All Slavic countries. Slavic peoples
The territory of modern Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania was inhabited during the ancient Paleolithic period, as evidenced by archaeological data. The first people in this territory, about which written sources have been preserved, were the Celts, who came here in the 4th-2nd centuries.
BC. One of these tribes - the Boi - occupied the northern part of Bohemia and Moravia, and subsequently penetrated to the south. Another Celtic tribe settled in the southern part of Slovakia - the Kotini. At the dawn of our era, the Celts were displaced by the Germans who came from the north and west. From I to IV centuries. AD Roman legions were located in the Danube region. They waged constant wars with the Germans. The Lombards entered Italy through the Czech Republic, and the Goths through Slovakia. At the end of the 5th and 6th centuries. came to this territory Slavic population. Essentially it was an agricultural colonization of almost deserted convenient lands. The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture and livestock breeding; they occupied previously inhabited territories, and also expanded them by uprooting forests. The agricultural technology of the Slavs was sufficiently developed to ensure life and some population growth. The Slavs grew wheat and millet, as well as rye, peas, lentils, hemp, vegetables, and collected wild fruits. They bred mainly cattle, knew the processing of wood, clay, bone and horn, and basic textile production. Metal processing has reached a fairly high level. The Slavs lived mainly in village-type settlements, but when the soil became depleted (15-20 years) they moved to other areas. As for the social system, the Slavs apparently experienced a period of transition from a tribal system to military democracy. The main unit of society was a community of several families, 50-60 people in total.At the beginning of the 6th century. Nomads entered Central Europe Avars(pictures in The Tale of Bygone Years). In the second half of the century, they occupied the Roman province of Pannonia, from where they attacked the Franks, Byzantium and especially the Slavs, from whom they took tribute, forced them to take part in their military actions, etc. In 623-624 the Slavs rebelled. They were joined by a Frankish merchant Self with his squad. The only source about these events is the chronicle of Fredegar (c. 660) which tells about the defeat of the Avars and the election of Samo as the leader of the Slavs. In 631, a conflict arose between Samo and the Frankish king Dagobert I (629-638), as a result of which the Slavs defeated the Franks and their allies the Lombards and Alemanni, invaded the Frankish kingdom and attracted the prince of the Lusatian Serbs, Drevan, to their side. Samo Power, located partly on the territory of the Czech Republic and also the Lusatian Serbs, was a tribal union that both defended itself against enemies and carried out predatory raids on its neighbors. According to Fredegar's chronicle, Samo ruled for 35 years. Currently, it is believed that the core of the territory of the power was South Moravia and the adjacent parts of Lower Austria. The question remains open for now.
During the 8th and 9th centuries. The area of settlement of the Slavs is expanding. South Moravia becomes the most developed, where fortified cities and entire districts are created. The district with the center in Mikulčice was probably the princely center; the district of Nitra in Slovakia was also important. Between the territories of the Czech Republic and Slovakia there was a wide belt of uninhabited lands. Fortified towns also arose in the Czech region, in particular the Prague fortified castle in the 9th century. This indicates the stabilization of the population of the territory and the further development of productive forces. Judging by archaeological data, in the 8th-9th centuries. Agriculture reached a high level, which was ensured by the development of crafts that reached the European level. Archaeologists discovered 24 furnaces for smelting steel; blacksmithing and wood processing developed in the city, from which dwellings were already built. Cooperation and pottery production became widespread. There was also production of jewelry made of gold, silver, and glass, concentrated in the main centers. Jewelry and small household items were made from bone and horn, fabric - from flax, hemp, and wool. In the 9th century. The construction business developed. There are 18 known stone churches of that era.
All this presupposes significant property differentiation of society, which is evidenced by the development of internal exchange and trade. Import items were precious metals, amber, expensive fabrics, weapons - for the rich segments of society. Salt was also imported. Money was already used, but irregularly, and the price was probably expressed in weight units of the precious metal (solid). The main trade route of the Danube River connected the Arab Cordoba Caliphate through the Frankish Empire with the lands of Asia.
ABOUT political history society in the specified territory after the disappearance of the tribal union There is no information. The Slavs of these regions belonged to the same ethnic group, but, having settled in various places, developed social relations with some differences. The most favorable conditions were in Moravia. In written sources of the 9th century. The Moravians always act under a single name and are led by a single prince, whose power was hereditary. Ruled by the family Moymirovtsev(according to Prince Moimir, c. 830-846). In 822, Moravian and Czech nobles already participated in the Frankfurt Diet, being, however, still dependent on the Frankish Empire. In Western Slovakia, the Principality of Pribina arose in Nitra. As a result of the struggle between Mojmir and Pribina, the Principality of Nitra c. 833 - 836 was annexed to the possessions of Mojmir, and Pribina was expelled from Nitra. This completed the integration of the possessions north of the middle Danube. The crystallization of the state, later named Great Moravia.
The name of the Slavs is consonant with the root “glory”; Perhaps the Slavs, like the Indian Aryans, called themselves “famous”, “noble”. For the peoples of Western Europe, however, the name Slavs received the exact opposite meaning: “slaves.” This happened because it first appeared among Byzantine writers, who recognized the Slavs as humiliated, pitiful slaves under warlike nomads (the Byzantines pronounced sklaviny, hence the Italian schiavi, French esclaves, German Sklaven).
In terms of language, the Slavs are related to the Iranians, Greeks, Germans, i.e., Aryan or Indo-European peoples; Those closest to them in dialect are their northern neighbors, the Latvian-Lithuanian tribes. It is unknown when the Slavs first appeared in Europe; The Byzantines found them living on the slopes of the Carpathians and along the rivers of the Black Sea basin. Compared to other Indo-European peoples, the Slavs occupied the most disadvantageous position on the eastern edge of the large European lowland, open to a wide steppe strip along which warlike nomadic tribes moved in an endless line; Being an agricultural, sedentary people, they constantly suffered from the devastating raids of the mobile cavalry of cattle breeders. But on their other, western border, the Slavs had no rest: they were pressed by the Germanic peoples, who rushed to the vast regions of Eastern Europe all the more willingly because in the west they had nowhere to go: in the countries of the former Roman Empire they themselves met with a dense population and had long been settled.
