Features of management of socio-economic systems. General principles of economic systems management
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Introduction
1.1 Theoretical management aspects economic systems: methodology and analysis
2. Assessment and analysis of the enterprise’s balance sheet indicators
2.1 Method of planning the solvency of an enterprise
2.2 Use of methods of solvency planning at the Municipal Enterprise "Company "Water of Donbass"
List of used literature
economic system planning solvency
Introduction
The choice of this topic is due to the fact that currently in Ukraine there is a big problem of a non-payment crisis. In modern economic conditions, most Ukrainian enterprises do not have the opportunity to effectively carry out their activities. This is partly due to the crisis of non-payments in the country, when the assets of economic entities are frozen in accounts receivable.
The essence of the scientific problem is the need to develop methodological, analytical and accounting methods for the economic assessment of factors in both the internal and external environment, as well as approaches to selecting reliable counterparties, in the context of the emerging non-payment crisis in Ukraine.
An important scientific task is the development of methods and methods for assessing contractors of enterprises in the public utilities industry, selecting business partners, as well as procedures for collecting, accumulating and using information about contractors.
Market changes in Ukraine have determined the objective need for further development of theoretical and practical methods for the functioning of existing management systems for production and economic relations of enterprises, taking into account the peculiarities of the development of industrial production, as well as actions and processes that occur in the external environment. This determines the relevance of the topic of the course work.
The purpose of the course work is to develop theoretical and practical methods of economic assessment and regulation, selection of contractors for enterprises in the public utilities industry on the basis of research and analysis of experience, economically developed taking into account the peculiarities of the processes that are currently occurring in the Ukrainian economy.
The object of the study is the CP “Company “Water of Donbass”.
1. Theoretical aspects improving the management of economic systems
1.1 Theoretical aspects of managing economic systems: methodology and analysis
Economy (economic system) is a complex, purposeful, controlled dynamic system that produces, distributes and consumes material goods in order to satisfy unlimited human needs.
The economic system from the point of view of the systems approach can be presented as follows (Fig. 1.1.1).
system (E) and its environment: society (O), nature (P), space and time
Space and time are the most general determinants of an economic system, specifying its spatial and temporal existence and limitations.
The natural environment is in continuous interaction with the economic system; the latter, in particular, exploits natural resources: agricultural land, mineral reserves, water, wood, and has an impact on nature, changing it. The economy is a functional subsystem of the social system, fulfilling the requirement to meet the needs of society and using human resources.
The principle of unlimited needs of society should be understood in such a way that the orientation of the economy towards the maximum satisfaction of human needs never achieves the ideal goal - the creation of complete abundance due to the law of accelerated growth of needs.
An economic system, the efficiency of which is characterized by economic indicators: profit, profitability, cost, productivity and others, is a complex system. Changes that occur in one part of the system cause changes in other parts. Thus, the emergence of a new product in one of the industries leads not only to changes in this industry, but also has a transformative effect on the structure of demand and consumption, which, in turn, determines new changes in the producing industries. The economic system is in continuous motion: it grows and develops. The concept of growth reflects the quantitative aspect of dynamics: an increase in the number of elements, connections, and size of the economic system. The principle of development is associated with the concept of quality, improvement of the system, and increase in its potential. It is noteworthy that the macroeconomic system is building up its potential to quickly achieve the goal of improving the quality and standard of living of the population (development) and is characterized by real indicators of improving living standards (growth).
The environment of an economic system is also a complex system and has all the properties of one. When identifying a system, they proceed from the presence of more rigid connections within the most complex system compared to the connections between the system and the external environment. The system and environment are generally characterized by different interests, goals and criteria. Set of factors external environment characterized.
complexity - the variety of factors affecting the system;
the strength of the influence of factors, among which more significant and less significant ones stand out;
dynamism - the speed of changes occurring in the environment of the system;
uncertainty - the amount of a priori information that the system has regarding a specific factor.
