Scientists and their contributions. The most famous physicists in the world

Which allows people to learn more about the fundamental laws of planet Earth. Every day people do not notice how they enjoy the benefits that have become possible thanks to the work of numerous scientists. If it were not for their dedicated work, a person would not be able to fly on an airplane, cross oceans on huge liners, or even simply turn on an electric kettle. All these dedicated researchers made the world the way modern people see it.

Galileo's discoveries

The physicist Galileo is one of the most famous. He is a physicist, astronomer, mathematician and mechanic. It was he who first invented the telescope. Using this apparatus, unprecedented for that time, it was possible to observe distant celestial bodies. Galileo Galilei is the founder of the experimental direction in physical science. The first discoveries that Galileo made with a telescope were published in his work “The Starry Messenger”. This book was truly a sensational success. Since Galileo's ideas largely contradicted the Bible, he was persecuted by the Inquisition for a long time.

Biography and discoveries of Newton

A great scientist who made discoveries in many fields is also Isaac Newton. The most famous of his discoveries is In addition, the physicist explained many natural phenomena on the basis of mechanics, and also described the features of the movement of planets around the Sun, Moon and Earth. Newton was born on January 4, 1643 in the English town of Woolsthorpe.

After graduating from school, he entered college at Cambridge University. The physicists who taught at the college had a great influence on Newton. Inspired by the example of his teachers, Newton made several of his first discoveries. They mainly concerned the field of mathematics. Next, Newton begins to conduct experiments on the decomposition of light. In 1668 he received his master's degree. In 1687, Newton's first serious scientific work, Principia, was published. In 1705, the scientist was awarded the title of knight, and the English government of that era personally thanked Newton for his research.

Female physicist: Marie Curie-Skłodowska

Physicists around the world still use the achievements of Marie Curie-Sklodowska in their work. She is the only female physicist to have been nominated for the Nobel Prize twice. Marie Curie was born on November 7, 1867 in Warsaw. As a child, a tragedy happened in the girl’s family - her mother and one of her sisters died. While studying at school, Marie Curie was distinguished by her diligence and interest in science.

In 1890, she moved to her older sister in Paris, where she entered the Sorbonne. It was then that she met her future husband, Pierre Curie. As a result of many years of scientific research, the couple discovered two new radioactive elements - radium and polonium. Shortly before the start of the war, it was opened in France where Marie Curie served as director. In 1920, she published a book entitled Radiology and War, which summarized her scientific experiences.

Albert Einstein: one of the greatest minds on the planet

Physicists all over the planet know the name of Albert Einstein. He is the author of the theory of relativity. Modern physics relies heavily on Einstein's views, despite the fact that not all modern scientists agree with his discoveries. Einstein was a Nobel Prize winner. During his life, he wrote about 300 scientific works relating to physics, as well as 150 works on the history and philosophy of science. Until the age of 12, Einstein was a very religious child, as he received his education in a Catholic school. After little Albert read several scientific books, he came to the conclusion that not all statements in the Bible can be true.

Many people believe that Einstein was a genius since childhood. This is far from true. As a schoolboy, Einstein was considered a very weak student. Although even then he was interested in mathematics, physics, as well as the philosophical works of Kant. In 1896, Einstein entered the Faculty of Education in Zurich, where he also met his future wife, Mileva Maric. In 1905, Einstein published some articles, which, however, were criticized by some physicists. In 1933, Einstein moved to the USA permanently.

Other researchers

But there are other famous names of physicists who have made no less significant discoveries in their field. These are V. K. Roentgen, and S. Hawking, N. Tesla, L. L. Landau, N. Bohr, M. Planck, E. Fermi, M. Faraday, A. A. Becquerel and many others. Their contribution to physical science is no less important.

A virtual review of the literature on the history of scientific and technical inventions of mankind in the 18th and 19th centuries. on the pages of publications from the fund of rare and valuable books.

For people of our time, it is obvious that science and technology play a very important, decisive role in modern society. However, this was not always the case. The ancient Greeks, for example, looked at the craft of mechanics as an occupation of commoners, not worthy of a true scientist. The world religions that emerged later initially rejected science altogether. One of the fathers of the Christian church, Tertullian, argued that after the Gospel there is no need for any other knowledge. Muslims reasoned in a similar way. When the Arabs captured Alexandria, they burned the famous Library of Alexandria - Caliph Omar declared that since there was a Koran, there was no need for other books. This dogma prevailed until the beginning of the New Age. Dissidents were persecuted by the Inquisition, threatening to be burned at the stake. Inventors of new mechanisms were persecuted. For example, in 1579, a mechanic who created a ribbon loom was executed in Danzig. The reason for the reprisal was the municipality's fear that this invention would cause unemployment among weavers. Understanding of the role of science came only during the Enlightenment, in the 17th century, when the first Academies in Europe were created. The first achievement of the new science was the discovery of the laws of mechanics - including the law of universal gravitation. These discoveries caused delight in society. The Industrial Revolution dramatically changed people's lives; the traditional way of rural life was replaced by a new, industrial society. Amazing discoveries and inventions followed one after another, the world was rapidly changing before the eyes of one generation.

Yakov Vasilyevich Abramov talks about two inventors - Stephenson and Fulton, whose great creations forever changed the way of life of mankind.

Stephenson and Fulton: (inventors of the steam locomotive and steamship): their life and scientific and practical activities: biographical sketches with portraits of Stephenson and Fulton, engraved in Leipzig by Gedan / Y. V. Abramov. - St. Petersburg: Typo-lithography and phototype by V. I. Stein, 1893. - 78 p., 2 sheets. portrait ; 18 cm - (Life of remarkable people: (ZhZL). Biographical library of F. Pavlenkov). (6(09I) A16 34977M-RF)

George Stephenson is undoubtedly one of the heroic men of strong will. In the preface to the book, the author writes about him: “A worker by origin, without receiving any school education, and even being illiterate until adulthood, Stephenson not only managed to overcome all the unfavorable conditions of his life, acquire significant diverse knowledge, achieve a high social position, but and became one of the outstanding geniuses of mankind.” The inventor and mechanical engineer gained worldwide fame thanks to the steam locomotive he designed. Stephenson is also considered one of the "fathers" of railroads. The gauge of the rail track he chose was called Stephenson gauge and is still the standard in many countries around the world. The author notes that there are few other biographies that can arouse the same interest as the biography of George Stephenson.