The Great Migration of the 5th century greatly shocked the Slavic world. The Goths from their old places of settlement near the Baltic Sea marched to the Black Sea, cutting through Slavic tribes in the middle; The state of Ermanrich included the southeastern Slavs who lived along the rivers of the Black Sea slope. Following this conquest, the Slavs were subjugated by the Huns, who pushed back the Goths. With the Huns, the tide of peoples of Turkish or U r a -lo o al t a y-s k o g o origin begins from Asia. When the Hunnic horde collapsed, the South Slavic tribes submitted to their successors, the Avars and Bulgarians.
And the Huns, Avars, and Bulgarians, remaining nomadic herdowners among the agricultural population, divided the sedentary villagers among individual warriors, who became their serfs, like the columns of the Roman Empire: each horseman had at his disposal several agricultural households; the chiefs owned entire villages or several villages: the southern Slavs for a long time retained from the time of the domination of the nomads the names of zhupas and zhupans, that is, rural districts and their chiefs who managed the work of the peasants and lived on their offerings. In war, the master's cavalry drove in front of them serfs armed with slings and daggers. If this crowd of weak warriors managed to overthrow the enemy, the horsemen rushed to pursue him and take the booty; in case of failure of the advanced warriors, they had enough time to escape by retreat.
Soon after Justinian, the Avar Kagan Bayan (from his name comes the title of bana, i.e., governor, preserved until the 20th century among the Croats, or Croats in present-day Yugoslavia) in a unique way built a large predatory state, which had its center in the plains of present-day Hungary: on in the west, against the Saxons, Bavarians and Lombards, he pushed forward Slavic settlers everywhere, who occupied a vast strip of land from the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic; thus ensuring western border from the attacks of the Germans, he attacked the possessions of Byzantium with all the more courage, and here, too, Slavic warriors walked in front of him.
So, under pressure from the nomads, it expanded into different sides a circle of Slavic colonies: in the west they reached the Elbe, the upper Danube, penetrated into the valleys of the eastern Alps; in the south they occupied the plains of the middle and southern Danube, crossed this river and spread throughout the Balkan Peninsula; to the east of the lower reaches of the Dnieper they reached the Don and Kuban. The Slavs still had free access to the north into the wooded regions of the present middle and northern Russia; leaving the nomads, they, in turn, pushed back the weaker native tribes of Finnish or Ugric origin.
The Slavs, when they were in eternal fear from the attack of nomads, are described to us by the Byzantines, by the way Procopius, a contemporary of Justinian. Their dwellings are located on the banks of rivers and lakes, among forests and swamps, where they try to hide from the enemy. They live in dirty, scattered huts and change their location often. They make several exits in their houses so that they can escape from danger just in case. They bury all their property in the ground; nothing unnecessary is visible from the outside, so as not to attract enemy raids. In battle, they attack enemies on foot, without armor or cloaks, armed only with spears and shields. They are distinguished by their soft character and pliability; there is neither greed nor deceit in them; on the contrary, they are welcoming and hospitable.
The features of everyday life noticed by the Byzantines lasted longest among those Slavs who took refuge in the forest wilds that stretched to the northeast of the Carpathians between the Vistula and the Dnieper, especially along the Pripyat River, in what is now Belarusian Polesie. These Drevlyans (from the tree - “inhabitants of forests”) had the same fate with the Lithuanians, who lived even further from the steppes, along the Neman and Western Dvina: they lived poorly, in savagery, “in a bestial manner,” as he later says about them (in the 11th century .) Kiev chronicler. In contrast to them, the main masses of the Slavs who remained among the nomads, although they experienced difficult vicissitudes of fate, were tempered in battles and went out to high road cultural relations with other peoples, began to unite themselves in large states.
From the time of the subjugation of the Slavs to the nomads, the Kiev chronicler preserved only a legend about how the Obry (i.e., Avars) oppressed the Duleb tribe (in present-day Volyn): “When the Obrin had to go, he harnessed not a horse or an ox, but 3, 4, 5 (Slavic) women in a cart.” Three centuries later, no one remembered the fight against the Avars itself, and the Chronicler notes only the end of the terrible overlords: “They were great in body, but proud in mind, and God destroyed them and they all died and not a single obrin remained; That’s why there is still a saying in Rus': they died like obras, from whom there is neither tribe nor inheritance.”
After the destruction of the Avar state, in the 9th century Slavic states began to rise in three places: 1) between the Sudetenland and the middle Danube, the Czechs and Moravians united into the Great Moravian state; Of all the Slavic tribes, the Czechs advanced the farthest to the west, occupying Bohemia (or Boyohemia, that is, the country of the Boi, the people of the Celtic tribe, related to the Gauls) along the upper Elbe and its tributaries; in the 9th century, they already have a large city of Prague; 2) on the lower Danube and the adjacent part of the Balkan Peninsula, between the Carpathians and the Balkans, the Bulgarian state was formed from the mixing of Yugoslav tribes with the alien Turkish army of the Bulgarians, and the latter soon forgot their Asian language, passing on their name and their indomitable character to the native population; 3) on the middle Dnieper, the closest neighbors of the Drevlyans, the Polans, whose army was called Rus (among the Byzantines, R o s), a Russian state was formed; the Polans-Rus had several cities , i.e., fortified settlements, between which stood out a large Kyiv, busy with trade.
Having settled first under the pressure of nomads, and then by force of their own weapons, the Slavs occupied about % of all Europe. In the 9th century. their settlements extended from the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic, Aegean and Black seas, from the Alps, from the Elbe to the upper Volga, Oka and Don. Due to mixing in various areas with the Turkish peoples, Germans, Celts, Illyrians and Finns, the Slavs in subsequent times no longer presented external uniformity. Where they united with the Asian nomads or with the Celts and southern European races, black-haired and dark-eyed with sharp features predominate: such are the Serbs and Croats in the northwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula, (between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea), the Bulgarians, the Ukrainians (descendants of the Polans). Where they mixed with the Germans, Lithuanians, Finns, Scandinavians, near the Baltic Sea, in what is now central and northern Russia, the blond and red-haired, light-eyed ones outweigh; these are the Poles (along the Vistula River), Belarusians (from the tribes of the Dregovichi and Drevlyans) and the Great Russians (from the Krivichi, Radimichi and Vyatichi along the Western Dvina, in the region of the Great Lakes, along the Volga, Oka and upper Dnieper).