The study of economic systems at various levels using the modeling method is based on the assumption that a complex economic system has a set of characteristics that are invariant with respect to the objectives of the study, among which the main ones are:
integrity - all parts of the system (subsystem) and elements are subordinated to a single goal facing the entire system. The goal can be given to the system from the outside or formulated by the system itself. The goal can be formulated at a qualitative level or in the form of targets for specific quantitative economic indicators. The formulation of the global goal must be sufficient for the control system to develop a plan to achieve it. The local goals of the subsystem must be compatible with the global goal of the system;
emergence - irreducibility of the properties of the system as a whole to the properties of its individual parts;
holism is a formal aspect of ensuring the integrity of the system: the goals of the economic system must be formalized, coordinated and aggregated;
spatial and temporal certainty and limitation means that for an economic system that is localized and functioning in real time, it is possible to build a model or system of models with the help of which it is possible to solve problems of three classes: observation, identification, forecasting; the observation task is associated with determining the present state of the system U (t) based on the behavior of output quantities in the future: (y(φ): φ? t); the identification task requires determining U (t) based on data on the behavior of output quantities in the past: (у(ф):t ? Ф); the forecasting task allows you to determine the future state and (d) based on data on current and past output values (y(f): f? t; y(t): t? d);
dynamism - the economic system functions and develops over time, it has a background and a future, is characterized by a certain life cycle, in which phases specific to the objectives of the study can be distinguished: emergence, formation, growth, development, stabilization, degradation, elimination or incentive to change;
complexity - an economic system is characterized by a large number of heterogeneous elements and connections, multifunctionality, polystructurality, multicriteria, multivariate development and other properties of complex systems;
the relative autonomy of the functioning of economic systems means that as a result of feedback, each of the components of the output signal y i Y can be changed by changing the input signal Dx i, while the other components remain unchanged;
functional controllability of the economic system means that by suitable choice of input influence x it is possible to obtain any output signal Yi Y:
where S: X > Y - functional controlled system;
Causality of an economic system means the ability to predict the consequences of certain events in the future. Otherwise, cause-and-effect relationships in a system are determined when the causes of a certain phenomenon are identified, their consequences are identified, and their dependence is established. Causality in time presupposes such a description of the evolution of the system in which the values of output quantities at any moment of time t depend solely on the prehistory of the development of the system. Causality is associated with the concepts of unpredictability of the system and predetermination. In a non-anticipatory system, changes in the output value cannot predict or anticipate changes in the input effect. The predetermination of a system means that there are those such that for any t ? f the future evolution of the system is determined exclusively by past observations;
uncertainty in the functioning of an economic system is a set of disturbing influences that affect the behavior of the system and the outcome decision taken X. Elements of U include both parametric and structural uncertainty;
the homeostatic nature of the system reflects its ability to self-preserve, counteracting the destructive influences of the environment; homeostaticity can be interpreted as the ability to carry out the simplest forms of control: structurally, such a system is characterized by the presence of only negative feedback, and functionally, by the constancy of the control goal; this is the system in its static representation, outside of development; a more extensive approach to the study of the adaptive characteristics of a system is provided by such a characteristic as stability;
The stability of the system depends on the level and type of economic object, as well as on how the degree of “inertia” of the system is assessed. In other words, the question of how significantly the behavior of the system changes under the influence of disturbances is investigated. A system is considered stable with respect to the introduced definition of a neighborhood if, with sufficiently small changes in the operating conditions of the economic system, the behavior of the system does not change significantly. Within the framework of systems theory, the structural stability and stability of the trajectory of the system’s behavior are studied;
12. The inertia of the economic system is reflected in the occurrence of delays in the system, which responds symptomatically to disturbing and control influences. Such delays are taken into account, in particular, using lag models: internal, or decision-making lags regarding stabilizing influences, and external - reflecting delays in the system's response to the corresponding influences;
The adaptability of an economic system is determined by two types of adaptation: passive and active adaptation. Passive adaptation is an inherent characteristic of an economic system that has certain capabilities for self-regulation (anticipation effect). Active adaptation represents a mechanism for adaptive management of the economic system and the organization of its effective implementation.