George (George) Stephenson was born in a small poor coal mining village near the city of Newcastle. Four families were crowded into the house where the Stephensons lived. From the age of 6, George sorted coal at the mine, then helped his father, a fireman. At the age of 17, young George Stephenson, who had thoroughly studied the structure of the steam engine operating in the mine and was able to fix any malfunction, was appointed its driver. George was one of those people who, having set themselves a goal, stubbornly strive to achieve it. At the age of 18, despite the ridicule of his comrades, he learned to read and write. Through persistent self-education, Stephenson acquired the specialty of a steam engine mechanic.

Over the next years he studied steam engines. The first steam locomotive designed by Stephenson was intended to pull coal cars. This locomotive did no more than a kilometer per hour and after a month of operation it shook so much that it stopped working. His second locomotive seemed like a real miracle back then. He could drive a train with a total weight of up to 30 tons. The car was named "Blücher" in honor of the Prussian field marshal, famous for his victory in the battle with Napoleon.

Over the next five years, Stephenson built 16 more cars.

George founded the world's first steam locomotive works in Newcastle, where in September 1825 he built the Active locomotive, later renamed Locomotive. Stephenson himself drove a train loaded with 80 tons of coal and flour, which in some sections accelerated to 39 km/h. In addition to the cargo, the train included an open passenger carriage called “Experiment”. This was the first case in world practice of using a steam-powered railway to transport passengers.

In 1829, competitions of several locomotives took place, which went down in history as the “Reinhill trials”. Stephenson entered his steam locomotive "Rocket" into the competition. He had 4 opponents. Stephenson's locomotive was the only one to successfully complete all tests. Its maximum speed reached 48 km/h. The brilliant victory of the “Rocket” made it perhaps the most famous mechanism in the history of technology.

Gradually, Stephenson practically retired, focusing only on the construction of tunnels for the railway and the development of new coal seams. His son Robert also became a talented engineer and helped his father in everything. Steam locomotives began to be built in other countries based on George Stephenson's designs. He belonged to those lucky inventors who had the opportunity to see their ideas realized during their lifetime.

The second character in the book, whose name is also associated with steam engines, is the no less famous inventor Robert Fulton. Robert was born in Pennsylvania, USA. His parents, bankrupt farmers, were forced to emigrate to America. The family had five children. His father was engaged mainly in hard day labor and died when Robert was only three years old. The family finally found itself in dire straits. Fulton always remembered with reverence his mother, who managed not only to raise her children, but also to give them the opportunity to receive at least an elementary education at a local school and pay for their education. From an early age, Robert showed a penchant for two pursuits: painting and mechanics. While studying mathematics and theoretical mechanics, Robert Fulton became interested in the idea of ​​using steam in shipping. He constantly had to find funds for his inventions and periodically fail. He began experimenting with torpedoes and even presented Napoleon with a practical model of the Nautilus submarine. Fulton submitted plans for the construction of the steamship to the governments of the United States and Great Britain, but, despite all his efforts, could not find funds for their implementation. At that time he was already 31 years old.

At the request of US Ambassador Robert Livingston, Fulton began experimenting with steam engines. In 1803, a steam ship 20 m long and 2.4 m wide was tested on the Seine River. But, despite the successful experience, there was not a single capitalist who would invest money in the implementation and operation of the invention.

Robert goes to America, where he was given a twenty-year privilege to sail on steamships on the Hudson, on the condition that within two years he would build a steamship capable of sailing against the current at a speed of at least 6 knots per hour. Encouraged by his success, Fulton ordered a new, more powerful steam engine and got to work.

In 1807, Fulton's steamboat set sail. The length of the vessel was 45 m, its engine had one cylinder, and oak and pine wood was used as fuel. When tested, it swam a distance of 240 km at an average speed of 4.7 mph, while Monopoly required only 4 mph. After installing cabins on the ship, Robert Fulton began commercial voyages, carrying passengers and light cargo. He patented his steamboat and built several more steam ships in subsequent years. In 1814, construction began on the 44-gun warship Demologos for the US Navy, but this project was completed after his death.

“The Republic of Scientists is not a monastery with one charter: it consists of individuals who have in common only an interest in science and extraordinary talents,” writes the author of the next book, starting a story about the outstanding European scientists of the 18th century - Laplace and Euler.

Laplace and Euler: their lives and scientific activities: biographical sketches: with portraits of Laplace and Euler, engraved in Leipzig by Gedan / E. F. Litvinova. - St. Petersburg: Printing house of the Partnership for Public Benefit", 1892. - 79 pp., 2 sheets of portrait. (51(09I) L64 27165M-RF).

Elizaveta Fedorovna believes that the main feature of the scientific works of Pierre Simon Laplace is their greater accessibility to non-specialists. For example, his essay “The World System” can be read by every educated person, because it is distinguished by its simplicity and clarity. A French mathematician and astronomer, famous for his work in the field of differential equations, one of the creators of probability theory, Laplace was the chairman of the Chamber of Weights and Measures and headed the Bureau of Longitudes. The Paris Academy published his treatises on probability theory in 13 volumes. But the greatest amount of research by Pierre Laplace relates to celestial mechanics, which he studied throughout his life. Laplace worked on the five-volume work “Treatise on Celestial Mechanics” for 26 years. He compiled more accurate tables of the Moon, which was important in determining longitudes at sea and, therefore, played a large role in navigation. The ancients despairingly called the phenomenon of ebb and flow the grave of human curiosity. Laplace was the first to recognize with confidence the connection between these phenomena and the attractive power of the Moon and the Sun. Undoubtedly, Pierre Laplace was a great scientist and a widely educated person: he knew languages, history, chemistry and biology, and loved poetry, music, and painting. He had an excellent memory and until a very old age he recited entire pages from the French poet and playwright Jean Racine by heart. There were many talented young scientists around him, whom he patronized.

During his life, Pierre Laplace was a member of six academies of sciences and royal societies. His name is included in the list of the greatest scientists of France, placed on the first floor of the Eiffel Tower. A crater on the Moon, an asteroid, and numerous concepts and theorems in mathematics are named after Laplace.

