time. The works of Pushkin, Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Gogol have become the property of world culture. The works of Russian writers became the model on which German, English and American authors later relied.


Literary and artistic movements, movements and schools

Renaissance literature

The countdown of new times begins with the Renaissance (renaissanse French revival) - this is the common name for the socio-political and cultural movement that originated in the 14th century. in Italy, and then spread to other European countries and reached its peak by the 15th-16th centuries. The art of the Renaissance opposed itself to the church's dogmatic worldview, declaring man the highest value, the crown of creation. Man is free and called to realize in earthly life the talents and abilities given to him by God and nature. Nature, love, beauty, and art were proclaimed as the most important values. During this era, interest in the ancient heritage is being revived, and true masterpieces of painting, sculpture, architecture, and literature are being created. The works of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian, Velazquez constitute the golden fund of European art. The literature of the Renaissance most fully expressed the humanistic ideals of the era. Her best achievements are presented in the lyrics of Petrarch (Italy), the book of short stories “The Decameron” by Boccaccio (Italy), the novel “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha” by Cervantes (Spain), the novel “Gargantua and Pantagruel” by Francois Rabelais (France), the dramaturgy of Shakespeare (England) ) and Lope de Vega (Spain).
The subsequent development of literature from the 17th to early 19th centuries is associated with the literary and artistic movements of classicism, sentimentalism, and romanticism.

Literature of classicism

Classicism(classicus nam. exemplary) - an artistic movement in European art of the 17th-18th centuries. The birthplace of classicism is France during the era of absolute monarchy, the artistic ideology of which was expressed by this movement.
The main features of the art of classicism:
- imitation of ancient models as the ideal of true art;
- proclamation of the cult of reason and rejection of the unbridled play of passions:
in the conflict of duty and feelings, duty always wins;
- strict adherence to literary canons (rules): division of genres into high (tragedy, ode) and low (comedy, fable), adherence to the rule of three unities (time, place and action), rational clarity and harmony of style, proportionality of composition;
- didactic, edifying nature of works that preached the ideas of citizenship, patriotism, and service to the monarchy.
The leading representatives of classicism in France were the tragedians Corneille and Racine, the fabulist La Fontaine, the comedian Molière, and the philosopher and writer Voltaire. In England, a prominent representative of classicism is Jonathan Swift, author of the satirical novel Gulliver's Travels.
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, in an era of important cultural transformations. The reforms of Peter I radically influenced literature. It acquires a secular character, becomes author's, i.e. truly individual creativity. Many genres are borrowed from Europe (poem, tragedy, comedy, fable, and later novel). This is the time of formation of the system of Russian versification, theater and journalism. Such serious achievements became possible thanks to the energy and talents of Russian enlighteners, representatives of Russian classicism: M. Lomonosov, G. Derzhavin, D. Fonvizin, A. Sumarokov, I. Krylov and others.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism(French sentiment - feeling) - a European literary movement of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, which proclaimed feeling, and not reason (like the classicists), as the most important property of human nature. Hence the increased interest in the inner mental life of a simple “natural” person. The surge of sensitivity was a reaction and protest against the rationalism and severity of classicism, which outlawed emotionality. However, the reliance on reason as the solution to all social and moral problems did not materialize, which predetermined the crisis of classicism. Sentimentalism poeticized love, friendship, family relationships; this is a truly democratic art, since the significance of a person was no longer determined by his social status, but by the ability to empathize, appreciate the beauty of nature, and be as close as possible to the natural principles of life. The works of sentimentalists often recreated the world of an idyll - a harmonious and happy life of loving hearts in the lap of nature. The heroes of sentimental novels often shed tears and talk a lot and in detail about their experiences. To a modern reader, all this may seem naive and implausible, but the unconditional merit of the art of sentimentalism is the artistic discovery of important laws of a person’s inner life, the protection of his right to a private, intimate life. Sentimentalists argued that man was created not only to serve the state and society - he has an undeniable right to personal happiness.
The birthplace of sentimentalism is England, the novels of writers Laurence Sterne “A Sentimental Journey” and Samuel Richardson “Clarissa Garlow”, “The History of Sir Charles Grandison” will mark the emergence of a new literary movement in Europe and will become a subject of admiration for readers, especially for female readers, and for writers - role model. No less famous are the works of the French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau: the novel “The New Heloise”, the artistic autobiography “Confession”. In Russia, the most famous sentimentalist writers were N. Karamzin, the author of “Poor Liza,” and A. Radishchev, who wrote “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.”

