What ways exist to solve environmental problems. Concept and types of environmental problems

At the moment, creating a completely eco-friendly city is beyond the reach of humanity. If you try to imagine what an environmentally friendly city integrated into nature should look like, then only 100% harmless materials, similar in properties to wood and stone, should be used for construction there.

Naturally, such a city should be much more reminiscent of a park or nature reserve than an industrial metropolis, and the houses in it should be buried in trees, and animals and birds should calmly walk along the streets. But creating such a metropolis is a complex process.

It is easier, on the contrary, to disperse human settlements and begin to settle in natural landscapes practically untouched by human hands. Settlements dispersed in space reduce the load on the biosphere in individual places. Naturally, life in new places should include compliance with environmental safety regulations.

Holzer biocenosis

The possibility of such a natural, almost heavenly life without losing the comfort that achievements provide modern civilization, proved the famous Austrian farmer Sepp Holzer. He does not use irrigation, land reclamation, pesticides or herbicides on his farm. He has only one hired worker (despite the scale of the farm of 45 hectares), only one tractor and his own power plant.

Holzer created a natural biocenosis, where, in addition to cultivated plants, animals, birds, fish, and insects live. Almost the only work that the owner and mistress do is sowing and harvesting.

Nature does the rest proper organization natural environmental conditions. Holzer was able to grow even rare species of plants that do not grow in high alpine regions, as well as plants characteristic of much warmer countries (kiwi, lemon, cherries, oranges, cherries, grapes).

All of Austria is lining up for Holzer's vegetables, fruits, fish, and meat. The farmer believes that today's food production is completely pointless, because it wastes an inordinate amount of energy. It’s enough just to study natural patterns and create the maximum natural conditions existence for plants and animals.

This kind of “lazy” farming, also called permoculture (permanent culture that reproduces viable environmental conditions), eliminates agricultural depletion of soils and loss of species diversity, helping to preserve natural water bodies and the purity of the atmosphere. A natural, environmentally correct lifestyle will help greatly reduce the volume of harmful production, which will also lead to a reduction in environmental pollution.

Humanity is too slow to understand the scale of the danger created by a careless attitude towards the environment. Meanwhile, the solution (if it is still possible) of such formidable global problems as environmental ones requires urgent, energetic joint efforts of international organizations, states, regions, and the public.
During its existence and especially in the 20th century, humanity managed to destroy about 70 percent of all natural ecological (biological) systems on the planet that are capable of processing human waste, and continues their “successful” destruction. The amount of permissible impact on the biosphere as a whole has now been exceeded several times. Moreover, humans release thousands of tons of substances into the environment that were never contained in it and which often cannot be or are poorly recyclable. All this leads to the fact that biological microorganisms, which act as an environmental regulator, are no longer able to perform this function.
According to experts, in 30 - 50 years an irreversible process will begin, which at the turn of the 21st - 22nd centuries will lead to a global environmental disaster. A particularly alarming situation has developed on the European continent. Western Europe has largely exhausted its environmental resources and, accordingly, is using others’.
There are almost no intact biological systems left in European countries. The exception is the territory of Norway, Finland, to some extent Sweden and, of course, Eurasian Russia.
On the territory of Russia (17 million sq. km) there are 9 million sq. km. km of untouched, and therefore working, ecological systems. A significant part of this territory is tundra, which is biologically unproductive. But the Russian forest-tundra, taiga, sphagnum (peat) bogs are ecosystems without which it is impossible to imagine a normally functioning biota of the entire globe.
Russia, for example, ranks first in the world in absorbing (thanks to its vast forests and swamps) carbon dioxide - about 40 percent.
It remains to be stated: there is, perhaps, nothing more valuable in the world for humanity and its future than a preserved and still working natural ecological system Russia with all the complexity of the environmental situation.
In Russia, the difficult environmental situation is aggravated by the protracted general crisis. The government leadership is doing little to correct it. The legal tools for environmental protection - environmental law - are slowly developing. In the 90s, however, several environmental laws, the main of which was the law of the Russian Federation “On the protection of the natural environment”, in force since March 1992. However, law enforcement practice has revealed serious gaps, both in the law itself and in the mechanism for its implementation.

Atmospheric air is the most important life-supporting natural environment and is a mixture of gases and aerosols of the surface layer of the atmosphere, formed during the evolution of the Earth, human activity and located outside residential, industrial and other premises, which is why more attention is paid to this problem in this abstract. The results of environmental studies, both in Russia and abroad, clearly indicate that ground-level atmospheric pollution is the most powerful, constantly acting factor affecting humans, the food chain and the environment. Atmospheric air has unlimited capacity and plays the role of the most mobile, chemically aggressive and pervasive interaction agent near the surface of the components of the biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

IN last years data were obtained on the significant role of the day in preserving the biosphere of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, which absorbs what is harmful to living organisms ultraviolet radiation The sun and forms a thermal barrier at altitudes of about 40 km, preventing the cooling of the earth's surface. The air in homes and work areas has great importance due to the fact that a person spends a significant part of his time here.

The atmosphere has an intense impact not only on humans and biota, but also on the hydrosphere, soil and vegetation cover, geological environment, buildings, structures and other man-made objects. Therefore, the protection of atmospheric air and the ozone layer is the highest priority environmental problem and is given close attention in all developed countries.

Polluted ground atmosphere causes lung, throat and skin cancer, central nervous system disorder nervous system, allergic and respiratory diseases, defects in newborns and many other diseases, the list of which is determined by the pollutants present in the air and their combined effect on the human body. The results of special studies carried out in Russia and abroad have shown that there is a close positive relationship between the health of the population and the quality of atmospheric air.

The main agents of atmospheric influence on the hydrosphere are precipitation in the form of rain and snow, and, to a lesser extent, smog and fog. Surface and underground waters of land are mainly fed by the atmosphere and, as a result, their chemical composition depends mainly on the state of the atmosphere. According to ecological-geochemical mapping data of different scales, melt (snow) water of the Russian Plain, in comparison with surface and groundwater in many areas, is noticeably (several times) enriched in nitrite and ammonium ions, antimony, cadmium, mercury, molybdenum, zinc, lead, tungsten, beryllium, chromium, nickel, manganese. This is especially clearly manifested in relation to groundwater. Siberian ecologists-geochemists have identified the enrichment of mercury in snow waters compared to surface waters in the Katun River basin. Kuraisko-Sarasinskaya mercury-ore zone of the Altai Mountains).

Counting quantity balance heavy metals in the snow cover showed that the main part of them dissolves in snow water, i.e. are in a migratory and mobile form, capable of quickly penetrating surface and underground waters, the food chain and the human body. In the conditions of the Moscow region, zinc, strontium, and nickel are almost completely dissolved in snow water.

The negative impact of a polluted atmosphere on soil and vegetation cover is associated both with the loss of acidic precipitation, which washes out calcium, humus and microelements from the soil, and with disruption of photosynthesis processes, leading to a slowdown in the growth of plant death. The high sensitivity of trees (especially birch and oak) to air pollution has been identified for a long time. The combined effect of their factors leads to a noticeable decrease in soil fertility and the disappearance of forests. Acid precipitation is now considered as a powerful factor not only in the weathering of rocks and the deterioration of the quality of load-bearing soils, but also in the chemical destruction of man-made objects, including cultural monuments and ground communication lines. Many economically developed countries are currently implementing programs to address the problem of acid precipitation. As part of the National Program for Assessing the Impact of Acid Precipitation, approved in 1980. Many US federal agencies have begun to fund research into the atmospheric processes that cause acid rain, with the aim of assessing the impact of the latter on ecosystems and developing appropriate environmental measures. It turned out that acid rain has multifaceted effects on the environment and is the result

volume of self-cleaning (washing) of the atmosphere. The main acidic agents are dilute sulfuric and nitric acids formed during the oxidation reactions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides with the participation of hydrogen peroxide.