The hero of the second essay by E. F. Litvinova is Leonhard Euler, an outstanding German scientist who made a significant contribution to the development of mechanics, physics, astronomy and a number of applied sciences. Euler is recognized as the most productive mathematician in history. He spent almost half his life in Russia, was an academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, knew the Russian language well, and published some of his works (especially textbooks) in Russian.

At this time, the St. Petersburg Academy was one of the main centers of mathematics in the world. Here were the most favorable conditions for the flowering of the genius of Leonhard Euler. One day the Academy needed to do a very difficult job of calculating the trajectory of a comet. According to academics, this required several months of work. L. Euler undertook to complete this in three days and completed the work, but due to overexertion he became seriously ill with inflammation of his right eye, which he subsequently lost. Soon two volumes of his analytical mechanics appeared, then two parts of an introduction to arithmetic in German and a new theory of music. For his essay on the ebb and flow of the seas, Leonhard Euler received the French Academy Prize.

Enviable health and easy character helped Euler “withstand the blows of fate that befell him. Always an even mood, cheerfulness, good-natured mockery and the ability to tell funny stories made conversation with him pleasant and desirable...” Euler was constantly surrounded by numerous grandchildren, often a child sat in his arms, and a cat lay on his neck. He himself taught mathematics to the children. And all this did not stop him from working. During his life, Leonhard Euler wrote about 900 scientific papers.

Thomas Edison said: “Discontent is the first condition of progress.” The degree of “dissatisfaction” of the great scientist is evidenced by his 1093 patents for inventions. To make the world more convenient, he invented the phonograph, built the world's first public power station, improved the telegraph and telephone, and the incandescent lamp.

Edison and Morse: their lives and scientific and practical activities: two biographical sketches / A. V. Kamensky. - St. Petersburg: Printing house Yu. N. Erlikh, 1891. - 80 p., front. (portrait) ; 19 cm - (Life of remarkable people: (ZhZL). Biographical library of F. Pavlenkov). (6(09I) K18 35638M-RF)

Thomas Edison registered his first patent at the age of 22. Later, he was so productive that he created on average one minor invention every 10 days and one major invention every six months. Under what circumstances were these technical achievements of the American engineer made, says the author of his biography A.V. Kamensky.

When Thomas was 7 years old, his father went bankrupt, and the future inventor, not wanting to accept the fall of his family, plunged headlong into his studies. True, I soon had to say goodbye to the school. His mother, a former school teacher, continued his education at home. At the age of 10, Thomas plunged into chemical experiments and created his first laboratory in the basement of his house. Money was needed to conduct experiments, and at the age of 12 Edison began working. He sold newspapers, fruits and candy on trains. In order not to waste time, he moved the chemical laboratory to the baggage car at his disposal, where one day he almost started a fire. At the age of 15, using the money he saved, Thomas purchased a printing press and began publishing his own newspaper right in the baggage car of the train in which he worked, and selling it to passengers.

Edison was attracted by everything innovative, so he soon exchanged the railroad for the telegraph. From the very first days of working as a telegraph operator, he thought about improving the telegraph apparatus. Edison invents an electrical recorder of the number of votes, but there were no buyers for this patent. Then Thomas decided for himself that he would only work on inventions with guaranteed demand. Subsequently, he expanded the capabilities of the telegraph apparatus: now it could transmit not only SOS signals, but also information about stock exchange rates. Edison earned 40 thousand dollars from this invention and soon organized a workshop where he manufactured automatic telegraph devices and other electrical equipment.

In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, which he would consider his favorite creation for the rest of his life. The press called the phonograph “the greatest discovery of the century,” and Edison himself proposed many ways to use it: dictating letters and documents without the help of a stenographer, playing music, recording conversations. Edison's new invention, which shocked the world, was a device for displaying sequential photographs - a kinescope. In April 1896, Edison held the first public screening of a film in New York, and in 1913 he demonstrated a film with synchronized sound.

Until the end of his life, Thomas Edison was engaged in improving this world. At the age of 85, dying, he told his wife: “If there is anything after death, it is good. If not, that's fine too. I lived my life and did the best I could...”

The next hero, Samuel Finley Morse, is known throughout the world as the inventor of the electromagnetic writing telegraph - the “Morse apparatus” and the transmission code - “Morse code”.

Samuel (Samuel) Morse was born in Massachusetts into a wealthy American family and graduated from Yale College. He was indifferent to science, although he was attracted by lectures on electricity. Samuel also loved to draw miniature portraits of acquaintances. He was so fascinated by painting that his parents sent him to England to study art at the Royal Academy of Arts. In 1813, Morse presented his painting “The Dying Hercules” to the Royal Academy of Arts in London, for which he received a gold medal.

After returning home, he lived the life of a traveling painter for ten years, painting portraits. It must be said that Samuel was very sociable and charming, he was eagerly received in noble houses. Even US President Lincoln was among his friends. In New York he creates some very interesting portraits and founded the National Academy of Design. During his second trip to Europe, S. Morse met the famous scientist L. Daguerre and became interested in the latest discoveries in the field of electricity. And after at the university he was shown a description of the model of an electromagnetic telegraph proposed by the German physicist W. Weber, he completely devoted himself to invention. The scientist knew that electric current runs almost instantly along the longest wire and that when an obstacle is encountered, a spark appears. Why can’t this spark represent a word, a letter, a number? Why not come up with an alphabet for transmitting words by electricity? This thought haunted Morse. It took years of work and study to get his telegraph working. In 1837, he developed a system of representing letters with dots and dashes, which became known throughout the world as Morse code. However, he did not find support for introducing the idea either at home, or in England, or in France, or in Russia, meeting with refusal everywhere. From a trip to Europe, Samuel returned home with dashed hopes and almost in poverty.

In another attempt to interest the US Congress in the creation of telegraph lines, he brought in a congressman as a partner, and in 1843 Morse received a subsidy of $30,000 for the construction of the first telegraph line from Baltimore to Washington. Having received the necessary funds, Morse immediately began constructing a trial telegraph line, which was completed a little over a year later, although the public was still outraged for a long time that Congress was wasting public money on such an insane enterprise. A few years later, the telegraph spread to America, and then to Europe and was recognized as one of the most amazing discoveries of our century. Newspapers, railroads and banks quickly found use for it. Telegraph lines instantly intertwined the whole world, Morse's fortune and fame increased. A man who often had to go hungry now did not know how to get rid of the lavish dinners and celebrations held in his honor. Representatives of ten European governments at a special congress jointly decided to give Morse 400,000 francs. In 1858, he bought an estate near New York, and spent the rest of his life there with a large family of children and grandchildren. In his old age, Morse became a philanthropist. He patronized schools, universities, churches, missionaries and poor artists.