The described characteristics are, to one degree or another, inherent in any economic system: macroeconomic - the economy as a whole, large sectors of the economy, the models of which operate on synthetic indicators (social product, national income, investment, etc.); - or microeconomic, which studies the behavior of individual objects - enterprises, firms, consumers and interactions between them. The study of economic systems at any level is carried out from the perspective of a systems approach, which is a scientific and applied methodology for solving major problems.
Figure 1.1.2 Stages of implementing a systematic approach to solving a problem
Definition 5.1: let X = (X)- a given set of objects. Then the fuzzy set A appears in X as a set of distributed pairs:
A =
where is the membership function of x to A:
where z is the membership space.
The membership function is purely heuristic. For example, it is determined by studying the opinions of interested individuals or organizations.
This approach has an “implicit” character; according to the assumption, it allows you to process fuzzy statements like: “the influence of the factor i is not too strong, but not weak either,” “operation h is not completely legal,” using logical operators.
1.2 Systematic approach as a way of analyzing and researching the economic system
An economic system is a complex management system, and the diversity of management structures is determined by the diversity of economic systems and processes, as well as the diversity of their characteristics.
From the point of view of the external environment, the economy acts as:
in the role production system producing material goods that satisfy a certain need;
as a system for targeted transformation of resources;
as an object of application of living and social labor;
as a converter of investments into newly created capital;
as an information system for managing the processes of operation and development of an object, implementing the functions of organization, control, analysis, regulation, coordination, planning and design with the help of appropriate structures - organizational, economic and socio-economic.
A simplified diagram of the functioning of the economic system is presented in Fig. 1.2.1
Figure 1.2.1 Diagram of relationships in the economic system
The allocation in the economic system of the production and technological level of resource transformation and information and control levels of information transformation is determined by two types of models: 1) models of management objects and 2) models of management processes. The models, methods, goals, and control objects used are significantly different and will be discussed separately in subsequent chapters.
The approach by which the procedure for identifying an economic system is constructed is as follows:
1. Basic system concepts are introduced using formalization. This means that based on the results of a problem analysis of the situation, an intuitive, heuristic description of the subject area of research is formed, the goals of the research are determined, and based on a vague verbal description of the economic system, a verbal definition of this concept is given, which has a minimal mathematical structure, for example, a minimum of axioms that allow its unambiguous interpretation.
2. Based on the basic concepts obtained as a result of the initial formalization, new mathematical structures are added that are necessary for the study of the fundamental properties inherent in the economic system and relevant from the standpoint of the research goals. Such a procedure makes it possible to identify the necessary set of assumptions for the properties being described or for the conditions for their fulfillment.
The starting point for identifying an economic system is a diagnostic analysis of the situation.
The first phase of diagnostic analysis is awareness and clarification of symptoms, or problem-consequences (for example, shortage of goods in the market, low profits, low quality products, excessive costs, high unemployment, etc.). The identification of symptoms is facilitated by monitoring data of relevant economic indicators (formal, informal monitoring). The dynamics of symptomatic indicators determines the main indicators of problem analysis. Determination of basic problems - the causes of diagnosed symptoms - is carried out in practice through logical-semantic modeling.
Further analysis involves determining the expected consequences and generating solutions to eliminate unwanted symptoms. At this phase, a verbal definition of the economic system is formed, which by definition is goal-oriented. The verbal or linguistic definition corresponds to the extremely general level of ideas about the economic system. An economic system is represented as a certain relationship defined on a set of objects. For this level of identification, the concept of a fuzzy set is suitable. In fact, the system includes objects related to the purpose of the study. In such a system, the properties are not formalized. By clarifying the property of integrity, the emergence of the system is determined, and its purpose is associated with the global goal or the macrofunction of the system. In this case, some of the objects of the initial set are excluded from the system and are interpreted as sources of influence on it from the external environment. The system is formalized in terms of inputs and outputs, as an open system interacting with the external environment. This level of identification corresponds to the set-theoretic definition of an abstract system. But for an economic system, the corresponding sets have a specific economic meaning, for example: a set of resources and a set of products.