Research in the central part of European Russia has established that snow waters here, as a rule, have a near-neutral or slightly alkaline reaction. Against this background, areas of both acidic and alkaline precipitation stand out. Snow waters with a neutral reaction are characterized by low buffering capacity (acid-neutralizing ability) and therefore even a slight increase in the concentrations of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the surface atmosphere can lead to acidic precipitation over large areas. First of all, this concerns large swampy lowlands, in which the accumulation of atmospheric pollutants occurs due to the manifestation of the lowland effect of emergency precipitation.

The processes and sources of pollution of the surface atmosphere are numerous and varied. Based on their origin, they are divided into anthropogenic and natural. Among anthropogenic processes, the most dangerous processes include the combustion of fuel and garbage, nuclear reactions during production of atomic energy, testing nuclear weapons, metallurgy and hot metal working, various chemical production, including oil and gas and coal processing.

During fuel combustion processes, the most intense pollution of the ground layer of the atmosphere occurs in megalopolises and large cities, industrial centers due to the widespread use of vehicles, thermal power plants, boiler houses and other power plants operating on coal, fuel oil, diesel fuel, natural gas and gasoline. The contribution of motor transport to total air pollution here reaches 40-50%. A powerful and extremely dangerous factor in air pollution are disasters at nuclear power plants (Chernobyl accident) and testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. This is due both to the rapid spread of radionuclides over long distances and to the long-term nature of contamination of the territory.

The high danger of chemical and biochemical production lies in the potential for emergency releases into the atmosphere of extremely toxic substances, as well as microbes and viruses that can cause epidemics among the population and animals.

The main natural process of pollution of the surface atmosphere is the volcanic and fluid activity of the Earth. Special studies have established that the entry of pollutants with deep fluids into the surface layer of the atmosphere occurs not only in areas of modern volcanic and gas-thermal activity, but also in such stable geological structures as the Russian Platform. Large volcanic eruptions lead to global and long-term atmospheric pollution, as evidenced by chronicles and modern observational data (the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991). This is due to the fact that huge amounts of gases are “instantly” released into the high layers of the atmosphere, which are picked up at high altitudes by air currents moving at high speed and quickly spread throughout the globe. The duration of the polluted state of the atmosphere after large volcanic eruptions reaches several years. In some cases, due to the presence in the air large mass scattered fine solid aerosols, buildings, trees and other objects on the surface of the Earth did not provide shadows. It should be noted that in snowfalls in many regions of European Russia, ecological and geochemical mapping revealed abnormally high concentrations of fluorine, lithium, antimony, arsenic, mercury, cadmium and other heavy metals, which are confined to junctions of active deep faults and are probably of natural origin . In the case of antimony, fluorine, and cadmium, such anomalies are significant.

These data indicate the need to take into account modern fluid activity and other natural processes in the pollution of the surface atmosphere of the Russian Plain. There is reason to believe that the air basins of Moscow and St. Petersburg also contain chemical elements (fluorine, lithium, mercury, etc.) coming from the depths along zones of active deep faults. This is facilitated by deep depression funnels, which caused a decrease in hydrostatic pressure and the inflow of gas-bearing waters from below, as well as high degree disturbances of the underground space of megacities.

A little-studied but ecologically important natural process on a global scale is photochemical reactions in the atmosphere and on the Earth’s surface. This is especially true for the heavily polluted surface atmosphere of megalopolises, large cities and industrial centers, where smog is often observed.

The impact on the atmosphere of cosmic bodies in the form of comets, meteorites, fireballs and asteroids should be taken into account. The 1908 Tunguska event shows that it can be intense and global in scope.

Natural pollutants of the surface atmosphere are represented mainly by oxides of nitrogen, sulfur, carbon, methane and other hydrocarbons, radon, radioactive elements and heavy metals in gaseous and aerosol forms. Solid aerosols are emitted into the atmosphere not only by ordinary volcanoes, but also by mud volcanoes.

Special studies have established that the intensity of aerosol flows of mud volcanoes on the Kerch Peninsula is not inferior to that of the “dormant” volcanoes of Kamchatka. The result of modern fluid activity of the Earth can be complex compounds such as saturated and unsaturated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbonyl sulfide, formaldehyde, phenols, cyanides, and ammonia. Methane and its homologues were recorded in the snow cover over hydrocarbon deposits in Western Siberia, the Urals, and Ukraine. In the Athabasca uranium province (Canada), high concentrations of uranium in the needles of Canadian black spruce revealed the Wollastone biochemical anomaly with a size of 3,000 km2, associated with the entry of uranium-containing gas emanations into the surface layer of the atmosphere along deep faults.

Photochemical reactions produce ozone, sulfuric and nitric acids, various photooxidants, complex organic compounds and equimolar mixtures of dry acids and bases, and atomic chlorine. Photochemical pollution of the atmosphere increases noticeably during the daytime and during periods of solar activity.

Currently, there are many tens of thousands of pollutants of anthropogenic origin in the surface atmosphere. With the continued growth of industrial and agricultural production, new chemical compounds, including highly toxic ones. The main anthropogenic pollutants of atmospheric air, in addition to large-scale oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, carbon, dust and soot, are complex organic, organochlorine and nitro compounds, man-made radionuclides, viruses and microbes. The most dangerous are dioxin, benzo(a)pyrene, phenols, formaldehyde, and carbon disulfide, which are widespread in the Russian air basin. Heavy metals are found in the surface atmosphere of the Moscow region mainly in a gaseous state and therefore cannot be captured by filters. Solid suspended particles are represented mainly by soot, calcite, quartz, kaolinite, feldspar, and less often by sulfates and chlorides. Oxides, sulfates and sulfites, sulfides of heavy metals, as well as alloys and metals in native form were discovered in snow dust using specially developed methods.

In Western Europe, priority is given to 28 particularly dangerous chemical elements, compounds and their groups. The group of organic substances includes acrylic, nitrile, benzene, formaldehyde, styrene, toluene, vinyl chloride, and inorganic substances - heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, V), gases (carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, oxides nitrogen and sulfur, radon, ozone), asbestos. Lead and cadmium have a predominantly toxic effect. Carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, styrene, tetrachloroethane, and toluene have an intense unpleasant odor. The halo of exposure to sulfur and nitrogen oxides extends over long distances. The above 28 air pollutants are included in the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals.

The main air pollutants in residential premises are dust and tobacco smoke, carbon monoxide and carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, radon and heavy metals, insecticides, deodorants, synthetic detergents, drug aerosols, microbes and bacteria. Japanese researchers have shown that bronchial asthma may be associated with the presence of domestic mites in the air.

According to a study of gas bubbles in the ice of Antarctica, the content of methane in the atmosphere has increased over the past 200 years. Measurements in the early 1980s of content carbon monoxide in the air basin of Oregon (USA) for 3.5 years showed that it increased by an average of 6% per year. There are reports of an increasing trend in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere and the associated threat greenhouse effect and climate warming. Both modern and ancient carcinogens (PAHs, benzo(a)pyrene, etc.) were found in the glaciers of the volcanic region of Kamchatka. In the latter case, they are apparently of volcanic origin. Patterns of changes over time in atmospheric oxygen, which has the most important to ensure life activity, have been poorly studied.

An increase in nitrogen and sulfur oxides in the atmosphere in winter was discovered due to an increase in the volume of fuel combustion and the more frequent formation of smog during this period.

The results of routine sampling of snowfall in the Moscow region indicate both synchronous regional changes in their composition over time and local features of the dynamics of the chemical state of the surface atmosphere associated with the functioning of local sources of dust and gas emissions. During frosty winters, the content of sulfates, nitrates and, accordingly, the acidity of snow water increased in the snow cover. Snow water in the initial period of winter was characterized by an increased content of sulfate, chlorine and ammonium ions. As snow fell by the middle of the winter period, it noticeably (2-3 times) decreased, and then again and sharply (up to 4-5 times for chlorine ion) increased. Such features of changes in the chemical composition of snowfall over time are explained by increased pollution of the surface atmosphere during the first snowfalls. As its “washing” increases, the contamination of the snow cover decreases, increasing again during periods when there is little snowfall.