After his death, Morse's fame as an inventor began to fade, as the telegraph was replaced by telephone, radio and television. But, oddly enough, his reputation as an artist grew. He did not consider himself a portrait painter, but many people know his paintings of Lafayette and other prominent people. His 1837 telegraph is kept in the US National Museum, and his country house is recognized as a historical monument.

Throughout the history of mankind, no less interest than the conquest of the water ocean has been caused by the conquest of the air ocean. The idea of ​​rising into the sky has excited human minds since ancient times. The first mentions of attempts of this kind date back to the 4th-5th centuries BC. The book “Conquest of the Air” is just about this. The authors of the articles included in this collection are German writers, scientists, engineers and aeronauts: G. Dominic, F. M. Feldgauz, O. Neischler, A. Stolberg, O. Steffens, N. Stern.

Conquest of the air: a reference book on aeronautics and flying technology: compiled on the basis of the latest discoveries and inventions: with 162 figs. in the text / trans. with him. M. Kadish; auto preface gr. Zeppelin. - Moscow: publishing house "Titan": Printing house of the trading house M. V. Baldin and Co., . - , 400 s. : ill. (6T5(09I) Z-13 27861 - RF)

It contains materials on the first experiences of flight: from folk tales and legends to the appearance of hot air balloons and controlled balloons, as well as on the use of air vehicles for scientific, sports and cultural purposes.

The first chapters of the book, authored by F. M. Feldgauz, describe many flying attempts of the past - sometimes curious, sometimes funny and curious. In addition to wings, which were attached to the arms or body, there were also various types of flying machines and ships.

A sad page in the history of aeronautics is the expedition led by the Swedish engineer-naturalist Salomon Andre, carried out in 1897 with the goal of reaching the North Pole in a hot air balloon, during which all three of its participants died. This is how Dr. A. Stolberg describes this expedition: Salomon Andre, the first Swedish balloonist, proposed organizing an expedition in a hydrogen-filled balloon from Spitsbergen to Russia or Canada, and its path should, if lucky, go straight through the North Pole. The patriotic masses greeted this idea with enthusiasm. Unfortunately, Andre ignored the potential dangers. There was a lot of evidence that the technology he invented to control the ball using fastening ropes turned out to be ineffective, but he still jeopardized the fate of the expedition. To make matters worse, the Eagle balloon was delivered directly to Svalbard by its manufacturer in Paris and was not pre-inspected. When measurements showed that there were more hydrogen leaks than expected, Andre did not consider this a serious problem. Most contemporary scientists, seeing Andre's optimism, also disdained the forces of nature, which in fact led to the death of Salomon Andre and his two young associates, Nils Strindberg and Ernst Frenkel. After launching from Spitsbergen in July 1897, the balloon very quickly lost hydrogen and crashed in the ice within two days. The researchers were not injured during its fall, but died during the grueling journey south through the drifting polar ice. Lacking sufficiently warm clothing, equipment and training, and overwhelmed by the difficulty of traversing the terrain, they had little chance of a successful outcome. When the Arctic winter closed their further path in October, the group found itself sandwiched on the deserted White Island in the Spitsbergen archipelago and died there. True, in 1909 they did not yet know about this. The author of the essay assumed that the heroes of the expedition died immediately as soon as the balloon finally lost air somewhere over the ocean. He writes: “...probably all three drowned immediately; in any case, this would be a better fate...” For 33 years, the fate of Andre's expedition remained one of the mysteries of the Arctic. The accidental discovery of the expedition's last camp in 1930 created a sensation.

The book describes many more stories about successful and not so successful attempts to conquer airspace. It contains descriptions of various types of aircraft: gliders, airplanes, monoplanes, airships... Many drawings and photographs that depict fantastic and real designs of air vehicles and their creators will help you clearly understand and appreciate the structural features of each.

The history of the invention and use of flying devices in Russia contains many interesting, sometimes funny moments. It is known that rulers at all times loved to patronize the inventors of flying cars. Alexander I also favored aeronautics.

A very interesting and little-known story is told by Alexander Alekseevich Rodnykh, a Russian popularizer and historian of science, a specialist in the history of aeronautics, a science journalist, and a science fiction writer. One of the first propagandists of the ideas of K. Tsiolkovsky, a graduate of the Faculty of Mathematics of St. Petersburg University.

Secret preparation for the destruction of Napoleon's army in the twelfth year with the help of aeronautics: from the "History of Aeronautics and Flying in Russia": with 19 photographs from ancient drawings / A. Rodnykh. - [St. Petersburg]: [Type. T-va Literacy], . - 61, 124 p. : ill. (9(C)15 R60 36628-RF)

In his book, he talks about a very special event in the history of aeronautics and flying in Russia. It turns out that in the spring of 1812, at the behest of Alexander I, preparations were made in complete secrecy for the destruction of Napoleon’s army with the help of the “flying machine” of the German inventor Leppich. Leppich volunteered to build a controlled machine capable of rising into the air and dropping huge quantities of explosive shells to exterminate Napoleon's army. A. Rodnykh says that Leppich’s air enterprise cost the Russian treasury, not counting the timber for the construction of the premises, heating, dressing of the skins and others, a total of about 185,000 rubles. The appearance of the machine can be judged from the surviving drawing, which indicates that Leppich’s idea of ​​a controlled airship was associated with ideas about fishing, that is, with the help of fins and a tail. Despite repeated design changes, experiments and attempts by the inventor to make the device fly, the enterprise was not successful. The author writes that Leppich’s failure is difficult to determine because, without technical data on the building itself, it is impossible to understand whether the error lies in the idea itself or in its execution. There are different data regarding the end of the unfortunate designer’s stay in Russia: according to some, he was deported abroad in 1814, according to others, he fled on his own. A. Rodnykh describes in detail the history of this entertaining, adventurous, sometimes full of drama enterprise. Considering that the facts and information from the history of Russian aeronautics presented in the book are little known, this work definitely deserves attention.