The same must be said about the character of the Slavs, who lived far from the same in different countries, depending on fate and living conditions. Where they had to fight stubborn enemies, they developed fighting qualities that were unlike the softness and stability of character that Procopius of Byzantium wrote about. The Saxon Widukind speaks of the Western Slavs who fought on the Elbe against the Germans: “The Slavs are an unyielding people, persistent in their work; they are accustomed to the simplest food, and what for us Germans seems like a heavy burden, they consider almost a pleasure. Freedom is dearer to them than anything in the world, therefore, despite all the defeats, they again and again take up arms. While the Saxons fight for glory and to expand their borders, the Slavs fight exclusively for independence.”
Slavic countries are states that existed or still exist, having the majority of their population Slavs (Slavic peoples). Slavic countries of the world are those countries in which the Slavic population is about eighty to ninety percent.
Which countries are Slavic?
Slavic countries of Europe:
But still, to the question “which country’s population belongs to the Slavic group?” The answer immediately arises - Russia. The population of Slavic countries today is about three hundred million people. But there are other countries in which Slavic peoples live (these are European countries, North America, Asia) and speak Slavic languages.
The countries of the Slavic group can be divided into:
- Western Slavic.
- East Slavic.
- South Slavic.
Languages in Slavic countries
The languages in these countries originated from one common language(it is called Proto-Slavic), which once existed among the ancient Slavs. It was formed in the second half of the first millennium AD. It is not surprising that most words are consonant (for example, Russian and Ukrainian languages are very similar). There are also similarities in grammar, sentence structure, and phonetics. This is easy to explain if we take into account the duration of contacts between the inhabitants of the Slavic states. The lion's share Russian occupies the structure of Slavic languages. Its carriers are 250 million people.
It is interesting that the flags of Slavic countries also have some similarities in color and the presence of longitudinal stripes. Does this have something to do with their common origin? More likely yes than no.
Countries where Slavic languages are spoken are not that numerous. But Slavic languages still exist and flourish. And several hundred years have passed! This only means that the Slavic people are the most powerful, persistent, and unshakable. It is important that the Slavs do not lose the originality of their culture, respect for their ancestors, honor them and preserve traditions.
Today there are many organizations (both in Russia and abroad) that revive and restore Slavic culture, Slavic holidays, even names for their children!
The first Slavs appeared in the second and third millennium BC. It goes without saying that the birth of this mighty people took place in the area modern Russia and Europe. Over time, the tribes developed new territories, but still they could not (or did not want to) go far from their ancestral homeland. By the way, depending on migration, the Slavs were divided into eastern, western, southern (each branch had its own name). They had differences in their way of life, agriculture, and some traditions. But still the Slavic “core” remained intact.
The emergence of statehood, war, and mixing with other ethnic groups played a major role in the life of the Slavic peoples. The emergence of separate Slavic states, on the one hand, greatly reduced the migration of Slavs. But, on the other hand, from that moment on their mixing with other nationalities also dropped sharply. This allowed the Slavic gene pool to gain a strong foothold on the world stage. This affected both the appearance (which is unique) and the genotype (hereditary traits).
Slavic countries during the Second World War
The Second World War brought great changes to the countries of the Slavic group. For example, in 1938, the Czechoslovak Republic lost its territorial unity. The Czech Republic ceased to be independent, and Slovakia became a German colony. IN next year The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth came to an end, and in 1940 the same happened to Yugoslavia. Bulgaria sided with the Nazis.
But there were also positive sides. For example, the formation of anti-fascist movements and organizations. A common misfortune united the Slavic countries. They fought for independence, for peace, for freedom. Such movements especially gained popularity in Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia.
The Soviet Union played a key role in World War II. The citizens of the country selflessly fought against the Hitler regime, against the cruelty of German soldiers, against the fascists. The country has lost great amount their defenders.
Some Slavic countries during the Second World War were united by the All-Slavic Committee. The latter was created by the Soviet Union.
What is Pan-Slavism?
The concept of Pan-Slavism is interesting. This is a direction that appeared in the Slavic states in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It had the goal of uniting all the Slavs of the world on the basis of their national, cultural, everyday, and linguistic community. Pan-Slavism promoted the independence of the Slavs and praised their originality.
The colors of Pan-Slavism were white, blue and red (these same colors appear on many country flags). The emergence of such a movement as Pan-Slavism began after the Napoleonic wars. Weakened and “tired,” the countries supported each other in difficult times. But over time, they began to forget about Pan-Slavism. But at the present time there is again a tendency to return to the origins, to the ancestors, to the Slavic culture. Perhaps this will lead to the formation of a neo-Panslavist movement.
Slavic countries today
The twenty-first century is a time of some discord in the relations of the Slavic countries. This is especially true for Russia, Ukraine, and EU countries. The reasons here are more political and economic. But despite the discord, many residents of countries (from the Slavic group) remember that all the descendants of the Slavs are brothers. Therefore, none of them wants wars and conflicts, but only want warm family relationships, as our ancestors once had.
Slavic countries
History of the formation of the Slavic state
The 8th century is the time when the process of the formation of the first state associations took place throughout the entire Slavic world. In the 9th century. it ends with the emergence of the first Slavic states. The first decades of the 9th century include information about the Principality of Ljudevita in Posava Croatia, which through its actions created serious difficulties for the largest European power of that time - the Carolingian Empire. At the same time, the Principality of Borna was formed in Dalmatian Croatia, which marked the beginning of the formation of the Croatian state here.
The first information about Serbian princes dates back to the beginning of the 9th century. The first state associations of Serbs arose simultaneously in several regions: Raska, Dukla, Travuniya, Hum. From the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 11th centuries, the largest among them was Raska. Its zhupans, who headed intertribal associations (zhupa), recognized the power of Bulgaria. In 931, Župan Ceslav freed itself from Bulgarian rule and subjugated the neighboring Serbian lands. However, at the end of the 10th century this state collapsed. Serbian lands were absorbed into the Western Bulgarian state. After its conquest by Byzantium, the Serbian zhupans became vassals of the Empire.
From the beginning of the 9th century, a new great state association Western Slavs centered in Moravia. At this time, the Slavs had to defend their independence in the fight against the East Frankish (German) state. During the reign of Prince Moimir I (died c. 846), the Moravians adopted Christianity from Bavaria according to the Latin rite. The Great Moravian state reached its peak under Mojmir's successor, Rostislav (846-870). He vigorously resisted the German invasion and achieved significant foreign policy power for his state. In search of allies, he turned to Byzantium.