Romanticism

Romanticism(romantisme in French in this case - everything unusual, mysterious, fantastic) is one of the most influential artistic movements in world art, which was formed at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Romanticism arises due to the growth of the individual principle in the sentimental world of culture, when a person became increasingly aware of his uniqueness and sovereignty from the world around him. The Romantics proclaimed the absolute intrinsic value of the individual; they discovered for art the complex, contradictory world of the human soul. Romanticism is characterized by an interest in strong vivid feelings, grandiose passions, in everything unusual: in the historical past, exoticism, the national color of the culture of peoples not spoiled by civilization. Favorite genres are short stories and poems, which are characterized by fantastic, exaggerated plot situations, complexity of composition, and unexpected endings. All attention is focused on the experiences of the protagonist; the unusual setting is important as a background that allows his restless soul to reveal itself. The development of the genres of the historical novel, fantasy story, and ballad is also the merit of the romantics.
The romantic hero strives for an absolute ideal, which he searches for in nature, the heroic past, and love. Everyday life, the real world, seems to him boring, prosaic, imperfect, i.e. completely inconsistent with his romantic ideas. This creates a conflict between dreams and reality, high ideals and the vulgarity of the surrounding life. The hero of romantic works is lonely, not understood by others, and therefore either goes on a journey in the literal sense of the word, or lives in the world of imagination, fantasy, and his own ideal ideas. Any invasion of his personal space causes deep despondency or a feeling of protest.
Romanticism originates in Germany, in the works of early Goethe (the novel in letters “The Sorrows of Young Werther”), Schiller (the dramas “The Robbers”, “Cunning and Love”), Hoffmann (the story “Little Zaches”, the fairy tale “The Nutcracker and the Mouse King”) , Brothers Grimm (fairy tales “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs”, “The Musicians of Bremen”). The largest representatives of English romanticism - Byron (the poem "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage") and Shelley (the drama "Prometheus Unbound") - are poets passionate about the ideas of political struggle, protecting the oppressed and disadvantaged, and defending individual freedom. Byron remained true to his poetic ideals until the end of his life; his death found him in the midst of the Greek War of Independence. Following the Byronian ideal of a disappointed personality with a tragic worldview was called “Byronism” and became a kind of fashion among the younger generation of that time, which was followed, for example, by Eugene Onegin, the hero of A. Pushkin’s novel.
The rise of romanticism in Russia occurred in the first third of the 19th century and is associated with the names of V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, K. Ryleev, V. Kuchelbecker, A. Odoevsky, E. Baratynsky, N. Gogol, F. Tyutchev. Russian romanticism reached its peak in the works of A.S. Pushkin when he was in southern exile. Freedom, including from despotic political regimes, is one of the main themes of the romantic Pushkin; his “southern” poems are dedicated to this: “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Bakhchisarai Fountain”, “Gypsies”.
Another brilliant achievement of Russian romanticism is the early work of M. Lermontov. The lyrical hero of his poetry is a rebel, a rebel who enters into battle with fate. A striking example is the poem “Mtsyri”.
The cycle of short stories “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka,” which made N. Gogol a famous writer, is distinguished by its interest in folklore and mysterious, mystical subjects. In the 1840s, romanticism gradually faded into the background and gave way to realism.
But the traditions of romanticism are reminiscent of themselves in the future, including in the literature of the 20th century, in the literary movement of neo-romanticism (new romanticism). His calling card will be A. Green’s story “Scarlet Sails”.

Realism

Realism(from Latin real, real) - one of the most significant trends in the literature of the 19th-20th centuries, which is based on the realistic method of depicting reality. The task of this method is to depict life as it is, in forms and images that correspond to reality. Realism strives for knowledge and disclosure of the entire diversity of social, cultural, historical, moral and psychological processes and phenomena with their characteristics and contradictions. The author is recognized as having the right to cover any aspect of life without limiting themes, plots, or artistic means.
Realism of the 19th century creatively borrows and develops the achievements of earlier literary movements: classicism has an interest in socio-political and civil issues; in sentimentalism - poeticization of family, friendship, nature, the natural principles of life; Romanticism has in-depth psychologism, comprehension of the inner life of a person. Realism showed the close interaction of man with the environment, the impact of social conditions on the destinies of people; he is interested in everyday life in all its manifestations. The hero of a realistic work is an ordinary person, a representative of his time and his environment. One of the most important principles of realism is the depiction of a typical hero in typical circumstances.
Russian realism is characterized by deep social and philosophical problems, intense psychologism, and an enduring interest in the laws of a person’s inner life, the world of family, home, and childhood. Favorite genres: novel, story. The heyday of realism was the second half of the 19th century, which was reflected in the works of Russian and European classics.

Modernism

Modernism(moderne French newest) is a literary movement that emerged in Europe and Russia at the beginning of the 20th century as a result of a revision of the philosophical foundations and creative principles of realistic literature of the 19th century. The emergence of modernism was a reaction to the crisis at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, when the principle of revaluation of values ​​was proclaimed.
Modernists abandon realistic ways of explaining the surrounding reality and man in it, turning to the sphere of the ideal, mystical as the root cause of everything. Modernists are not interested in socio-political issues; the main thing for them is the soul, emotions, and intuitive insights of the individual. The calling of a human creator is to serve beauty, which, in their opinion, exists in its pure form only in art.
Modernism was internally heterogeneous and included various movements, poetic schools and groups. In Europe this is symbolism, impressionism, “stream of consciousness” literature, expressionism.
In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, modernism clearly manifested itself in various fields of art, which is associated with its unprecedented flowering, which later became known as the “Silver Age” of Russian culture. In literature, the poetic movements of symbolism and acmeism are associated with modernism.