We have already said that many things that are something ordinary for modern man at one time made a serious revolution in the history of mankind, forcing him to take a huge step towards progress. The work of the English researcher and publicist Frederick Morel Holmes (Holmes) “Great Men and Their Great Works” is a kind of generalization, an artistic and historical study of the most famous inventions and technical achievements of mankind of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

Great people and their great works: stories about the buildings of famous engineers / F. M. Holms; lane from English M. A. Zhebeleva. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house O. N. Popova: Typo-lithography by I. Usmanov, 1903. - VIII, 272 p. : ill. (30G G63 488195-RF)

The book tells about such inventions as the steam locomotive and the steamship, whose appearance changed the world economy beyond recognition; a lighthouse that can withstand waves and send signals to ships around the clock; artificial canals that often run above sea level; a lathe, with the invention of which it became possible to produce parts with precisely specified dimensions.

This is how the author of the book describes the construction of Marc Brunel’s tunnel under the Thames: “If at that time you had been on the Rothergate Shoal near the Thames, you would have been very surprised to see that instead of digging a well, they began to erect a tower there... The masons began laying a round tower with walls 3 feet thick and 42 feet high... The soil was dug out and lifted up by a machine... And as the hole got deeper, this pipe of masonry sank into it... 65 feet high. Little by little, it all sank into the ground.”

And when building a bridge across the Menai Strait, new ideas were needed, since the width from one bank to the other is more than 335 meters. The bridge had to be strong enough to carry heavy trains at high speed and high enough above the water so as not to interfere with shipping. The task was very difficult, but the famous engineer Robert Stephenson, the son of George Stephenson, the inventor of the steam locomotive, which was already discussed above, took on its implementation. How exactly, using what technologies, was the first tubular bridge “Britannia” built, and why was the construction of a tower necessary when digging a tunnel? Who is Marc Isambard Brunel? The author of the book gives answers to all these questions.

F. M. Holmes introduces readers to realistic images of great inventors, the difficult fate of them and their creations, many of which still serve humanity. It helps to see the surrounding reality through the prism of objects and technical means used in everyday life, revealing the secret of their birth. A special advantage of the book is a special section devoted to the history of technical innovations in our country.

This concludes our excursion into the history of scientific and technical inventions of mankind on the pages of publications of the 19th and early 20th centuries. We hope that our virtual exhibition will arouse interest among all lovers of popular science literature.

Russia is a country with a rich history. Many famous pioneers glorified the great power with their achievements. One of these are the great Russian chemists.

Chemistry today is called one of the sciences of natural science, which studies the internal compositions and structure of matter, the decomposition and changes of substances, the pattern of formation of new particles and their changes.

Russian chemists who glorified the country

If we talk about the history of chemical science, we cannot help but recall the greatest people who definitely deserve everyone’s attention. The list of famous personalities is headed by the great Russian chemists:

1. Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov.
2. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev.
3. Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov.
4. Sergei Vasilievich Lebedev.
5. Vladimir Vasilievich Markovnikov.
6. Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov.
7. Igor Vasilievich Kurchatov.
8. Nikolai Nikolaevich Zinin.
9. Alexander Nikolaevich Nesmiyanov.

And many others.

Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich

Russian chemist scientists would not have been able to work in the absence of Lomonosov’s work. Mikhail Vasilyevich was from the village of Mishaninskaya (St. Petersburg). The future scientist was born in November 1711. Lomonosov is the founding chemist who gave the correct definition of chemistry, a natural scientist with a capital S, a world physicist and a famous encyclopedist.

The scientific work of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov in the mid-17th century was close to the modern program of chemical and physical research. The scientist developed the theory of molecular kinetic heat, which in many ways surpassed the then ideas about the structure of matter. Lomonosov formulated many fundamental laws, among which was the law of thermodynamics. The scientist founded the science of glass. Mikhail Vasilyevich was the first to discover the fact that the planet Venus has an atmosphere. He became professor of chemistry in 1745, three years after receiving an equal title in physical science.

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

An outstanding chemist and physicist, Russian scientist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was born at the end of February 1834 in the city of Tobolsk. The first Russian chemist was the seventeenth child in the family of Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev, the director of schools and gymnasiums in the Tobolsk region. A metric book with a record of the birth of Dmitry Mendeleev has still been preserved, where the names of the scientist and his parents appear on an ancient page.

Mendeleev was called the most brilliant chemist of the 19th century, and this was the correct definition. Dmitry Ivanovich is the author of important discoveries in chemistry, meteorology, metrology, and physics. Mendeleev studied isomorphism. In 1860, the scientist discovered the critical temperature (boiling point) for all types of liquids.

In 1861, the scientist published the book “Organic Chemistry”. He studied gases and derived the correct formulas. Mendeleev designed the pycnometer. The great chemist became the author of many works on metrology. He researched coal and oil, and developed systems for irrigation of land.

It was Mendeleev who discovered one of the main natural axioms - the periodic law of chemical elements. We still use it now. He gave characteristics to all chemical elements, theoretically determining their properties, composition, size and weight.

Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov

A. M. Butlerov was born in September 1828 in the city of Chistopol (Kazan province). In 1844 he became a student at Kazan University, Faculty of Natural Sciences, after which he was left there to receive a professorship. Butlerov was interested in chemistry and created a theory of the chemical structure of organic substances. Founder of the “Russian Chemists” school.

Markovnikov Vladimir Vasilievich

The list of “Russian chemists” undoubtedly includes another famous scientist. Vladimir Vasilyevich Markovnikov, a native of the Nizhny Novgorod province, was born on December 25, 1837. Chemist in the field of organic compounds and author of the theory of the structure of oil and the chemical structure of matter in general. His works played an important role in the development of science. Markovnikov laid down the principles of organic chemistry. He conducted a lot of research at the molecular level, establishing certain patterns. Subsequently, these rules were named after their author.

At the end of the 60s of the 18th century, Vladimir Vasilyevich defended his dissertation on the mutual influence of atoms in chemical compounds. Soon after this, the scientist synthesized all the isomers of glutaric acid, and then cyclobutanedicarboxylic acid. Markovnikov discovered naphthenes (a class of organic compounds) in 1883.

For his discoveries he was awarded a gold medal in Paris.