The atmosphere is characterized by extremely high dynamism, due to both the rapid movement of air masses in the lateral and vertical directions, and high speeds and the variety of physical and chemical reactions occurring in it. Atmosphere diss maturation is now like a huge “chemical cauldron”, which is under the influence of numerous and changeable anthropogenic and natural factors. Gases and aerosols emitted into the atmosphere are characterized by high reactivity. Dust and soot arising from fuel combustion and forest fires absorb heavy metals and radionuclides and, when deposited on the surface, can pollute large areas and enter the human body through the respiratory system. Aerosols are divided into primary (emitted from sources of pollution), secondary (formed in the atmosphere), volatile (transported over long distances) and non-volatile (deposited on the surface near zones of dust and gas emissions). Persistent and volatile fine aerosols (cadmium, mercury, antimony, iodine-131, etc.) tend to accumulate in lowlands, bays and other relief depressions, and to a lesser extent on watersheds.

Aerodynamic barriers are large forests, as well as active deep faults of considerable length (Baikal Rift). The reason for this is that such faults control the physical fields, ion flows of the Earth and serve as a kind of barrier to the movement of air masses.

A tendency for the joint accumulation of lead and tin in solid suspended particles of the surface atmosphere of European Russia has been revealed;

chromium, cobalt and nickel; strontium, phosphorus, scandium, rare earths and calcium; beryllium, tin, niobium, tungsten and molybdenum; lithium, beryllium and gallium; barium, zinc, manganese and honey. Lithium, arsenic, and bismuth are often not accompanied by elevated levels of other trace elements. High concentrations of heavy metals in snow dust are due to both the presence of their mineral phases formed during the combustion of coal, fuel oil and other types of fuel, and the sorption of gaseous compounds such as tin halides by soot and clay particles. The identified features of the spatiotemporal distribution of pollutants should be taken into account when interpreting observational data on air pollution.

The "lifetime" of gases and aerosols in the atmosphere varies over a very wide range (from 1 - 3 minutes to several months) and depends mainly on their chemical stability, size (for aerosols) and the presence of reactive components (ozone, hydrogen peroxide, etc. ). Therefore, transboundary transfers of pollutants involve mainly chemical elements and compounds in the form of gases that are not capable of chemical reactions and thermodynamically stable under atmospheric conditions. As a result, the fight against transboundary transport, which is one of the most pressing problems in protecting air quality, is very difficult.

Assessing and, even more so, forecasting the state of the surface atmosphere is a very difficult problem. Currently, its condition is assessed mainly using a normative approach. The maximum concentration limits for toxic chemicals and other standard air quality indicators are given in many reference books and manuals. Such guidelines for Europe, in addition to the toxicity of pollutants (carcinogenic, mutagenic, allergenic and other effects), take into account their prevalence and ability to accumulate in the human body and the food chain. The disadvantages of the normative approach are the unreliability of the accepted values ​​of maximum permissible concentrations and other indicators due to the poor development of their empirical observational base, the lack of taking into account the joint impact of pollutants and sudden changes in the state of the surface layer of the atmosphere in time and space. There are few stationary air monitoring posts and they do not allow us to adequately assess its condition in large industrial and urban centers. Needles, lichens, and mosses can be used as indicators of the chemical composition of the surface atmosphere. At the initial stage of identifying sources of radioactive contamination associated with the Chernobyl accident, pine needles, which have the ability to accumulate radionuclides in the air, were studied. The reddening of coniferous tree needles during periods of smog in cities is widely known.

The most sensitive and reliable indicator of the state of the surface atmosphere is snow cover, which deposits pollutants over a relatively long period of time and makes it possible to determine the location of sources of dust and gas emissions using a set of indicators. Snowfalls contain pollutants that are not captured by direct measurements or calculated data on dust and gas emissions. Snow chemical survey makes it possible to estimate the reserves of pollutants in the snow cover, as well as “wet” and “dry” loads on the environment, which are expressed in determining the amount (mass) of pollutant fallout per unit time per unit area. The widespread use of photography is facilitated by the fact that the main industrial centers of Russia are located in a zone of stable snow cover.

Promising directions for assessing the state of the surface atmosphere of large industrial and urban areas include multichannel remote sensing. The advantage of this method is the ability to characterize large areas quickly, repeatedly, and in one key. To date, methods have been developed to assess the content of aerosols in the atmosphere. The development of scientific and technological progress allows us to hope for the development of such methods in relation to other pollutants.

The forecast of the state of the surface atmosphere is carried out using complex data. These primarily include the results of monitoring observations, patterns of migration and transformation of pollutants in the atmosphere, features of anthropogenic and natural processes of air pollution in the study area, the influence of meteorological parameters, topography and other factors on the distribution of pollutants in the environment. For this purpose, heuristic models of changes in the surface atmosphere in time and space are developed for a specific region. The greatest success in solving this complex problem has been achieved in areas where nuclear power plants are located.

The end result of the application of such models is a quantitative assessment of the risk of air pollution and an assessment of its acceptability from a socio-economic point of view.

Experience in conducting snow chemical surveys indicates that monitoring the state of the air basin is most effective in the zone of stable accumulation of pollutants (lowlands and floodplains of rivers, areas and areas controlled by aerodynamic barriers).

The assessment and forecast of the chemical state of the surface atmosphere associated with natural processes of its pollution differ significantly from the assessment and forecast of the quality of this natural environment caused by anthropogenic processes. The volcanic and fluid activity of the Earth and other natural phenomena cannot be controlled. We can only talk about minimizing the consequences of negative impacts, which is possible only in the case of a deep understanding of the functioning of natural systems of different hierarchical levels and, above all, the Earth as a planet. It is necessary to take into account the interaction of numerous factors that vary in time and space.

The main factors include not only the internal activity of the Earth, but also its connections with the Sun and Space. Therefore, thinking in “simple images” when assessing and forecasting the state of the surface atmosphere is unacceptable and dangerous.

Anthropogenic processes of air pollution in most cases can be controlled. However, the fight against transboundary transfers of pollutants in the atmosphere can be successfully carried out only under the condition of close international cooperation, which presents certain difficulties for various reasons. It is very difficult to assess and predict the state of atmospheric air,

when it is affected by both natural and anthropogenic processes. The features of such interaction are still poorly studied.

Environmental practice in Russia and abroad has shown that its failures are associated with incomplete consideration of negative impacts, the inability to select and evaluate the main factors and consequences, the low efficiency of using the results of field and theoretical environmental studies in decision-making, and the insufficient development of methods for quantitative assessment of the consequences of ground-level atmospheric pollution and other life-supporting natural environments.

All developed countries have adopted laws on the protection of atmospheric air. They are periodically revised to take into account new air quality requirements and new data on the toxicity and behavior of pollutants in the air. The fourth version of the Clean Air Act is currently being discussed in the United States. The battle is between environmentalists and companies with no economic interest in improving air quality. The Government of the Russian Federation has developed a draft law on the protection of atmospheric air, which is currently being discussed. Improving air quality in Russia is of great socio-economic importance

This is due to many reasons and, above all, the unfavorable state of the air basin of megalopolises, large cities and industrial centers, where the bulk of the qualified and able-bodied population lives.

Water is one of the most important life-supporting natural environments formed as a result of the evolution of the Earth. It is an integral part of the biosphere and has a number of anomalous properties that affect the physical, chemical and biological processes occurring in ecosystems.

Such properties include very high and maximum heat capacity of liquids, heat of fusion and heat of evaporation, surface tension, solvent power and dielectric constant, transparency. In addition, water is characterized by an increased migration ability, which is important for its interaction with adjacent natural environments.

The above properties of water determine the potential for the accumulation of very high quantities of a wide variety of pollutants, including pathogenic microorganisms.