In an effort to make the country independent from the Bavarian Church associated with the Carolingian state, Rostislav asked Emperor Michael III to send a preacher and bishop from Constantinople to head the Moravian Church. Missionaries sent by the emperor Constantine and Methodius entered Great Moravia christian worship in the Slavic language and wrote the first Slavic books using the newly created alphabet. The creation of Slavic worship and writing strengthened the political independence of the Great Moravian state. Taking advantage of the contradictions between the Frankish church and the papacy, Rostislav achieved in 869 the creation of an archbishopric for Great Moravia and neighboring Slavic lands, subordinate directly to Rome, headed by Methodius.
The rapid growth of political influence and expansion of the state's borders continued during the reign of Rostislav's nephew, Svyatopolk (870-894). However, the large state formation that developed under him was very fragile, and with the death of Svyatopolk Substantial part lands fell away from Great Moravia. The remaining lands fell into inheritances, divided among his sons. In 895, the Czech Republic became an independent principality. A little later, in 906, the Hungarians defeated Moravia and captured the eastern Slovak lands. The Great Moravian state ceased to exist.
Methodius' educational activities took place against the wishes of Prince Svyatopolk and the German clergy, who openly resisted the spread of Slavic writing and worship. After the death of Methodius (885), his disciples were persecuted and expelled from Moravia. They settled in Bulgaria, which later became the largest center of Slavic written culture. In Moravia, the German clergy and rituals were established Latin.
While being part of the Great Moravian state, two principalities were formed on the territory of the Czech Republic: one with a center in Prague, headed by a prince from the Přemyslid family, the other with a center in Libice, headed by the Zličansky princes Slavnikovich. Until the tenth century, there was a struggle between them for supremacy. The first steps towards the formation of a unified state were taken in the 80s. 9th century Then the prince of the Czech tribe Borzhivoy from the Přemyslid family, who was baptized at the court of the Moravian prince Svyatopolk, managed, with his support, to become the chief among the tribal princes of the Bohemian Valley. The final unification of the tribal principalities under the rule of the Czech princes with the capital in Prague dates back to the reign of Prince Boleslav I (935-972) - A Czech bishopric was created in Prague. The vast power, however, was fragile. Part of its lands subsequently went to the Polish state.
Almost all Polish lands were united at the end of the 10th century by the Piast dynasty into a relatively unified Polish state. The first reliably known Polish prince was Mieszko I (969-992). The young state had to constantly defend its independence from the encroachments of the German kings, who tried to turn the Polish prince into their vassal. In 966, Mieszko I and his entourage converted to Christianity according to the Latin rite. Latin writing spread throughout the country. In 1000, a Polish archdiocese was established in Gniezno. By the beginning of the 11th century, Poland had become one of the large states of Eastern Europe.
Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025) pursued an active and successful foreign policy. However, after his death, Poland's international position became more complicated. Germany starts the war again, the Czech Republic and Rus' also oppose Poland. The country is defeated, and after a great popular uprising in 1037, suppressed with the help of German feudal lords, it temporarily falls into vassalage of the German Empire.
In the first half of the IX century, Bulgaria expanded its possessions and became one of the major European states. In the middle of the century, Khan Boris (852-889) decided to Christianize the country. For a long time he hesitated about the question of whose help to do this, trying to play on the contradictions between the Pope and the Byzantine patriarch. Taking advantage of the severe famine in Bulgaria, the Byzantines invaded its borders. Yielding to their pressure, in 865 Boris and his associates converted to Christianity according to the Byzantine rite. At the same time, Boris achieved the establishment of an archbishopric in Bulgaria. Twenty years later, it was from him that the disciples of Methodius, persecuted in Moravia, found protection and patronage. In 893 the Slavic language was declared official language Bulgarian state and church. From this moment on, all documents and texts had to be written in the Slavic alphabet.
At the end of the 9th century, part of the Bulgarian nobility attempted to prevent the strengthening of the central government. In 889, the son and successor of Boris, who had gone to the monastery, Vladimir tried to restore paganism. However, this met with strong resistance. Vladimir was overthrown and blinded. The throne was taken by another son of Boris, Simeon (893-927), one of the most prominent rulers of Bulgaria. Highly educated, talented and ambitious, he dreamed of founding a unified Slavic-Byzantine state in the Balkans with its center in Constantinople.
At this time, relations with Byzantium worsened. In 894, the Bulgarians were prohibited from trading in Constantinople. This was the reason for Simeon to begin hostilities, which lasted 30 years and ended with his complete victory. He appropriated to himself the title of “king of the Bulgarians and Greeks,” which no Bulgarian prince had previously held, and forced the Byzantines to pay tribute. Simeon prepared for the siege of Constantinople, but it did not take place, and Simeon’s successor Peter (927-969) made peace with Byzantium.
In 931, with the support of the Empire, the Serbs separated from Bulgaria. A third of a century later, Emperor Nikephoros II Phocas refused to pay tribute and began to prepare for war. In 971, the northern part of Bulgaria was captured by Byzantium. Western Bulgaria continued to exist as an independent state for almost 50 years. However, in 1018, under Emperor Vasily II the Bulgarian Slayer, the First Bulgarian Kingdom fell and became part of Byzantium.
The emergence of medieval states in Europe, the first Slavic states. Polotsk and Turov principalities.
The medieval civilization of Europe developed quite rapidly. In the early period, many small and large states were formed.
The largest was the Frankish one. The Roman region of Italy also became an independent state. Rest Medieval Europe was divided into many large and small principalities, which were only formally subordinate to the kings of larger formations.
This, in particular, applies to the British Isles, Scandinavia and other lands that are not part of large states. Similar processes also took place in the eastern part of the world. So, for example, about 140 states existed on the territory of China at different times. Along with the imperial power, there was also feudal power - the owners of fiefs had, among other things, an administration, an army and, in some cases, even their own money.
As a result of this fragmentation, wars were frequent, self-will was clearly evident, and the state was generally weakened. The period between modern times and ancient times is called medieval. Chronologically, this period is placed within the boundaries of the late 5th - 6th centuries. up to 16th century (or including it). This period, in turn, is divided into: - the early Middle Ages (6th-10th centuries), - the high or mid-Middle Ages (11th-13th centuries), - and the later or Renaissance (14th-16th centuries).
On the territory of Western Europe during the early Middle Ages, many large and small states arose, among them the largest was the state of the Franks. The Roman region of Italy became an independent state. In other territories (Scandinavia, the British Isles, on lands that were not included in larger states in Western and Eastern Europe), many small and large principalities were formed, only formally subordinate to the kings of larger entities. In certain periods there were up to 30 in France, 7 in the British Isles, etc.
states A similar process took place in the East. At various times, up to 140 states existed on Chinese territory. Therefore, along with the imperial power, there was local power of many feudal lords who had at their disposal all the attributes of power: the army, the court and the administration, and often their own money.