The purpose of the system is associated with its main function - converting a variety of input influences into output ones. The structure of the system begins to become clear: to perform the main function, the system must carry out “production” itself (or other activities related to the final result, the “mission” of the system) and manage this activity. The functional structure of both subsystems is formed: some of the elements form a control subsystem, and the rest are ordered into a certain production and technological structure. The characteristics of the economic system corresponding to the functional-structural level of identification are formalized. The control object and the control system are characterized as complex, with all the characteristics inherent in complex systems. Intuitively, their behavior is not predetermined.
Subsequent identification requires taking into account the time aspect, randomness, and delayed reactions (lags). All these properties are taken into account by identification at the level of a complex dynamic system. This level involves identifying the behavioral aspects of the system's operation. Indeed, an economic system can cope with its function, for example, with the production of products, but it can do this in different ways: with different productivity, with different resource costs, using different equipment, and using different technological methods.
To describe new properties inherent to the system, corresponding mathematical structures are introduced. In parallel, the control system is identified. It appears as a decision-making system, usually hierarchical: a multi-level system for solving management problems corresponds to a multi-level structure of the organization of elements that develop decisions.
Identification of the system, its level, depth, range of taken into account and interpreted properties is carried out on the basis of a knowledge base about the features and specifics of the object of study and the objectives of the study and precedes the design of a workable model that includes the essential features of the real system and meets the requirements for it by the researcher.
The described scheme of the identification process characterizes a deductive theoretical approach to constructing a model of an economic system. Often, for extremely complex socio-economic processes, only part of the relationships are known, although there are no cause-and-effect patterns that explain them. It can be argued that sometimes real systems exhibit “counterintuitive” behavior. In the experimental approach, the model is built by induction based on the measured values at the input and output of the system. In this case, the internal structure of the system under study is not considered; it is a “black box”.
In practice, a combined approach is usually used, combining the simultaneous use of deduction and induction and having an iterative nature (Fig. 1.2.2)
Figure 1.2.2 Iterative process of combined identification
Experimental identification methods are divided into
direct measurement methods;
methods of adaptive (indirect) measurement.
In direct measurement methods, process parameters are determined directly from measurement data of the input and output characteristics of a real system.
In adaptive measurement methods, along with analyzing the behavior of a real system, its model is studied. The parameters of the model and the system are compared and modified so that they correspond to a real-life analogue.
In subsequent chapters, issues of constructing models of analysis and synthesis of economic systems will be considered.
1.3 Municipal enterprise “Company “Water of Donbass” as an economic system
Principles of decomposition analysis of the economic system.
The decomposition solution to the original global problem of managing an economic system is to determine the solution using a system of interrelated local problems. This implies that private or local problems are, in a certain sense, less complex than the original problem.
Decomposition methods, which make it possible to construct a system of local problems, form a well-known dichotomy: on the one hand, they are the basis of computational algorithms for solving control problems - the algorithmic direction; on the other hand, decomposition methods serve to identify models of a complex of control subsystems, the functions of which are to solve local problems - the model direction, or decomposition modeling.
Let X = be a set of exogenous variables, or intensities of activities.
In a specific case, activities are understood as factors of production, technology, activities, industries, etc.
The intensities are controlled, i.e. x i X i, where X i is the set of permissible values of the i-th variable, and limited, i.e.
where b i is the limit of the i-th type of activity.
Y =-- is a set of endogenous variables, or results.
Outcome indicators can be: output, need, demand, income, expense, etc.
where is the result limit.
The function that describes the relationships between endogenous and exogenous variables will be called the result function:
F:X>Y or y = F(X). (1.3.1)
Let also the values of certain effect indicators be associated with the results. Effect indicators can be, for example: profit, time savings, etc. In some cases, effect indicators coincide with outcome indicators (for example, income).