Due to the continuously increasing pollution of surface waters, groundwater is becoming practically the only source of household and drinking water supply for the population. Therefore, their protection from pollution and depletion, rational use are of strategic importance

The situation is aggravated by the fact that potable groundwater lies in the uppermost, most susceptible to pollution part of artesian basins and other hydrogeological structures, and rivers and lakes make up only 0.019% of the total water volume. Good quality water is required not only for drinking and cultural needs, but also for many industries.

The danger of groundwater pollution lies in the fact that the underground hydrosphere (especially artesian basins) is the ultimate reservoir for the accumulation of pollutants of both surface and deep origin. Pollution of drainless water bodies on land is long-term, and in many cases irreversible.

Of particular danger is contamination of drinking water by microorganisms that are classified as pathogenic and can cause outbreaks of various epidemic diseases among the population and animals.

Practice has shown that the main cause of most epidemics was the use of water contaminated with viruses and microbes for drinking and other needs. Human exposure to water with high concentrations of heavy metals and radionuclides is shown in the sections devoted to these environmental pollutants.

The most important anthropogenic processes of water pollution are runoff from industrial-urbanized and agricultural areas, precipitation of products of anthropogenic activity. This process pollutes not only surface waters (drainless reservoirs and inland seas, watercourses), but also the underground hydrosphere (artesian basins, hydrogeological massifs), and the World Ocean (especially water areas and shelves). On the continents, the greatest impact is on the upper aquifers (ground and pressure), which are used for domestic drinking water supply.

Accidents of oil tankers and oil pipelines can be a significant factor in the sharp deterioration of the environmental situation on sea coasts and water areas, in inland water systems. There has been a tendency for these accidents to increase in the last decade.

The range of substances that pollute water is very wide, and the forms of their occurrence are varied. The main pollutants associated with natural and anthropogenic processes of pollution of the aquatic environment are largely similar. The difference is that as a result of anthropogenic activities, significant quantities of extremely dangerous substances such as pesticides and artificial radionuclides can enter the water. In addition, many pathogenic and disease-causing viruses, fungi, and bacteria are of artificial origin.

On the territory of the Russian Federation, the problem of pollution of surface and groundwater with nitrogen compounds is becoming increasingly urgent. Ecological and geochemical mapping of the central regions of European Russia has shown that the surface and ground waters of this territory are in many cases characterized by high concentrations of nitrates and nitrites. Regular observations indicate an increase in these concentrations over time.

A similar situation arises with the pollution of groundwater by organic substances. This is due to the fact that the underground hydrosphere is not capable of oxidizing the large mass of organic matter entering it. The consequence of this is that the contamination of hydrogeochemical systems gradually becomes irreversible.

However, the increasing amount of non-oxidized organic substances in water shifts the denitrification process to the right (towards the formation of nitrogen), which helps to reduce the concentrations of nitrates and nitrites.

In agricultural areas with high agricultural load, a noticeable increase in phosphorus compounds in surface waters was revealed, which is a favorable factor for the eutrophication of drainless reservoirs. There has also been an increase in persistent pesticides in surface and groundwater.

Assessment of the state of the aquatic environment according to the regulatory approach is carried out by comparing the pollutants present in it with their maximum permissible concentrations and other standard indicators, adopted for objects of household, drinking, cultural and domestic water use.

Such indicators are beginning to be developed not only to identify excess amounts of pollutants, but also to determine the deficiency of vital (essential) chemical elements in drinking water. In particular, such an indicator for selenium is available for the EEC countries.

Everyone's efforts should be aimed primarily at minimizing negative consequences.

It is especially difficult to assess and predict the state of a water body when it is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic processes.

As studies in the Moscow artesian basin have shown, such cases are not uncommon.

Radioactive contamination poses a particular danger to humans and their environment. This is due to the fact that ionizing radiation has intense and constant harmful effects on living organisms, and the sources of this radiation are widespread in the environment. Radioactivity - spontaneous decay atomic nuclei, leading to a change in their atomic number or mass number and accompanied by alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Alpha radiation is a stream of heavy particles consisting of protons and neutrons. It is retained by a sheet of paper and is unable to penetrate human skin. However, it becomes extremely dangerous if it enters the body. Beta radiation has a higher penetrating ability and penetrates human tissue by 1 - 2 cm. Gamma radiation can only be blocked by a thick lead or concrete slab.

Levels of terrestrial radiation vary from region to region and depend on the concentration of radionuclides near the surface. Anomalous radiation fields of natural origin are formed when certain types of granites and other igneous formations with an increased emanation coefficient are enriched with uranium, thorium, at deposits of radioactive elements in various rocks, with the modern introduction of uranium, radium, radon into underground and surface waters, and the geological environment. Coals, phosphorites, oil shale, some clays and sands, including beach sands, are often characterized by high radioactivity. Zones of increased radioactivity are distributed unevenly throughout Russia. They are known both in the European part and in the Trans-Urals, the Polar Urals, Western Siberia, the Baikal region, Far East, Kamchatka, Northeast. In most geochemically specialized rock complexes for radioactive elements, a significant part of the uranium is in a mobile state, is easily extracted and enters surface and underground waters, then into the food chain. It is natural sources of ionizing radiation in zones of anomalous radioactivity that make the main contribution (up to 70%) to the total radiation dose to the population, equal to 420 mrem/year. Moreover, these sources can create high levels of radiation that affect human life for a long time and cause various diseases, including genetic changes in the body. While sanitary and hygienic inspections are carried out at uranium mines and appropriate measures are taken to protect the health of employees, the impact of natural radiation due to radionuclides in rocks and natural waters has been studied extremely poorly. In the Athabasca uranium province (Canada), the Wollastone biogeochemical anomaly with an area of ​​about 3,000 km2 was identified, expressed by high concentrations of uranium in the needles of Canadian black spruce and associated with its supply

aerosols along active deep faults. On Russian territory

such anomalies are known in Transbaikalia.

Among natural radionuclides, radon and its daughter decay products (radium, etc.) have the greatest radiation-genetic significance. Their contribution to the total radiation dose per capita is more than 50%. The radon problem is currently considered a priority in developed countries and is receiving increased attention from the ICRP and ICDAR at the UN. The danger of radon (half-life 3.823 days) lies in its wide distribution, high penetrating ability and migration mobility, decay with the formation of radium and other highly radioactive products. Radon is colorless, odorless and is considered an “invisible enemy”, a threat to millions of residents of Western Europe and North America.

In Russia, attention to the radon problem began to be paid only in recent years. The territory of our country is poorly studied in relation to radon. Information obtained in previous decades allows us to assert that in the Russian Federation radon is widespread both in the surface layer of the atmosphere, subsoil air, and in groundwater, including sources of drinking water supply.

According to the St. Petersburg Research Institute of Radiation Hygiene, the highest concentration of radon and its daughter decay products in the air of residential premises recorded in our country corresponds to a dose of exposure to human lungs of 3-4 thousand rem per year, which exceeds the maximum permissible concentration by 2 - 3 orders. It is assumed that due to poor knowledge of the radon problem in Russia, it is possible to identify high concentrations of radon in residential and production premises a number of regions.

These primarily include the radon “spot”, which captures Lake Onega, Ladoga and Gulf of Finland, a wide zone traced from the Middle Urals in a westerly direction, the southern part of the Western Urals, the Polar Urals, the Yenisei Ridge, the Western Baikal region, the Amur region, the northern part of the Khabarovsk Territory, the Chukotka Peninsula.

The radon problem is especially relevant for megalopolises and large cities, in which there is data on the entry of radon into groundwater and the geological environment along active deep faults (St. Petersburg, Moscow).

Every inhabitant of the Earth in the last 50 years has been exposed to radiation from radioactive fallout caused by nuclear explosions in the atmosphere in connection with nuclear weapons testing. The maximum number of these tests took place in 1954 - 1958. and in 1961 - 1962

A significant part of the radionuclides was released into the atmosphere, quickly spread over long distances and slowly fell to the Earth’s surface for many months.

During the fission processes of atomic nuclei, more than 20 radionuclides are formed with half-lives from fractions of a second to several billion years.

The second anthropogenic source of ionizing radiation to the population is the products of the functioning of nuclear energy facilities.