This gave rise to self-will, frequent military clashes between feudal lords, and the weakness of the state as a whole.
Medieval culture was not homogeneous from the point of view of social countries. It distinguishes subcultures: urban (burgher), which includes merchants and artisans, feudal (knightly) and peasant. The question of the emergence of statehood among the Slavs has been worrying scientists for many years.
Quite a few theories have been put forward, each of which may not be devoid of logic. But in order to form your own opinion about this, you need to familiarize yourself with at least the main ones. If we talk about the history of the emergence of statehood among the ancient Slavs in these territories, scientists usually rely on several theories, which we would like to consider.
The most common version today of when the first Slavic states arose is the Norman or Varangian theory. It originated at the end of the 18th century in Germany. The founders and ideological inspirers were two German scientists: Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694-1738) and Gerhard Friedrich Miller (1705-1783). In their opinion, the history of the Slavic states has Nordic or Varangian roots.
The learned men made this conclusion after thoroughly studying “The Tale of Bygone Years,” the oldest opus created by the monk Nestor. There really is a reference, dated 862, to the fact that the ancient Slavic tribes (Krivichi, Slovenes and Chud) called Varangian princes to reign in their lands. Allegedly, tired of endless internecine strife and enemy raids from outside, several Slavic tribes decided to unite under the leadership of the Normans, who were considered at that time the most experienced and successful in Europe.
The history of the Principality of Polotsk begins simultaneously with the creation of the city of Polotsk. The first official mention of the city dates back to 862. However, historians claim that it appeared much earlier.
Thus, even in the undated part of the “Tale of Bygone Years” (the oldest chronicle on the Slavic lands) the name “Polotsk” is mentioned simultaneously with “Krivichi”. From this we can conclude that even during the time of the Krivichi, a separate state emerged with its capital in Polotsk. Long before the first Varangians appeared on those lands and the Old Russian state was formed. The city received its name thanks to the river on the banks of which it is located. As already mentioned, not far from this settlement the Polota River flowed into Western Berezina.
The Polotsk and Turov principalities were located on extremely infertile lands. However, Polotsk had one important advantage. It was here that the intersection of significant trade routes along the Berezina, Dvina and Neman was located. That is, the waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” This contributed not only to the development of trade and economy in the state, but also caused a massive resettlement of other peoples and tribes to the Polotsk lands. And the territories of the principality were surrounded by impenetrable forests, which served reliable protection from enemies.
And the Polotsk residents made more and more enemies every year. Since the principality’s control over trade routes was not liked by the neighboring states - Kyiv and Novgorod. Which ultimately led to territorial disputes and massive bloodshed. The Principality of Polotsk included not only the Polotsk lands, but also part of the territory of the Dregovichi, Lithuanian and Finnish tribes. Polotsk residents settled throughout the Western Dvina, Polota, as well as in the basins of the Berezina, Svisloch and Neman.
The principality included such large cities as Minsk, Vitebsk, Orsha, Borisov, Logoisk, Zaslavl, Drutsk, Lukoml and others. Thus, during the 9th-13th centuries it was a large and strong European state. The first mention of the sovereign who united the Principality of Polotsk dates back to the second half of the 10th century. As the chronicles say, “valadaryu, trymau and prince Ragvalod of Polatsk land.”
Norman Rogvolod “came from across the sea” and ruled from 972 to 978. This period is considered the final stage in the formation of the Principality of Polotsk. The state acquired its own borders, political and administrative systems were established, a strong army was formed, and trade relations began to be established. The city of Polotsk became the historical core and center. The history of the Principality of Polotsk is the history of the struggle for independence, which was ultimately lost.
Thus, already in 980 the lands were included in the Old Russian state. The principality became a bargaining chip between Novgorod and Kiev, which were then at war. As the chronicles say, in 978, Prince Rogvolod, in order to strengthen the borders of his state, decided to marry his daughter Rogneda to the Kyiv prince Yaropolk, while refusing Vladimir Svyatoslavich (the sovereign of Novgorod from the Rurik dynasty). Unable to tolerate the insult, Vladimir took Polotsk by storm, killed Rogvolod and his two sons, and forcibly made Rogneda his wife, giving her the name Gorislava.
Then the Novgorod prince captured Kyiv and introduced a new religion to the Polotsk lands - Christianity. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, Rogneda and Vladimir had four sons: Izyaslav (Prince of Polotsk), Yaroslav the Wise (Prince of Kiev and Novgorod), Vsevolod (Prince Vladimir-Volynsky) and Mstislav (Prince of Chernigov). And also two daughters: Premislava, who later married Laszlo the Bald (Ugric king), and Predslava, who became the wife of Boleslav III the Red (Czech prince). After Rogneda tried to kill Vladimir, she and her son Izyaslav (who stood up for his mother before his father) were exiled to the Polotsk lands, to the city of Izyaslavl.
The princess became a nun and took her third name - Anastasia. In 988, the residents of Izyaslavl invited the son of Rogneda and Vladimir Izyaslav to reign. He became famous as a scribe-sovereign and a spreader of a new faith, Christianity, on Polotsk land. It is from Izyaslav that a new branch in the Rurik dynasty begins - the Izyaslavichs (Polotsk). The descendants of Izyaslav, unlike the children of his brothers, emphasized their family connection with Rogvolod (on the maternal side).
And they called themselves Rogvolodovichs. Prince Izyaslav died young (in 1001), outliving his mother Rogneda by only one year. His youngest son Bryachislav Izyaslavich began to rule the Principality of Polotsk.
Until 1044, the sovereign pursued his own policy aimed at expanding the lands. Taking advantage of civil strife and the weakening of Rus', Bryachislav captured Veliky Novgorod and held power for five years together with his uncle Yaroslav the Wise. At the same time, the city of Bryachislavl (modern Braslav) was built. The Principality of Polotsk reached the peak of its power in 1044–1101, during the reign of Vseslav the Prophet, the son of Prince Bryachislav. Knowing that he would face life-and-death battles, the prince prepared for war until the mid-60s of the 11th century - he fortified cities and gathered an army.
Thus, Polotsk was moved to the right bank of the Western Dvina, to the mouth of the Polota River. Vseslav began to expand the Polotsk lands far to the north, subjugating the Latgalian and Livonian tribes. However, in 1067, when his campaigns in Novgorod ended unsuccessfully, the prince and his sons were captured by Izyaslav Yaroslavich, and the state was captured.