Sergey Vasilievich Lebedev

S. V. Lebedev was born in November 1902 in Nizhny Novgorod. The future chemist received his education at the Warsaw Gymnasium. In 1895 he entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University.

In the early 20s of the 19th century, the Council of National Economy announced an international competition for the production of synthetic rubber. It was proposed not only to find an alternative method for its manufacture, but also to provide the result of the work - 2 kg of finished synthetic material. The raw materials for the production process also had to be cheap. Rubber was required to be of high quality, no worse than natural rubber, but cheaper than the latter.

Needless to say that Lebedev took part in the competition, in which he became the winner? He developed a special chemical composition of rubber that was accessible and cheap to everyone, earning himself the title of great scientist.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov

Nikolai Semenov was born in 1896 in Saratov into the family of Elena and Nikolai Semenov. In 1913, Nikolai entered the Department of Physics and Mathematics at St. Petersburg University, where, under the guidance of the famous Russian physicist Ioffe Abram, he became the best student in the class.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov studied electric fields. He conducted research on the passage of electric current through gases, on the basis of which the theory of thermal breakdown of a dielectric was developed. Later he put forward a theory about thermal explosion and combustion of gas mixtures. According to this rule, the heat generated by a chemical reaction, under certain conditions, can lead to an explosion.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Zinin

On August 25, 1812, Nikolai Zinin, a future organic chemist, was born in the city of Shushi (Nagorno-Karabakh). Nikolai Nikolaevich graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at St. Petersburg University. Became the first president of the Russian Chemical Society. which was detonated on August 12, 1953. This was followed by the development of the RDS-202 thermonuclear explosive, the yield of which was 52,000 kt.

Kurchatov was one of the founders of the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.

Famous Russian chemists then and now

Modern chemistry does not stand still. Scientists from all over the world are working on new discoveries every day. But we should not forget that the important foundations of this science were laid back in the 17th-19th centuries. Outstanding Russian chemists became important links in the subsequent chain of development of chemical sciences. Not all contemporaries use, for example, Markovnikov’s laws in their research. But we still use the long-discovered periodic table, the principles of organic chemistry, the conditions for the critical temperature of liquids, and so on. Russian chemists of yesteryear left an important mark on world history, and this fact is undeniable.

Until the 19th century, the concept of “biology” did not exist, and those who studied nature were called natural scientists, naturalists. Now these scientists are called the founders of biological sciences. Let us remember who the Russian biologists were (and we will briefly describe their discoveries) who influenced the development of biology as a science and laid the foundation for its new directions.

Vavilov N.I. (1887-1943)

Our biologists and their discoveries are known throughout the world. Among the most famous is Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov, a Soviet botanist, geographer, breeder, and geneticist. Born into a merchant family, he was educated at the Agricultural Institute. For twenty years he led scientific expeditions studying the plant world. He traveled almost the entire globe, with the exception of Australia and Antarctica. He collected a unique collection of seeds of various plants.

During his expeditions, the scientist identified centers of origin of cultivated plants. He suggested that there were certain centers of their origin. He made a huge contribution to the study of plant immunity and revealed what made it possible to establish patterns in the evolution of the plant world. In 1940, the botanist was arrested on trumped-up charges of embezzlement. Died in prison, posthumously rehabilitated.

Kovalevsky A.O. (1840-1901)

Among the pioneers, domestic biologists occupy a worthy place. And their discoveries influenced the development of world science. Among the world-famous researchers of invertebrates is Alexander Onufrievich Kovalevsky, embryologist and biologist. He was educated at St. Petersburg University. He studied marine animals and undertook expeditions to the Red, Caspian, Mediterranean and Adriatic seas. He created the Sevastopol Marine Biological Station and was its director for a long time. He made a huge contribution to aquarium husbandry.

Alexander Onufrievich studied embryology and physiology of invertebrates. He was a supporter of Darwinism and studied the mechanisms of evolution. Conducted research in the field of physiology, anatomy and histology of invertebrates. He became one of the founders of evolutionary embryology and histology.

Mechnikov I.I. (1845-1916)

Our biologists and their discoveries were appreciated throughout the world. Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1908. Mechnikov was born into the family of an officer and received his education at Kharkov University. He discovered intracellular digestion, cellular immunity, and proved, using embryological methods, the common origin of vertebrates and invertebrates.

He worked on issues of evolutionary and comparative embryology and, together with Kovalevsky, became the founder of this scientific direction. Mechnikov's works were of great importance in the fight against infectious diseases, typhoid, tuberculosis, and cholera. The scientist was interested in the aging process. He believed that premature death is caused by poisoning with microbial toxins and promoted hygienic methods of control, assigning a large role to the restoration of intestinal microflora with the help of fermented milk products. The scientist created the Russian school of immunology, microbiology, and pathology.

Pavlov I.P. (1849-1936)

What contribution did domestic biologists and their discoveries make to the study of higher nervous activity? The first Russian Nobel laureate in the field of medicine was Ivan Petrovich Pavlov for his work on the physiology of digestion. The great Russian biologist and physiologist became the creator of the science of higher nervous activity. He introduced the concept of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes.

The scientist came from a family of clergy and himself graduated from the Ryazan Theological Seminary. But in my last year I read a book by I.M. Sechenov about brain reflexes and became interested in biology and medicine. He studied animal physiology at St. Petersburg University. Pavlov, using surgical methods, studied the physiology of digestion in detail for 10 years and received the Nobel Prize for this research. The next area of ​​interest was higher nervous activity, to the study of which he devoted 35 years. He introduced the basic concepts of the science of behavior - conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, reinforcement.

Koltsov N.K. (1872-1940)

We continue the topic “Domestic biologists and their discoveries.” Nikolai Konstantinovich Koltsov - biologist, founder of the school of experimental biology. Born into a family of an accountant. He graduated from Moscow University, where he studied comparative anatomy and embryology and collected scientific material in European laboratories. Organized a laboratory of experimental biology at the Shanyavsky People's University.

He studied the biophysics of the cell, the factors that determine its shape. These works were included in science under the name “Koltsov’s principle.” Koltsov is one of the founders of the first laboratories and the department of experimental biology in Russia. The scientist founded three biological stations. He became the first Russian scientist to use the physicochemical method in biological research.