Although during normal operation of nuclear power plants the releases of radionuclides into the environment are insignificant, the Chernobyl accident of 1986 showed the extremely high potential danger of nuclear energy.

The global effect of radioactive contamination at Chernobyl is due to the fact that during the accident, radionuclides were released into the stratosphere and within a few days were recorded in Western Europe, then in Japan, the USA and other countries.

During the first uncontrolled explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, highly radioactive “hot particles”, which were finely dispersed fragments of graphite rods and other structures of the nuclear reactor, were released into the environment, which were very dangerous if they entered the human body.

The resulting radioactive cloud covered a vast area. The total area of ​​contamination as a result of the Chernobyl accident with cesium-137 with a density of 1 -5 Ci/km2 in Russia alone in 1995 was about 50,000 km2.

Of the products of nuclear power plant activity, tritium is of particular danger, accumulating in the circulating water of the station and then entering the cooling pond and hydrographic network, drainage reservoirs, groundwater, and the surface atmosphere.

Currently, the radiation situation in Russia is determined by the global radioactive background, the presence of contaminated areas due to the Chernobyl (1986) and Kyshtym (1957) accidents, the exploitation of uranium deposits, the nuclear fuel cycle, shipboard nuclear power plants, regional radioactive waste storage facilities, as well as anomalous zones of ionizing radiation associated with terrestrial (natural) sources of radionuclides.

Waste is divided into household, industrial, mining-related and radioactive waste. According to their phase state, they can be solid, liquid or a mixture of solid, liquid and gas phases.

During storage, all waste undergoes changes due to both internal physicochemical processes and the influence external conditions.

As a result, new environmentally hazardous substances may be formed at waste storage and disposal sites, which, when penetrating into the biosphere, will pose a serious threat to the human environment.

Therefore, the storage and disposal of hazardous waste should be considered as “storage of physical and chemical processes”.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is extremely heterogeneous in composition: food scraps, paper, scrap metal, rubber, glass, wood, fabric, synthetic and other substances. Food leftovers attract birds, rodents, and large animals, whose corpses are a source of bacteria and viruses. Atmospheric precipitation, solar radiation and heat release in connection with surface, underground fires, fires contribute to the occurrence of unpredictable physicochemical and biochemical processes at solid waste landfills, the products of which are numerous toxic chemical compounds in liquid, solid and gaseous states. The biogenic impact of solid waste is expressed in the fact that the waste is favorable for the reproduction of insects, birds, rodents, other mammals, and microorganisms. At the same time, birds and insects are carriers of pathogenic bacteria and viruses over long distances.

Sewage and fecal drainage from residential areas are no less dangerous. Despite the construction treatment facilities and other activities, reducing negative impact such wastewater has an impact on the environment important issue all urbanized areas. A particular danger in this case is associated with bacterial contamination of the habitat and the possibility of outbreaks of various epidemic diseases.

Hazardous waste from agricultural production - manure storage facilities, residues of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, pesticides left on the fields, as well as undeveloped cemeteries of animals that died during epidemics. Although this waste is of a “spot” nature, its large quantity and high concentration of toxic substances in it can have a noticeable negative impact on the environment.

The results of studies conducted on the territory of Russia indicate that one of the most significant natural factors that negatively affect the safety of storage and disposal conditions for solid and hazardous waste is the junction of active deep faults. In these nodes, not only creep and pulse tectonic dislocations are observed, but also intense vertical water-gas exchange, intensive spread of pollutants in the lateral direction, which introduced chemically aggressive compounds (sulfates, chlorides, fluorides, hydrogen sulfide) into the underground hydrosphere, aeration zone, surface runoff and surface atmosphere and other gases). The most effective, fast and economical method for identifying active deep faults is water-helium survey, developed in Russia (VIMS) and based on the study of the distribution of helium in groundwater as the most reliable and sensitive indicator of the modern fluid activity of the Earth. This is especially true for closed and industrial-urbanized areas with a thick cover of water-logged sedimentary deposits.

Due to the fact that the scale and intensity of the impact of solid and hazardous waste on the environment turned out to be more significant than previously thought, and its nature and influencing natural factors were poorly studied, the regulatory requirements of SNiP and a number of departmental instructions regarding the choice

sites, design of landfills and designation of sanitary protection zones should be considered insufficiently substantiated. Nor can a situation be considered satisfactory when the sanitary protection zone of a landfill and the equipment used are chosen essentially arbitrarily, without taking into account the real processes of pollution and the response of the biosphere to the functioning of solid and hazardous waste dumps. A comprehensive and, if possible, exhaustive assessment of all parameters of the impact of waste on all life-supporting natural environments is necessary, allowing us to elucidate the ways and mechanisms of penetration of pollutants into the food chain and the human body.

When vibrations are excited in air or any other gas, they speak of air sound(air acoustics), in water - underwater sound (hydroacoustics), and with vibrations in solids ah - sound vibration. In a narrow sense, an acoustic signal means sound, i.e. elastic vibrations and waves in gases, liquids and solids audible to the human ear. Therefore, the acoustic field and acoustic signals are primarily considered as a means of communicative communication.

However, acoustic signals can also cause additional reactions. It can be both positive and negative, leading in some cases to irreversible negative consequences in the human body and psyche. For example, with monotonous work, with the help of a person, it is possible to achieve increased productivity.

It is currently believed that the levels of sound harmful to the body in the frequency range 60 - 20,000 Hz are set relatively correctly. A standard has been introduced for sanitary standards of permissible noise in premises and residential areas in this range (GOST 12.1.003-83, GOST 12.1.036-81, GOST 2228-76, GOST 12.1.001-83, GOST 19358-74).

Infrasound can have a very significant impact on a person, in particular, on his psyche. The literature has repeatedly noted, for example, cases of suicide under the influence of a powerful source of infrasound. Natural sources of infrasound are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, thunderclaps, storms, and winds. Atmospheric turbulence plays a significant role in their occurrence.

Until now, the problem of measuring and regulating levels by Gosstandart has not been resolved. There is significant variation in the assessment of acceptable standards for infrasound levels. There are a number of sanitary standards, for example, sanitary standards for permissible levels of infrasound and low-frequency noise in residential areas (SanPiN 42-128-4948-89), workplaces (3223-85), GOST 23337-78 (noise measurement methods...) , etc. GOST 12.1.003-76, prohibits even short-term stay in areas with a level sound pressure over 135 dB in any octave band.

Ultrasound

The active effect of ultrasound (US) on a substance, leading to irreversible changes in it, is caused in most cases by nonlinear effects. In liquids, the main role in the influence of ultrasound on substances and processes is played by cavitation (the formation in the liquid of pulsating bubbles, cavities, cavities filled with steam or gas, which collapse sharply after moving to an area of ​​​​high pressure, causing destruction of the surfaces of solid bodies bordering the cavitating liquid) .

The impact of ultrasound on biological objects varies depending on the intensity of ultrasound and the duration of irradiation.

Methods and means of protection against the effects of acoustic noise and vibration. The following should be considered as methods of protection against acoustic influence:

Identification of noise sources of anthropogenic origin and reduction of noise emission levels from industrial facilities, vehicles and various types of devices.

Proper planning of the development of territories intended for locating enterprises and residential buildings. Widespread use of protective landscaping (trees, grass, etc.).

The use of special sound absorbers and sound-absorbing structures in the design of buildings and individual rooms in them.

Damping of sound vibrations.

Use of personal hearing protection when working in noisy environments (plugs, earplugs, I, helmets, etc.).

Electromagnetic fields(EMF) are one of the elements of the environment for humans and all living beings. The intensification of industrial activity has led to a sharp increase in the intensity of EMFs and to a wide variety (in form, frequency, duration of exposure, etc.) of their types.