But a year later, the rebel people freed Vseslav, and he managed to return the lost lands. From 1069 to 1072, the Principality of Polotsk waged a tireless and bloody war with the Kyiv sovereigns. The Principality of Smolensk was captured, as well as part of the Chernigov lands in the north. In those years, the population of the capital of the principality was more than twenty thousand people. After the death of Vseslav in 1101, his sons divided the principality into fiefs: Vitebsk, Minsk, Polotsk, Logoisk and others.
And already in 1127, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, taking advantage of the disagreements between the princes, captured and plundered the Polotsk land. The Izyaslavichs were captured and then completely deported to distant Byzantium.
Thus, by the end of the 12th century, the authority of the Principality of Polotsk in the international arena finally fell, and part of the territories was captured by the Novgorodians and Chernigovites. In the 13th century, a new disaster struck the Polotsk lands - the Order of the Sword, which later became the Livonian Order.
Power Samo -
The then reigning Prince Vladimir of Polotsk fought with the crusaders for more than twenty years, but he was unable to stop them.
This was the beginning of the end of independence. And in 1307, Polotsk became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was this principality that became the place where Belarusian statehood, as well as culture and writing, were born.
Such names as Euphrosyne of Polotsk, Lazar Bogsha, Francisk Skorina, Kirill of Turov and Simeon of Polotsk are associated with Polotsk. They are the pride of the Belarusian nation.
With the advent of Christianity in the Polotsk lands, architecture began to develop. Thus, the first monumental structure made of stone was the Polotsk St. Sophia Cathedral, built in the 1050s. And in 1161, the jeweler Lazar Bogsha created a masterpiece of applied art Eastern Slavs– a unique cross of Euphrosyne of Polotsk.
The 13th century was the time when the Belarusian language appeared.
§ 12. Formation of Slavic states.
Questions and assignments.
1. Study the first map of the paragraph and name the Slavic tribes that were included in the first Slavic states.
Which tribes can you explain the names of?
The Bulgarian state included: Bulgarians, Serbs, Vlachs.
Great Moravia included: Lusatian Serbs, Czechs, Moravians, Slovaks.
The composition of Rus' included: Dregovichi, Tivertsy, Volynians.
Pomeranians are those who live by the sea. Poles are those who live in the fields.
2. Why did the states of the Slavs form later than the states of the Germans?
The German states were formed earlier because this was facilitated by the unification of all German lands under the rule of Charlemagne.
After the collapse of his empire, the territories inhabited by the Germans formed the East Frankish Kingdom. And on the territory of Rus', the tribal unions of the Slavs maintained their independence for quite a long time, and each new Kyiv prince had to conquer them anew.
3. Fill out the table “Formation of Slavic states.”
Table “Formation of Slavic states”
| State name | Century of State Formation | The ruler under whom the state flourished | Reasons for the weakening of the state |
| Bulgarian kingdom | 7th century | Prince Boris | internal strife, attacks by the Hungarians, Pecheneg nomads, and the Byzantine army |
| Principality of Samo | 7th century | Prince Samo | the union of several West Slavic tribes turned out to be fragile, and the state soon broke up into separate principalities |
| Great Moravia | 9th century | Svyatopolk | after the death of Svyatopolk the state was divided between his sons, then the nomadic Hungarians captured most territory of the state and it ceased to exist |
| Principality of Bohemia | 9th century | Wenceslas I | The Czech Republic recognized the power of the German emperor and became part of the Roman Empire |
| Poland | 10th century | Boleslaw I the Brave | Bolesław's son Mieszko II, forced to fight simultaneously with Germany, the Czech Republic and Russia, lost almost all of his father's conquests, including the royal title, which he renounced in 1033 |
A very important source on the history of the Czech Republic is the written source “Czech Chronicle” by Kozma of Prague. He collected traditions, legends, charters and compiled a chronicle of the Czech Republic.
The first Slavic state
The chronicle is written in Latin. Explain why a Czech wrote down the history of his country in a foreign language.
In the 11th century, the Czech Republic officially adopted Christianity according to the Western Christian, Catholic model and became part of the Holy Roman Empire, where the main language was Latin.
In addition, all written documents in Western Europe were compiled in Latin, which was the common language.
The first Slavic state
The vast space between the two largest powers of the early Middle Ages - the empire of Charlemagne and Byzantium - was occupied by barbarian tribes of the Slavs.
At the beginning of our era, the Slavs, according to most scientists, lived between the Vistula and the Dnieper, primarily in the Carpathian region (proto-Slavic territory, or the territory of the ancient Slavs).
From there they began to spread throughout Europe. One part of the Slavs headed to the West - to the Elbe River, another moved to the lands of present-day Russia, displacing the Finno-Ugric tribes, and the third came close to the borders of the Byzantine Empire on the Danube.
Slavic invasions of Byzantium
At the end of the 5th century. the invasions of the South Slavs begin in Byzantine Empire across its Danube border.
Emperor Justinian managed to stop the Slavs and prevent them from entering the Balkans. To do this, he built many fortresses along the Danube border. However, the southern Slavs became an increasingly formidable force. In subsequent centuries, they not only conquered the northern regions of the Balkan Peninsula from Byzantium, but also in large groups settled in the central and southern parts of the Balkans, in the heart of Byzantium. From these Slavic tribes came the South Slavic peoples: Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.
The ancient Slavs, like all barbarians, were pagans.
The Franks and Greeks often argued for influence over these tribes. A rivalry even began between Rome and Constantinople over who would convert the Slavs to Christianity first. The church that is ahead of its rival in missionary work among the Slavs will receive power over vast lands.
The rivalry between the West and the East for influence on the Slavic world largely determined the fate of the Slavic peoples and their states.
Principality of Samo?
Historians often call the Principality of Samo on the land of what is now the Czech Republic and Moravia the first Slavic state.
Information about him is extremely scarce and uncertain. In meager words, the chronicler reports that a certain man named Samo rallied the Slavic tribes and raised them to fight first against the Avars, and then against the Franks. In 627 Samo was elected prince, and he reigned for 35 years. Apparently, immediately after his death, the state he created disintegrated. Most likely, it was not yet a real state, but an unstable union of tribes.
It is not entirely clear whether Samo was a Slav. According to some reports, he was originally a Frank, who for some reason left his homeland. The second major political entity among the Slavs arose in the same century, but in the south.