The function that describes the connections between results and effects will be called the goal function, or target function:
f: X > Y or c = f(y) = f(F(x)) = f""(x), (1.3.2)
where f(y) is the goal function based on results,
f"(x) is a function of the goal according to intensity, or according to plan.
Note 1.3.1: if the activity intensities are planned, they are called a plan.
Let also the predicate
means that “z is a solution to problem D”, or else
The described functions and variables X can be deterministic or stochastic. In the first case, the original control problem can be written as:
Remark 1.3.2: in problem (6.4) the objective function and the system of constraints are separated by a curly brace.
This entry means: find a value of X at which the function f"(x) reaches an extremum when the result is limited by parameter c, and the activity is limited by limit b. Or, using the predicative form (6.3), entry (6.4) can be represented as:
The description of the stochastic problem is more complex and is not discussed in this chapter.
Decomposition of the original system or global problem is carried out by applying the principles of decomposition and coordination. The first determine those properties of the original system (or problem), on the basis of which it will be decomposed.
Consider the following principles of decomposition:
1. by time;
2. by type of activity;
3. by goals;
4. by results (by resources or limitations);
5. by aspects.
With time decomposition, the initial dynamic management problem is divided into private tasks that differ in time, focused on achieving long-term, medium-term, and short-term goals. This principle is traditional in planning practice.
Long-term goals are usually formed first and have the longest planning horizon. Medium- and short-term goals are then developed to support long-term goals.
For example, a long-term goal for system performance is to increase overall performance by 25% in 5 years. Medium-term goal: increase productivity by 10% in 2 years. Short-term goals are planned for periods within one year and are set in specific areas: the cost of inventory, improving the skills of employees, modernizing equipment, increasing the efficiency of use of production facilities, and so on. This group of goals should provide long-term, medium-term goals, and also be consistent with other level goals.
Let's denote:
D - global control task;
(Di) is a set of long-term planning problems, ;
(Dj) - set of medium-term planning problems, ;
(Dk) - set of short-term planning problems, ;
t i , t j , t k -planning horizons.
where m is the relation of communication between tasks of level i, j, k;
Communication relationship between levels.
When decomposing the original system into objects and types of activities, the basis of the decomposition is the structural or functional elements of the economic object. This approach is also quite traditional in analytical research. The structuring of the system depends on the will of the researcher, who is guided by the goals of the analysis and the required degree of detail.
Let S be the original system, then:
where is a set of subsystems and elements,
m is the connection relation between them.
The elements of S can be enterprises, regions, industries, workshops or technological processes, etc.
The principle of target decomposition is applied in the case of using complex, integral target indicators. The original problem can be decomposed into local ones in such a way that the argument of the objective function of each particular problem is one or more target indicators of the original problem. For example, if the arguments of the objective function of the original problem are consumption and accumulation, then two particular problems can be composed - the problem of maximizing consumption and accumulation.
Objective function F the original problem can be represented by the algebraic expression:
where R is an algebraic operation,
(F i ) - objective functions of local problems.
Decomposition based on results or constraints is carried out as follows. The original problem contains a system of restrictions on the results, as well as on the values of exogenous variables. Consequently, it is possible to create particular problems in which only part of the constraints are present.
Aspect decomposition is divided into two classes:
* problematic;
* formal.
Thus, a system that is complex in relation to problems can be decomposed into problems. For example, a complex of environmental factors of an organization can be divided into seven areas: economics, politics, market, society, technology, competition, international position.
The formal decomposition of the system can be illustrated as follows. In terms of formal properties, an adequate model of an economic object is stochastic, nonlinear, continuous, some arguments of which take only discrete values, etc. To solve problems of managing such a system, you can create a system of formally simpler problems, each of which is designed to study the object in a certain aspect. For example, one problem is nonlinear, but deterministic, the second is stochastic, but linear and continuous, the third is discrete, but linear and deterministic.