The number of people who, in the course of their work activities, are (or may be) exposed to intense electromagnetic fields has increased. In this regard, many researchers consider the factor of EMF exposure to humans to be as significant as, for example, air pollution. /

It should be said, for example, that the fields created by high-voltage power lines spread their influence over large areas. Suffice it to say that the area of ​​a 50 m wide strip under lines with a voltage of 300 kV and higher for Russia and the USA taken together is about 8,000 square kilometers, which is almost eight times the territory of Moscow.

It should also be noted that the following problems are of no small importance:

*Forest management problem

uncontrolled deforestation

*Agroeconomic problem

soil deformation, chemical pollution, drainage, etc.

*Mining problem.

*Road transport problem

SOLUTIONS
PROCESSING OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE.

The problem of municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal and pollution of urban areas is especially acute in large cities (metropolises) with a population of 1 million inhabitants or more. 1

For example, in Moscow, 2.5 million tons are generated annually. waste (MSW), and the average rate of “production” of solid waste per person per year reaches approximately 1 m3 in volume and 200 kg in weight. By the way, for large cities the recommended standard is 1.07 m3/person per year.

Solid waste consists mainly of:

1. paper, cardboard (37%) 7. bones (1.1%)

2. kitchen waste (30.6%) 8. metals (3.8%)

3. wood (1.9%) 9. glass (3.7%)

4. leather, rubber (0.5%) 10. stones, ceramics (0.8%)

5. textiles (5.4%) 11. other fractions (9.7%)

6. artificial materials, mainly polyethylene (5.2%)

Let's look at how things are going in Russia with the processing of household waste using the example of the largest city in the country - Moscow. As already indicated, 2.5 million tons of solid waste are generated annually in Moscow. The bulk of them (up to 90%) are disposed of at special landfills Timokhovo and Khmetyevo. Since 1990 the number of landfills has been reduced from 5 to 2. The landfills have been operating since the late 70s and their service life is ending in the near future. The landfills do not have the minimum necessary environmental protection structures, such as water protection screens, anti-landslide structures, systems for drainage and neutralization of leachate and surface water, fencing of the landfill boundaries, equipment for washing cars, etc. There is no layer-by-layer stacking of waste with daily backfilling, watering, etc. .To. there is no necessary specialized equipment. All this is very far from the sanitary landfill using the described technology in developed countries. The cost of waste disposal ranges from 4.5 to 65 thousand rubles, depending on the location of the landfill. Toxic industrial waste (IWW), the amount of which is about 1.5 million tons per year, is also stored in the territories of landfills. The last circumstance is completely

unacceptable because the requirements for disposal are completely different and their joint storage is not allowed for reasons of environmental safety.

In addition, there are up to 90 garbage dumps in the city. with total area 285.7 hectares. Of these, 63 are not functioning. Currently, there are two waste incineration plants No. 2 and No. 3 in Moscow, equipped with equipment from Germany and Denmark. The existing equipment and technology for burning waste at these plants does not provide the required level of environmental protection.

IN Lately Thanks to the efforts of the mayor of the city, Luzhkov Yu.M., who considers the environmental problems of Moscow to be paramount, a number of measures have been taken for the sanitary cleaning of the city and the industrial processing of solid waste. A program for the construction of waste transfer stations (MTS) is being implemented. Three metro stations have been created in different administrative districts of the city. Compaction of solid waste after sorting will be introduced during the creation of the Ministry of Railways in the North-Eastern District of Moscow. The program for the construction of the Ministry of Railways and solving the issues of creating modern sanitary landfills in the Moscow region will make it possible in the near future to solve problems with the processing of solid waste in Moscow.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the waste market is not regulated by the government. There is no developed regulatory and legal framework for environmental incentives for waste recycling, federal investment in the development of new environmental domestic technologies for waste recycling, and technical policy in this direction is completely insufficient.

PROCESSING OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE.

Today, on average, for each inhabitant of the planet, about 20 tons of raw materials are mined per year, which, using 800 tons of water and 2.5 kW of energy, are processed into consumer products and approximately 90 - 98% go to waste (The work gives a figure of 45 tons. raw materials per person). At the same time, the share of household waste per person does not exceed 0.3-0.6 tons per year. The rest is industrial waste. In terms of the scale of extracted and processed raw materials - 100 Gt/year, human economic activity has approached the activity of biota - 1000 Gt/year and has surpassed the volcanic activity of the planet - 10 Gt/year. At the same time, the wastefulness of the use of raw materials and energy in economic activity human exceeds all reasonable limits. And if in developed countries agricultural waste is recycled by 90%, car bodies by 98%, used oils by 90%, then a significant part of industrial and construction waste, waste from mining and metallurgical industries is almost completely not recycled. Humanity has succeeded in creating production tools and technologies for destroying its own kind and has practically no

was engaged in the creation of an industry for processing waste from its activities. As a result, in addition to the annual increase in the volume of processed industrial waste, including toxic ones, there are also old burial sites (landfills) all over the world, the number of which in industrialized countries amounts to tens and hundreds of thousands, and the waste volumes reach hundreds of billions of tons. Thus, if we talk about environmental rehabilitation, meaning the systematic processing of waste (primarily especially hazardous), it will require costs of tens and hundreds of billions of dollars per year for decades. On the territory of the Russian Federation, at the beginning of 1996, 1,405 million tons of waste were accumulated in storage facilities, warehouses, burial grounds, landfills, landfills (reporting in Form No. 2 TP "toxic waste"). 89.9 million tons of industrial toxic waste were generated, including class I. danger -0.16 million tons, II class. - 2.2 million tons, III class. - 8.7 million tons, IV class. - 78.8 million tons. Of these, 34 million tons were used in our own production and 6.5 million tons were completely neutralized. In addition, 12.2 million tons were transferred to other enterprises for use. These are the data of the State report “On the state of the natural environment in the Russian Federation” in 1995.

Thus, even official data show the continuous growth of non-recyclable industrial waste, not to mention unaccounted for landfills, old burial sites, the inventory of which has not even begun and which contains about 86 billion tons of waste (1.6 billion tons of toxic)

The State Committee for Ecology has prepared a draft Federal Law "On Production and Consumption Waste", which was submitted by the Government of the Russian Federation to the State Duma for consideration and is expected to be adopted in 1997. The introduction of this law will put the work on handling production and consumption waste on a legal basis. Thus, in the world and in Russia, the bulk of waste, including hazardous waste, is accumulated, stored or buried. A number of countries use flooding in the sea (ocean) for disposal, which, in our opinion, should be completely prohibited by international agreements, regardless of the hazard class of the waste. This is in some way a moral problem: produce ~ recycle (store) on your own territory, and do not use as a dump what belongs to everyone (seas, mountains, forests).

Actually, no more than 20% of the total volume is currently processed. Processing technologies

industrial waste can be classified as follows:

1. thermal technologies;

2. physical and chemical technologies;

3. biotechnology.

The environmental policy pursued in Russia is objectively determined by the existing level of economic, technological, social, political and spiritual development of society and, in general, is not capable of preventing the increase in environmental tension in the country. Therefore, even despite the adoption of many programs providing for the inclusion of environmental needs in economic and social development countries, the creation of institutional and legal systems of environmental regulation - one cannot count on implementing an effective environmental safety policy in the near future.

This is hampered by a number of reasons - the lack of public interest in the environmental problem, the weak technical base of production and the lack of necessary investments, the underdevelopment of market relations, the immaturity of legal and civil societies. Russia is faced with the typical Third World difficulties of developing resource-efficient industrial production, the overcoming of which is complicated, in particular, by the fact that ideological opposition to the current course of reforms has strengthened, which is now combined with mass rejection of the processes of globalization associated with a threat to national security.

The scenario for the development of the environmental situation in the near future is not encouraging. And yet it does not look hopelessly catastrophic, primarily due to the internationalization of environmental problems in our society. The worsening environmental crisis in Russia threatens global environmental security, and this increases the interest of the world community in stimulating environmental actions in our country. The consequences of the globalization of Russia's environmental problems are not limited to receiving financial and technical assistance for the implementation of environmental projects. They open the way to greening economic activity through participation in international environmental agreements and attracting foreign investment. They also contribute to the greening of the public consciousness of Russians through their integration into the international environmental movement. Russia's own interest in ensuring global environmental security has now been reduced to a minimum and is mainly of a forced nature. Attempts to increase national prestige in the eyes of the world community are by no means associated, unlike many countries, with an active role in solving global environmental problems. The emergence of environmental contradictions between Russia and developing countries is also alarming.