First Bulgarian kingdom VII-XI centuries.
In 681, Khan Asparukh, from the Turkic tribe of Bulgarians, who had recently moved from the Volga region to the Danube, united the Danube Slavs and created a powerful state, the so-called First Bulgarian Kingdom. Very soon the newcomer Turks disappeared among the numerous Slavs, and the name “Bulgarians” passed to the Slavic people.
The proximity to Byzantium greatly contributed to their cultural development. In 864, Tsar Boris accepted Christianity from the Byzantines. The Patriarch of Constantinople did not insist that the language of worship and Christian literature in Bulgaria must necessarily be Greek.
Therefore, all Christian literature was translated from Greek into Slavic, understandable to both noble and ordinary Bulgarians. Ancient Bulgarian literature flourished during the reign of Simeon, son of Boris.
The tsar in every possible way encouraged theologians, poets, historians who wrote in the Slavic language.
In foreign policy The Bulgarian kings competed with Byzantium for a long time. But in 1018, the Byzantine basileus from the Macedonian dynasty, Vasily II the Bulgarian Slayer, won a complete victory over the Bulgarians and annexed the Bulgarian kingdom to Byzantium.
Vasily II treated the captive Bulgarian soldiers very cruelly - he blinded 15 thousand soldiers, leaving for every hundred blind people one guide who could see in one eye.
This was the end of the First Bulgarian kingdom.
Saints Cyril and Methodius. Great Moravia
In the 9th century. north of the Bulgarian kingdom, approximately where the legendary principality of Samo was, another Slavic power arose - Great Moravia. The Moravian prince Rostislav was greatly afraid of his neighbor, the East Frankish Kingdom, and therefore sought support from the Byzantines. Rostislav asked to send to Moravia spiritual mentor from Byzantium: he thought that Greek teachers would help weaken the influence of the East Frankish Church in his lands.
In response to Rostislav's request in 865
Two brothers arrived in Moravia - Constantine and Methodius. It must be said that Constantine is better known under the name Cyril, which he adopted just before his death when he was tonsured a monk. Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius came from the city of Thessaloniki (in Greek - Thessalonica).
Both received very a good education in Constantinople. Although they were Greeks, both brothers had an excellent command of the Slavic language from childhood. To more successfully spread Christianity among the Slavs, they created the Slavic alphabet. Cyril and Methodius were the first to translate the Bible into Slavic, writing the translation in a new Slavic script. The first Slavic alphabet was called Glagolitic.
The brothers took some of the letters of the Glagolitic alphabet from the Greek alphabet, some from Semitic languages, and several signs were new.
Subsequently, Kirill's students created another Slavic alphabet, now exclusively based on the Greek alphabet with the addition of a few new characters. They named it Cyrillic in honor of their teacher. We still use this alphabet today. It is also common in Bulgaria, Serbia, Belarus, Ukraine and some other countries.
The activities of the brothers Cyril and Methodius are of great importance for the entire Slavic culture.
Brought by them to Moravia Slavic writing and the translation of the Bible quickly spread throughout all Slavic lands. Therefore, Cyril and Methodius are considered the enlighteners of the Slavs, who brought them Christianity, and the founders of their literature.
In Slavic countries they are revered as “equal to the apostles” saints, that is, equal to the apostles themselves.
Byzantium and Rus'
Pagan Rus since the 9th century.
organized robber campaigns against Byzantium.
One of these Russian attacks on Constantinople turned out to be so sudden that the residents, who were not ready for defense, Byzantine capital they no longer hoped to save the city.
Desperate Romans with prayers carried the main shrine of Constantinople around the city walls - a cover that was once believed to belong to the Virgin Mary. Immediately after this, the barbarian army lifted the siege of the city. The Byzantines considered the inexplicable departure of the Rus to be a miracle accomplished thanks to the intercession of the Mother of God.
The Rus not only fought, but also traded with the Romans. An important trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” passed through the lands of the Eastern Slavs, which connected the northern regions of Rus' and Scandinavia with Byzantium.
The Varangians, immigrants from Rus', as well as the Russians themselves, served as mercenaries in the Byzantine army and even once saved the basileus from the rebels. However, during the reign of Emperor Vasily II the Bulgarian-Slayers, relations between the Romans and the Rus deteriorated. In 988, the Kiev prince Vladimir besieged the Byzantine fortress of Kherson in Crimea. Although the Byzantines made concessions to the Slavs, marrying the emperor’s sister Anna to Vladimir, the Byzantines managed to achieve their goals.
Vladimir accepted Christianity from them and spread the new religion to Rus'.
At the origins of Slavic writing
Now the Kiev prince became a loyal ally of Byzantium.
The significance of Byzantium in the history of the Slavs
Byzantium had the strongest influence on the culture of the southern and eastern Slavic peoples. They adopted Christianity from Byzantium and joined the high and refined Greco-Roman culture. Architecture, fine arts, literature, and many customs came to the Slavs from Byzantium.
Byzantium, itself gradually fading away, seemed to give strength to the Slavic peoples. In this sense, the history of Byzantium is closely connected with the history of all southern and eastern Slavs, in particular, with the history of the peoples of Russia.
From the “Strategikon” (“Strategikon” - a manual on military affairs) by an unknown author (Pseudo-Mauritius) about the Slavs
The Slavic tribes are similar in their way of life, in their morals, in their love of freedom; they cannot in any way be induced to servitude or subjection in their own country.
They are numerous, hardy, and easily tolerate heat and cold, rain, nudity, and lack of food. They treat foreigners who come to them kindly and, showing them signs of their affection (when they move) from one place to another, protect them if necessary...
They have a large number of different livestock and the fruits of the earth lying in heaps, especially millet and wheat.
The modesty of their women exceeds all human nature, so most of them consider the death of their husband to be their death and voluntarily strangle themselves, not counting being a widow for life.
They settle in forests, near impassable rivers, swamps and lakes, and arrange many exits in their homes due to the dangers they naturally encounter.
They bury the things they need in secret places, do not openly own anything unnecessary and lead a wandering life...
Each is armed with two small spears, some also have shields, strong but difficult to carry. They also use wooden bows and small arrows, soaked in a poison special for arrows, which is powerful if the wounded person does not first take the antidote, or (does not use) other auxiliary means known to experienced doctors, or does not immediately circumcise cool place wounds so that the poison does not spread throughout the body.