Timiryazev K.A. (1843-1920)

Domestic biologists and their discoveries in the field of plant physiology contributed to the development of the scientific foundations of agronomy. Timiryazev Kliment Arkadyevich was a naturalist, a researcher of photosynthesis and a promoter of Darwin's ideas. The scientist came from a noble family and graduated from St. Petersburg University.

Timiryazev studied plant nutrition, photosynthesis, and drought resistance. The scientist was engaged not only in pure science, but also attached great importance to the practical application of research. He was in charge of an experimental field where he tested various fertilizers and recorded their effect on the crop. Thanks to this research, agriculture has made significant progress along the path of intensification.

Michurin I.V. (1855-1935)

Russian biologists and their discoveries have significantly influenced agriculture and horticulture. Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin - and breeder. His ancestors were small-scale nobles, from whom the scientist adopted an interest in gardening. Even in early childhood, he looked after the garden, many of the trees in which were grafted by his father, grandfather and great-grandfather. Michurin began selection work in a rented, neglected estate. During the period of his activity, he developed more than 300 varieties of cultivated plants, including those adapted to the conditions of central Russia.

Tikhomirov A.A. (1850-1931)

Russian biologists and their discoveries helped develop new directions in agriculture. Alexander Andreevich Tikhomirov - biologist, doctor of zoology and rector of Moscow University. He received a law degree at St. Petersburg University, but became interested in biology and received a second degree at Moscow University in the department of natural sciences. The scientist discovered such a phenomenon as artificial parthenogenesis, one of the most important sections in individual development. He made a great contribution to the development of sericulture.

Sechenov I.M. (1829-1905)

The topic “Famous biologists and their discoveries” will be incomplete without mentioning Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov. This is a famous Russian evolutionary biologist, physiologist and educator. Born into a landowner's family, he received his education at the Main Engineering School and Moscow University.

The scientist examined the brain and discovered a center that causes inhibition of the central nervous system and proved the influence of the brain on muscle activity. He wrote the classic work “Reflexes of the Brain,” where he formulated the idea that conscious and unconscious acts are performed in the form of reflexes. He imagined the brain as a computer that controls all life processes. Substantiated the respiratory function of blood. The scientist created the domestic school of physiology.

Ivanovsky D.I. (1864-1920)

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries was the time when great Russian biologists worked. And their discoveries (a table of any size could not contain their list) contributed to the development of medicine and biology. Among them is Dmitry Iosifovich Ivanovsky, a physiologist, microbiologist and founder of virology. He was educated at St. Petersburg University. Even during his studies, he showed interest in plant diseases.

The scientist suggested that diseases are caused by tiny bacteria or toxins. The viruses themselves were seen using an electron microscope only 50 years later. It is Ivanovsky who is considered the founder of virology as a science. The scientist studied the process of alcoholic fermentation and the influence of chlorophyll and oxygen on it, as well as soil microbiology.

Chetverikov S.S. (1880-1959)

Russian biologists and their discoveries made a great contribution to the development of genetics. Chetverikov Sergei Sergeevich was born a scientist in the family of a manufacturer, and received his education at Moscow University. This is an outstanding evolutionary geneticist who organized the study of heredity in animal populations. Thanks to these studies, the scientist is considered the founder of evolutionary genetics. He laid the foundation for a new discipline - population genetics.

You have read the article “Famous domestic biologists and their discoveries.” A table of their achievements can be compiled based on the proposed material.

In the article we will talk about Russian biologists. We will look at the most significant names of the discoverers, and also get acquainted with their achievements. From the article you will learn about those Russian biologists who really made a significant contribution to the development of this science. Anyone who is interested in the animal and plant world simply must know the names that we will name below.

Ivan Pavlov

In Soviet times, this scientist did not even need to be introduced. However, in the modern world, not every person can say exactly who Ivan Petrovich Pavlov is. The man was born in 1849. His most significant achievement is the creation of the doctrine of the activity of the higher nervous system. He also wrote many books on the peculiarities of blood circulation and digestion. This is the first Russian scientist to receive the Nobel Prize for his achievements in studying the mechanisms of digestion.

Experiments on dogs

Ivan Pavlov is a Russian biologist who is famous for conducting experiments on dogs. There are many jokes and cartoons related to this in our country. Moreover, when it comes to instincts, everyone immediately remembers Pavlov’s dog. The scientist began conducting experiments in 1890. He managed to develop conditioned reflexes in animals. For example, he ensured that dogs secreted gastric juice after they heard the sound of a bell, and this bell was always preceded by a meal. The peculiarity of this scientist’s method is that he saw the relationship between mental and physiological processes. Multiple subsequent studies confirmed its presence.

He published his first work in 1923. In 1926 he began research in the field of genetics. For several years he worked in psychiatric clinics. Ivan Pavlov's discoveries helped to learn a lot about mental illness, as well as possible methods of treating them. Thanks to the support of the USSR government, Pavlov had enough resources to carry out all his experiments, which allowed him to achieve other outstanding results.

Ilya Mechnikov

We continue the list of Russian biologists with the famous name I. I. Mechnikov. This is a famous microbiologist who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1908. Born in Kharkov in 1845. He studied in the same city. He studied embryology in Italy and defended his doctoral dissertation in 1868. In 1886, together with other scientists, he created a bacteriological station, which at that time was the first in Russia.

He wrote his first books on the topic of zoology and evolutionary embryology. He is the author of the phagocytella theory. He discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis and developed a theory of comparative pathology of inflammation. He wrote a huge number of works on bacteriology. He conducted experiments on himself, and thus proved that the causative agent of Asian cholera is Vibrio cholerae. Died 1916 in Paris.

Alexander Kovalevsky

We will continue the list of famous Russian biologists with the sensational name of Alexander Kovalevsky. This is a great scientist who was a zoologist. Worked at the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Born in 1842. At first he studied at home, and then entered the corps of railway engineers. After that, he graduated from St. Petersburg University in the department of natural sciences. Defended his master's and doctoral dissertations.

In 1868 he was already a professor of zoology and worked at Kazan University. He spent three years in Algeria and the Red Sea, where he carried out his research. Most of them are devoted to invertebrate embryology. In the 1860s, he conducted research that led to the discovery of germ layers in organisms.

Nikolay Vavilov

It is simply impossible to imagine a list of great Russian biologists without the name Nikolai Vavilov. This man created the doctrine of plant immunity. He also discovered the law on hereditary changes in the body and homologous series. He made a significant contribution to the development of the study of biological species and created a huge collection of seeds of various plants. By the way, it is recognized as the largest in the world.