The advantage of Russia compared to other countries is that the formation of an environmental culture in it occurs in conditions where environmental problems acquire an international priority and solid global experience in environmental activities has been accumulated, which Russia could use. But will he want to? We associate the way out of the environmental crisis and providing conditions for the greening of economic activity with economic stabilization. But world experience shows that we should not wait for economic recovery for a subsequent transition to an environmental safety policy. The level of economic development required for an active environmental policy is a very relative concept. Japan started it with a per capita income of no more than $1,600. In Taiwan, this happened “later” - at $5,500, when, according to the calculations of its government, real conditions arose for the implementation of highly costly environmental programs. Of course, the current economic and political situation is not conducive to making environmental needs a priority. But ignoring the environmental imperative of development will lead to the inevitable subsequent lag of Russia. There is still a very limited reserve left - the social movement of "greens" - which can significantly change the balance of political forces in favor of pro-environmental figures and initiate the activation of state environmental policy.

In this work, I tried to consider the main environmental problems of Russia and the most acceptable solutions to these problems at the moment.

We can conclude that the whole matter rests on financial resources, which our country does not currently have, but technical solutions These problems have already been found and used in the most developed countries.

And in conclusion, I would like to say that Russia has ways out of environmental problems, we just need to see them, and if we do not do this in the very near future, then everything could turn against us in a much worse way than we can even imagine introduce.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Golub A., Strukova E. . Environmental activities in a transition economy / Economic Issues, 1995. No. 1

2. State report "On the state of the natural environment of the Russian Federation in 1995" / Green World, 1996. No. 24

3. Danilov-Danilyan V.I. (ed.) Ecology, nature conservation and environmental safety./MNEPU, 1997

4. Korableva A.I. Assessment of pollution of aquatic ecosystems with heavy metals / Water resources. 1991. No. 2

5. Rogozhina N. In search of answers to the environmental challenge / World Economy and International Relations., 1999 No. 9

6. Ecology: Educational encyclopedia/Translated from English by L. Yakhnina. M.: TIME-LIFE, 1994.

The term “ecology” was first coined by the German biologist Ehaeckel (1834-1919) in 1866, which meant the science of the relationship of living organisms with the environment. Currently, this term has acquired a new meaning and essentially reflects the ideas of social ecology - a science that studies the problems of interaction between society and the environment.

Currently, modern humanity faces two main dangers - the danger that it will destroy itself in the fire of a nuclear war, and the danger environmental disaster, which has become a reality today. This is confirmed by the Chernobyl accident, the negative consequences of which will affect future generations of people. Already, children are being born with serious defects and pathological changes, and the number of people with cancer and diseases is increasing thyroid gland. The deterioration of the environmental situation is due to the fact that humanity annually extracts over 100 billion tons of various mineral resources from the bowels of the Earth. The predominant part of them - from 70 to 90% - turns into various kinds of production waste that pollutes the environment, which leads to the death of flora and fauna.

One of the serious problems today is the reduction of available mineral reserves, as well as the future increase in the population of our planet. According to UN experts, in the 21st century the growth rate of the world population will slow down somewhat, but the absolute increase will continue, and the world population will be 6 billion people by 2005, 10 billion people by 2050, and 14 billion by 2100. people This amount of population will be enough to destroy all ecosystems of the planet.

The current environmental situation can be described as critical. It has acquired a global character and its solution is possible only through the joint efforts of the governments of all civilized countries of the world.

An important measure towards solving modern environmental problems is the greening of production:
- development of waste-free technologies based on closed cycles;
- complex processing of raw materials;
- use of secondary resources;
- search for new energy sources;
- widespread introduction of biotechnologies;
- mandatory environmental assessment of new production projects;
- development of environmentally sound forms of agriculture with a constant rejection of pesticides, etc.

An important direction for improving the modern environmental situation is also reasonable self-restraint in the consumption of resources, especially energy sources, which are of utmost importance for life.

Another measure to solve the environmental problem is the formation of environmental consciousness in society. Environmental issues should be placed at the state level, and in relation to university education, they should become the most important element in the training of specialists of any profile.

Environmental problems and their solutions

Introduction

According to scientists, humanity is currently living at the expense of future generations, who are destined for much worse living conditions, which will inevitably affect their health and social well-being. To avoid this, people need to learn to exist only on the “interest” from the fixed capital - nature, without spending the capital itself.

Since the twentieth century, this capital has been wasted at a steadily increasing rate, and by now the nature of the Earth has changed so much that global environmental problems have been discussed at the international level for several decades. In the ecosystem being used, even the latest technologies for rational environmental management do not allow preserving biodiversity. For this purpose, specially protected natural areas (SPNA) are needed, in which economic activity is completely prohibited or limited. The area of ​​protected areas in Russia is 20 or more times smaller than in developed countries. And in order to preserve the flora and fauna of our country in its current state, it is necessary to increase the territory occupied by protected areas at least 10-15 times.

The purpose of the work is to consider environmental problems and ways to solve them.

Modern problems of nature conservation

The initial reasons that appeared at the end of the 20th century. global environmental problems were a population explosion and a simultaneous scientific and technological revolution.

The world's population was 2.5 billion in 1950, doubled in 1984 and will reach 6.1 billion in 2000. Geographically, the growth of the world's population is uneven. In Russia, the population has been declining since 1993, but is growing in China, the countries of southern Asia, throughout Africa and Latin America. Accordingly, over half a century, the space taken from nature by crop areas, residential and public buildings, railways and roads, airports and marinas, vegetable gardens and landfills has increased by 2.5–3 times.

At the same time, the scientific and technological revolution gave humanity the possession of atomic energy, which, in addition to the good, led to radioactive contamination of vast territories. High-speed jet aviation has emerged, destroying the ozone layer of the atmosphere. The number of cars polluting the atmosphere of cities with exhaust gases has increased tenfold. IN agriculture In addition to fertilizers, various poisons began to be widely used - pesticides, the wash-off of which polluted the surface layer of water throughout the World Ocean.

All this has led to many major environmental problems. Global environmental problems are an objective result of the interaction between our civilization and the environment in the era of industrial development. The beginning of this era is considered to be 1860; around this time, as a result of the rapid development of Euro-American capitalism, the then industry reached a new level. Global environmental problems are divided into several groups that are closely related to each other:

demographic problem ( Negative consequences population growth in the 20th century);

energy problem (energy shortage gives rise to the search for new sources and pollution associated with their production and use);

food problem (the need to achieve a complete level of nutrition for every person raises questions in the field of agriculture and the use of fertilizers);

conservation problem natural resources(raw materials and mineral resources have been depleted since the Bronze Age, the preservation of the gene pool of humanity and biodiversity is important, fresh water and atmospheric oxygen are limited);

the problem of protecting the environment and people from the effects of harmful substances (sad facts of mass stranding of whales on the coast, mercury, oil, etc. disasters and poisonings caused by them are known).

In the last quarter of the 20th century. A sharp warming of the global climate began, which in the boreal regions is reflected in a decrease in the number of frosty winters. The average temperature of the surface air layer has increased by 0.7°C over the past 25 years. The temperature of subglacial water in the North Pole region increased by almost two degrees, as a result of which the ice began to melt from below.

It is possible that this warming is partly of a natural nature. However, the rate of warming forces us to recognize the role of the anthropogenic factor in this phenomenon. Currently, humanity annually burns 4.5 billion tons of coal, 3.2 billion tons of oil and petroleum products, as well as natural gas, peat, oil shale and firewood. All this turns into carbon dioxide, the content of which in the atmosphere increased from 0.031% in 1956 to 0.035% in 1996 (9. P. 99). and continues to grow. In addition, emissions of another greenhouse gas, methane, have sharply increased.