Byzantine chronicler about the meeting of the Byzantine Basileus Roman I and the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon
In September (924)…
Simeon and his army marched on Constantinople. He devastated Thrace and Macedonia, burned everything, destroyed it, cut down trees, and approaching Blachernae, he asked to send Patriarch Nicholas and some nobles to him to negotiate peace.
The parties exchanged hostages, and Patriarch Nicholas was the first to go to Simeon (followed by other envoys)... They began to talk with Simeon about peace, but he sent them away and asked to meet with the Tsar himself (Roman), since, as he claimed, he had heard a lot about his rationality, courage and intelligence.
The king was very happy about this, for he thirsted for peace and wanted to stop this daily bloodshed. He sent people ashore... to build a reliable pier in the sea, to which the royal trireme could approach. He ordered the pier to be surrounded on all sides with walls, and a partition to be built in the middle where they could talk with each other. Simeon, meanwhile, sent soldiers and burned down the temple of the Most Holy Theotokos, showing by this that he did not want peace, but was fooling the king with empty hopes.
The Tsar, having arrived in Blachernae together with Patriarch Nicholas, entered the holy tomb, stretched out his hands in prayer... asked the All-Glorious and Immaculate Mother of God to soften the unbowed and inexorable heart of proud Simeon and convince him to agree to peace. And so they opened the holy ark, ( Icon (kiot) - a special cabinet for icons and relics) where the holy omophorion (i.e.
e. cover) of the Holy Mother of God, and, having thrown it on, the king seemed to cover himself with an impenetrable shield, and instead of a helmet he placed his faith in the Immaculate Mother of God and so left the temple, defended by reliable weapons. Having equipped his retinue with weapons and shields, he appeared at the appointed place for negotiations with Simeon... The king was the first to appear at the mentioned pier and stopped waiting for Simeon.
The parties exchanged hostages, and the Bulgarians. They carefully searched the pier to see if there was any trick or ambush there, only after that Simeon jumped off his horse and went in to the king. After greeting each other, they began peace negotiations. They say that the king said to Simeon: “I heard that you are a pious man and a true Christian, however, as I see, words do not match deeds.
After all, a pious person and a Christian rejoices in peace and love... and a wicked and infidel enjoys murders and unrighteously shed blood... What account will you give to God, having departed to another world, for your unrighteous murders? With what face will you look at the formidable and fair Judge?
If you do this out of love for wealth, I will feed you enough of it, just hold back your right hand. Rejoice in peace, love harmony, so that you yourself can live a peaceful, bloodless and calm life, and Christians will get rid of misfortunes and stop killing Christians, for it is not right for them to raise a sword against fellow believers.”
The king said this and fell silent. Simeon was ashamed of his humility and his speeches and agreed to make peace. Having greeted each other, they parted, and the king pleased Simeon with luxurious gifts.
At the end of the first quarter of the 7th century. the Alpine and Moravian Slavs rebelled against the Avar yoke, which had weighed on them for more than half a century. The need to unite forces in the fight against a common enemy led to the creation of the vast Samo power in Central Europe.
Unfortunately, extremely scant information about this state entity has reached us. Ambiguity reigns primarily in the question of the origin of Samo. In the chronicle of Fredegar - the main source on the history of the Samo state - this man is named as a native of the Sans district of the Frankish kingdom. The author of the anonymous Salzburg treatise “The Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carentan” speaks no less clearly about the origin of Samo, who, however, calls him a Slav and prince of the Carentan Slavs (Khorutan). The district of Sens, located southeast of Paris, was one of the most ethnically mixed areas of Northern Gaul. Within its borders lived the Franks, Burgundians, and Alamanni, but the predominant population were the Gallo-Romans, in whose hands trade was entirely in charge (documents of the Merovingian era are silent about the Frankish merchants). Meanwhile, according to Fredegar, Samo was a merchant. In the early Middle Ages, the concept of a person’s ethnicity (natio) often had only a geographical and legal meaning, denoting the place of birth of a person and the legal system prevailing in this territory. Therefore, Samo's birth in the Sens district, strictly speaking, only means that he was a Frankish subject.
At the same time, it seems very likely that Samo, even without being a natural Frank, at least at the beginning of his stay with the Slavs, relied on the support of the authorities of the Frankish kingdom or even carried out their direct diplomatic orders.
According to Fredegar, in 623 Samo “drew many merchants with him” and went “to trade with the Slavs.” The latter then in Once again rebelled against the power of the Avar Kagan, and, therefore, Samo’s trip can be regarded as military assistance - merchants from the Frankish state sold mainly weapons and horse harness items in the Slavic lands. Moreover, Samo did not limit himself to selling weapons to the Slavs, but took personal part in their campaign against the Avars, during which he showed brilliant military leadership and organizational skills: “... in dealing with the Avars he was so useful that it was surprising, and a huge number of them (Avarov. - S. Ts.) was exterminated by the sword of the Vinids (Slavs. - S. Ts.)».
Having recognized Samo’s valor, Fredegar writes, the Slavs elected him “king.” During his 35-year reign, the Slavs had to fight the Avars several times in order to defend their independence, and each time, thanks to the military talents of their leader, they gained the upper hand.
The independence of the Samo state was also attempted by the Franks and Lombards. One of the major clashes took place near the Vogastisburg fortress (its exact location has not been established), where the main forces of the Slavs settled. The three-day battle ended with the complete defeat of the army of the Frankish king Dagobert, a long-haired Merovingian. Later, the Slavs, by order of Samo, invaded Thuringia and the Frankish kingdom several times, plundering and devastating their territory.
We ourselves do not know the exact borders of the state. In all likelihood, it included the former Principality of Carentan, Moravia, the Czech Republic and the lands of the Lusatian Serbs. However, the territory over which Samo’s power extended did not remain unchanged: it increased or decreased in accordance with how some Slavic tribes joined the anti-Avar union, while others, on the contrary, left it. Essentially, Samo's power was a temporary confederation of Slavic tribes, united by a common military threat and the personal valor of one person. This union was sealed by dynastic marriages of the Slavic “king” with local princelings. According to Fredegar, Samo was a polygamist: his 12 wives were, presumably, the daughters of Slavic leaders who recognized Samo’s power over them. Nevertheless, he failed to found a dynasty, and after the death of Samo in 658, his power collapsed.
Saint Emeram, who preached in Bavaria around 680, wrote about the southern regions that were part of the state. It is clear that populated and rich cities are turned into ruins, the whole country is a desert, and it is scary for a traveler to set off on a road through it because of the abundance of wild animals.
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