The future scientist was born in Moscow in 1887 in the family of a merchant. He came from peasant background. For some time he worked as director of his father’s company, which dealt with invoices. Vavilov’s mother was from the artist’s family. In total, there were 7 children in the family, but three of them died at an early age.

Training and achievements

Nikolai Vavilov studied at a commercial school and later entered the Moscow Agricultural Institute, from which he graduated in 1911. After that, he began working at the department of private agriculture. From 1917 he lectured at Saratov University, and 4 years later he was already working in Petrograd. Thanks to his research, he described almost all the plants of the Trans-Volga and Volga regions.

The scientist devoted more than 20 years to the expedition, which he conducted in the Mediterranean and Central Asia. I remembered my trip to Afghanistan in 1924 for a long time. All collected materials helped Vavilov determine not only the origin, but also the distribution of plants. His contribution is simply invaluable, because he greatly simplified the further work of breeders and botanists. It seems incredible, but Nikolai managed to collect more than 300 thousand different samples.

In 1926 he received a prize for his work devoted to the study of immunity, the origin of plants, and the discovery of the law of homological series. Nikolai Vavilov is the owner of a huge number of awards and several medals.

However, there is also a dark spot in his biography. A lot of party ideologists were opposed to the scientist because of the scientific activities of his student T. Lysenko. The opposition campaign was directed against the scientist's research in the field of genetics. In 1940, Vavilov had to complete all scientific work. Moreover, he was accused of sabotage, and he was even arrested. A difficult fate befell this great scientist in his last years. He died in prison from starvation in the foreign city of Saratov in 1943.

Rehabilitation

The investigation lasted more than 10 months, during which the scientist was summoned for questioning more than 400 times. After his death, this great Russian scientist was even denied a separate grave; as a result, he was buried with other prisoners. Only in 1955 was he rehabilitated. All charges regarding his activities were dropped.

Alexander Vereshchak

We have already talked about Russian biologists who received the Nobel Prize, but this does not mean that we should forget about other researchers, because their contribution is also significant. Alexander Vereshchak is a Russian oceanologist, Doctor of Biological Sciences, professor and corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Studied at Moscow State University at the Faculty of Biology. In 1990 he became a Doctor of Science. Since 2007, he headed the laboratory, which belonged to the Institute of Oceanology. This is how we smoothly moved on to considering Russian biologists of the 21st century. The scientist wrote more than 100 scientific papers. His main achievements are related to how modern methods of analysis can be applied in the field of geoecology and oceanology.

Conducted more than 20 dives and 200 expeditions. He is the creator of a model of a hydrothermal system. Developed the concept of an ecosystem inhabited by special fauna. Together with collaborators from other countries, he created a methodology that allows one to determine the role of marine nano- and microbiota. Discovered and described more than 50 species of crustaceans.

Gennady Rosenberg

He was born in 1949 in Ufa. In his name we also continue to consider the list of Russian biologists of the 21st century. He planned to become an engineer, but soon headed a laboratory at the Institute of Biology. In 1987 he moved to Togliatti. He is the creator of a method for analyzing the structure and dynamics of ecosystems. Created his own system of ecology of large regions for analytical purposes.

Yuri Ilyin

The future scientist was born in the winter of 1941 in Asbest. Renowned molecular biologist. He was a specialist in molecular genetics and biology. In 1976, he conducted a study of mobile genes. It is extremely difficult to overestimate its importance, since it significantly advanced all of science. Studied mobile elements of eukaryotes. He is the creator of the theory about the role of mobile genes in carcinogenesis, evolution and mutagenesis.

Zinaida Donets

Other names

It is worth noting that Russian biologists and their discoveries were not always appreciated. There are many researchers who are known only to those who also connected their lives with this science. For example, it is worth mentioning the name of Nikolai Koltsov, a Russian biologist who is considered the founder of experimental biology. He was the first to create a hypothesis about the molecular structure of chromosomes and their matrix reproduction. The discovery was made in 1928. Thus, this outstanding scientist anticipated all the basic principles of modern biology and genetics.

It is impossible not to mention the Russian naturalist Kliment Timiryazev. He was born in 1843. He is the discoverer of the laws of photosynthesis. He discovered and substantiated the process of the influence of light on the formation of organic substances in the layers of a plant.

Sergei Chetverikov is a talented Soviet geneticist, who is rightfully considered one of the founders of population and evolutionary genetics. This is one of the first researchers who found a relationship between the patterns of selection of individuals in a population and the speed of dynamics in evolutionary processes.

Alexander Tikhomirov is a Russian scientist who discovered artificial parthenogenesis. But this phenomenon is considered the most important section of the doctrine of the individual development of a living being. He made a great contribution to the development of sericulture in our country.

So we briefly reviewed information about Russian biologists and their discoveries. However, I would also like to mention a few names that very few people know about.

It is worth mentioning Ivan Gmelin, a participant in the Great Northern Expedition and a naturalist. The scientist is an academic researcher of Siberia, ethnographer and botanist. Described more than 500 plant species of Siberia. I covered more than 34,000 km there. He wrote a voluminous work on the flora of the region.

Nikolai Turchaninov is the first scientist who described the fauna of Transbaikalia and the Baikal region. He collected a huge private herbarium. He described more than 2000 plant species from all over the world. He is the most significant researcher of Asian flora.

It is also worth mentioning the name of Andrei Famintsyn, who is the discoverer of the semiotic nature of lichens. He also discovered the symbiosis of algae and radiolarians. Globally researched artificial lighting for plants.

This is where we will complete our consideration of the biographies of Russian biologists and their discoveries (briefly). We have mentioned all the most significant names, without which it is simply impossible to imagine Russian biology. However, despite this, there are still many scientists whose contribution to the development of this science is simply invaluable. Russian biologists are worthy of attention, because they literally created the basic principles of modern science and actually laid the first foundations.

Every person should know these names, if only because biology is the science of life itself. Summing up the article, I would like to once again express my respect to Russian biologists, thanks to whom we have the opportunity to study holistic, complex science. Remember that you can and should be proud of these names. Of course, the contributions of scientists from all over the world are important, but we must know and respect our own heroes.