Now the majority of climatologists in the world recognize the role of the anthropogenic factor in climate warming. Over the past 10-15 years, many studies and meetings have been conducted that have shown that sea levels are indeed rising, at a rate of 0.6 mm per year, or 6 cm per century. At the same time, vertical rises and falls of coastlines reach 20 mm per year.

Currently, the main environmental problems that have arisen under the influence of anthropogenic activities are: destruction of the ozone layer, deforestation and desertification of territories, pollution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, acid rain, and a decrease in biodiversity. In this regard, the most extensive research and in-depth analysis of changes in the field of global ecology are needed, which could help in making fundamental decisions in the future. high level in order to reduce damage to natural conditions and ensure a favorable living environment.

2. Current state and protection of the atmosphere, water resources, soil, vegetation

Atmospheric protection is regulated primarily by the Convention on Transboundary Air Pollution (1979), the Montreal (1987) and Vienna (1985) agreements on the ozone layer, as well as protocols to control emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides.

A special place among the international conventions and agreements on the protection of the air basin had the Moscow Treaty of 1963 on the ban on testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, outer space and under water, concluded between the USSR, the USA and England, and other agreements of the 70s...90s. on the limitation, reduction and prohibition of nuclear, bacteriological, chemical weapons in different environments and regions. In 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was solemnly signed at the UN.

Modern international cooperation in the field of environmental protection is carried out at three levels:

1. Expanding the exchange of experience. The better nature is protected on the territory of each country, the less effort and resources will be required at the international level.

2. Development and implementation of measures to protect elements of the natural environment in limited areas or geographical areas with the participation of two or more countries (bilateral, subregional or regional cooperation).

3. Increasing efforts of all countries of the world in solving problems of environmental protection. At this level, the development and implementation of universal environmental protection measures takes place.

The current stage of the international environmental movement ends with the formalization of mechanisms and procedures for implementing the decisions of the World Forum in Rio de Janeiro. In the 21st century humanity enters with a clear understanding of the vital significance of environmental problems and with reasonable confidence in their solution for the benefit of all peoples of the world and the nature of the Earth. Society can live and develop only within the biosphere and at the expense of its resources, therefore it is vitally interested in its preservation. Humanity must consciously limit its impact on nature in order to preserve the possibility of further co-evolution.

3. Rational use and protection of animals

The Law of the Russian Federation on the protection and use of wildlife defines the following types of activities: fishing, hunting birds and animals, the use of waste products and beneficial properties of animals, the use of wildlife for scientific, cultural, educational, and aesthetic purposes. All of them are covered by licensing. Licenses for their use are issued by the authorities for the protection and use of wildlife, in particular, for wild animals - the bodies of the Hunting Supervision Authority, for fishing - the bodies of the Rybnadzor.

Licenses are also issued by the Ministry of Natural Resources in the case of the sale of animals or their life support projects outside the state, and for the export of medicinal raw materials by the Russian Ministry of Health.

A license is essential not only as a means of protecting the natural environment, but also as one of the ways to regulate environmental management.

4. Ecological crisis. Ecological disasters. Environmental monitoring

The ecological crisis of the biosphere that scientists talk about is not a crisis of nature, but of human society. Among the main problems that led to its emergence are the volume of anthropogenic impact on nature in the 20th century, which brought the biosphere closer to the limit of sustainability; contradictions between the essence of man and nature, his alienation from nature; continuation of the development of “consumer civilization” - the growth of unnecessary needs of people and society, the satisfaction of which leads to an increase in excess technogenic load on the environment.

Efforts to protect the environment in all countries are undertaken locally, however, within the generally accepted paradigm of “poor management”. It is considered possible to rectify the situation by investing additional funds in improving technology. The “green” movement advocates bans on nuclear, chemical, oil, microbiological and other industries. Scientists and environmental practitioners for the most part are not engaged in “knowing the economics of nature”, but in developing specific issues - technologies for reducing emissions and discharges of enterprises, preparing norms, rules and laws. There is no agreement among scientists in analyzing the causes and consequences of the “greenhouse effect”, “ozone holes”, in determining the permissible limits for the withdrawal of natural resources and population growth on the planet. The panacea for the global greenhouse effect is internationally recognized as reducing carbon dioxide emissions, which will require multibillion-dollar expenditures, but, as will be shown below, will not solve the problem, and senseless expenditure of funds will only aggravate the crisis.

Greenhouse effect and ozone holes

The greenhouse effect, as some scientists believe, is a modern physical and chemical process of disturbing the thermal balance of the planet with an accelerating rise in temperature on it. It is generally accepted that this effect is caused by the accumulation of “greenhouse gases” in the Earth’s atmosphere, formed mainly during the combustion of fossil fuels. Infrared (thermal) radiation from the Earth's surface does not go into outer space, but is absorbed by the molecules of these gases, and its energy remains in the Earth's atmosphere.

Over the past hundred years, the average temperature of the Earth's surface has increased by 0.8 ° C. In the Alps and Caucasus, glaciers have decreased in volume by half, on Mount Kilimanjaro - by 73%, and the level of the World Ocean has risen by at least 10 cm. According to the World Meteorological Service , by 2050 the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere will increase to 0.05%, and the increase in average temperature on the planet will be 2-3.5 ° C. The results of this process are not accurately predicted. It is expected that the level of the World Ocean will rise by 15-95 cm with the flooding of densely populated areas of river deltas in Western Europe and Southeast Asia, a shift in climate zones, a change in the direction of winds, ocean currents (including the Gulf Stream) and the amount of precipitation.

Modernity can be considered environmental pollution, because anthropogenic activities affect absolutely all spheres of the earth. These include the hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere. Unfortunately, it is man who is the main culprit in this situation, while every day he himself becomes its main victim. Horrifying statistics show that about 60% of people in the world die from air, water, and soil pollution.

The fact is that this problem does not have state borders, but concerns all of humanity as a whole, so solutions must take place at the global level. To effectively fight, so-called “green” organizations have been created, which have been successfully promoting their activities for many years, these include the World Wildlife Fund, Green Peace, and other public organizations whose main activities are aimed at preserving nature .

Ways to solve environmental problems should begin with the implementation of solutions that will allow the rational use of natural resources. For example, in the public utilities sector, technology for recycling waste, which is the main source of pollution in all natural spheres, is being successfully introduced. Every day the amount of waste is growing rapidly, so the problem of waste disposal is becoming more and more urgent for humanity.

Moreover, recycling waste can become economically profitable, in addition to the fact that its disposal will have an environmental effect. According to experts, more than 60% of waste can be potential raw materials, which can be successfully sold and recycled.

Every year on our planet the number of industrial enterprises, which cannot but affect the environmental situation. This growth of enterprises leads to an increase in emissions of pollution and other harmful substances into the environment.

At the same time, the use of such structures cannot lead to complete purification, however, it significantly reduces the number of harmful substances that enter the atmosphere.

Great amount Western enterprises use waste-free and low-waste production processes in their industrial activities, and also use recycled water supply, which allows them to reduce the discharge of wastewater into water bodies. They see this as a kind of way to solve environmental problems, and they are right, because such intervention will significantly reduce Negative influence on the nature of human activity.

It must be said that the rational placement of petrochemical, chemical, nuclear and metallurgical production is also in a positive way affects the environment.

Solving environmental problems is one of the main tasks of all humanity as a whole; it is important to increase the level of responsibility among people, their culture of education so that we are more careful about what Mother Nature has given us.

Rational use of any resources will significantly reduce the negative impact of humans on the environment.

Equally important is reducing the number of animals being shot, because they are an important link in the chain of nature’s development. Chasing profit and material wealth, we forget that we are destroying our future, taking away our children’s right to a healthy future.

Greening the planet is considered one of the ways to improve the condition of our air, improve the condition of the air and give the opportunity to develop many plants in our difficult world.

We have not listed all methods for solving environmental problems, however, we have touched on the most important and relevant areas that require positive human intervention.