Symbolism

Symbolism originates in France, in the poetry of Verlaine, Rimbaud, Mallarmé, and then penetrates into other countries, including Russia.
Russian symbolists: I. Annensky, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, V. Bryusov - poets of the older generation; A. Blok, A. Bely, S. Solovyov are the so-called “young symbolists”. Of course, the most significant figure of Russian symbolism was Alexander Blok, who, according to many, was the first poet of that era.
Symbolism is based on the idea of ​​“two worlds”, formulated by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. In accordance with it, the real, visible world is considered only a distorted, secondary reflection of the world of spiritual entities.
A symbol (symbolon Greek, secret, conventional sign) is a special artistic image that embodies an abstract idea; it is inexhaustible in its content and allows one to intuitively comprehend the ideal world hidden from sensory perception.
Symbols have been used in culture since ancient times: star, river, sky, fire, candle, etc. - these and similar images have always evoked in people ideas about the lofty and beautiful. However, in the work of the Symbolists, the symbol acquired a special status, so their poems were distinguished by complex imagery, encrypted, and sometimes excessive. As a result, this leads to a crisis of symbolism, which by 1910 ceased to exist as a literary movement.
The Acmeists proclaim themselves the heirs of the Symbolists.

Acmeism

Acmeism(acte from Greek, the highest degree of something, arrow) arises on the basis of the “Workshop of Poets” circle, which included N. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich and others Without rejecting the spiritual fundamental principles of the world and human nature, the Acmeists at the same time sought to rediscover the beauty and significance of real earthly life. The main ideas of Acmeism in the field of creativity: the logic of the artistic concept, the harmony of the composition, the clarity and harmony of the artistic style. An important place in the value system of Acmeism was occupied by culture - the memory of humanity. In their work, the best representatives of Acmeism: A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, N. Gumilev - reached significant artistic heights and received wide recognition from the public. The further existence and development of Acmeism was forcibly interrupted by the events of the revolution and civil war.

Avant-garde

Avant-garde(avantgarde French vanguard) is a generalized name for experimental artistic movements, schools of the 20th century, united by the goal of creating a completely new art that has no connections with the old. The most famous of them are futurism, abstract art, surrealism, dadaism, pop art, social art, etc.
The main feature of avant-gardeism is the denial of cultural and historical tradition, continuity, and the experimental search for one’s own paths in art. If modernists emphasized continuity with cultural tradition, then avant-gardeists were nihilistic towards it. The well-known slogan of Russian avant-garde artists is: “Let’s throw Pushkin off the ship of modernity!” In Russian poetry, various groups of futurists belonged to avant-gardeism.

Futurism

Futurism(futurum lat. future) arose in Italy as a movement of new urban, technocratic art. In Russia, this movement declared itself in 1910 and consisted of several groups (ego-futurism, cubo-futurism, “Centrifuge”). V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, I. Severyanin, A. Kruchenykh, the Burliuk brothers and others considered themselves futurists. The futurists claimed to create a fundamentally new art of the future (they called themselves “Budetlyans”) and therefore boldly experimented with forms of verse and invented new ones words (“word innovations”), their “abstruse” language, were not afraid to be rude and anti-aesthetic. These were real anarchists and rebels, constantly shocking (irritating) the taste of the public, brought up on traditional artistic values. At its core, the Futurist program was destructive. Truly original and interesting poets were V. Mayakovsky and V. Khlebnikov, who enriched Russian poetry with their artistic discoveries, but this was rather not thanks to futurism, but in spite of it.

Conclusion on the issue:

Main literary trends

To summarize the brief overview of the main stages in the development of European and Russian literature, its main feature and main vector was the desire for diversity and enrichment of the possibilities of human creative self-expression. In all centuries, verbal creativity has helped people to understand the world around them and express their ideas about it. The range of means that were used for this is amazing: from a clay tablet to a handwritten book, from the invention of mass printing to modern audio, video, and computer technologies.
Today, thanks to the Internet, literature is changing and acquiring a completely new quality. Anyone with a computer and internet access can become a writer. A new type is emerging before our eyes - online literature, which has its own readers, its own celebrities.
This is used by millions of people all over the planet, posting their texts to the world and receiving instant response from readers. The most popular and in demand national servers Proza.ru and Stikhi.ru are non-profit socially oriented projects whose mission is “to provide authors with the opportunity to publish their works on the Internet and find readers.” As of June 25, 2009, 72,963 authors published 93,6776 works on the Proza.ru portal; On the portal Stikhi.ru, 218,618 authors published 7,036,319 works. The daily audience of these sites is approximately 30 thousand visits. Of course, at its core this is not literature, but rather graphomania - a painful attraction and addiction to intense and fruitless writing, to verbose and empty, useless writing, but if among hundreds of thousands of similar texts there are several truly interesting and powerful ones, it’s all the same just as prospectors would find an ingot of gold in a pile of slag.

The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, and “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems are known. It is interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is felt). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.