Several decomposition principles can be combined to create a decomposition method. For example, apply sequential decomposition by time and by aspects. In this sense, we can talk about the principles of combined decomposition.
There are two main ways to use these principles:
disjunctive type of decomposition (subsystems do not intersect, and local problems do not have common variables);
conjunctive type of decomposition (subsystems intersect, and local tasks contain common indicators).
It is the latter type of decomposition that is more complex and more productive in the study of complex analytical problems. It does not have a general formal implementation scheme, but is capable of producing new results in each specific case, for example, when it comes to agreeing on specific goals (regional and sectoral, competitive, etc.).
In order for the decomposed parts of the global problem, represented by a complex of local problems, to be connected into a single system equivalent to the original one, coordination principles are used.
In this case, we consider control problems in the form (1.3.4), that is, they have two main components: an objective function and a system of constraints. Thus, the interconnection of particular problems can be ensured by introducing coordinating parameters into the objective functions of particular problems and/or into their restrictions.
With this approach, there are two basic principles of coordination:
I. stimulation (coordination of local tasks is carried out using connecting signals that are included in the target function of a particular task):
·pricing principles. If the target function essentially acts as a cost function, then the prices included in this function in a certain sense “stimulate” the solution of the local problem. Obviously, the price principle can be implemented in the form:
Ш result price, which coordinates results (for example, product output);
Ш activity prices, which are established in relation to indicators of activity intensity;
· the principles of penalties stimulate the reduction of undesirable deviations of variables and results from coordinating parameters. Accordingly, they differ:
Ш fines for activities;
Ш penalties for results;
· principles of targeted consultation (situational adjustment of prices already available in the target function of the global task);
II. limiting (coordinating parameters are contained in the system of restrictions of the local task):
· limiting results: influencing local tasks by limiting results (for example, limiting reserves) in the system of task restrictions;
· activity limitation (direct limitation of variable intensities in particular tasks);
· limiting consultations (adjustment of function parameters in the system of restrictions).
The listed principles of coordination are applied either separately (unicoordination) or in combination (multicoordination). In the applied aspect, the greatest interest is the combination various principles coordination.
The initial global problem and the principles of decomposition applied to it, as well as the principles of coordination, determine the decomposition method or the system of local problems.
Construction of a method on this basis requires a description of algorithms for adjusting coordinating parameters.
Each decomposition method has a number of properties. First of all, this includes the convergence of the method to solve the original problem and the necessary prerequisites for this. The speed of convergence, monotonicity of convergence, etc. are also important.
One of the principles of decomposition analysis is the principle of modeling. It consists in using systems of local problems or decomposition methods as so-called models of solving systems. A decision system is a more general concept than a system of local problems. Therefore, more general methods that have combined connections of different directions, as well as hierarchical and inversely hierarchical structures are especially suitable for its modeling.
In simulation decision system such basic concepts as the number of levels and the direction of connections are used.
To determine the levels, local tasks are divided into:
· control tasks (developing control actions or planning) contain independent variables of the original global task;
· coordination tasks do not contain independent variables of the original global task.
It is assumed that the coordinating task, in comparison with managers, is at a higher level, and managers - at any one level. Connections between local tasks of different levels are called vertical, and between local tasks of the same level are called horizontal.
Systems where there is no coordinating task contain only horizontal connections, are single-level and are called decentralized.
Multi-level systems can be hierarchical or pyramidal. In pyramidal systems there are only vertical connections; they are called centrally coordinated systems. Hierarchical systems have both vertical and horizontal relationships; they are called systems with centralized-decentralized coordination.
Polycentric systems are divided into types depending on whether there are one or several particular tasks at the lowest level, and whether there are only vertical or horizontal connections. There are concepts of inverse hierarchy and inverse pyramid. The latter structures take shape when there is only one particular task at the lowest level.
Hierarchical management systems (HMS) are systems of arbitrary nature (economic, technical, social, biological) and purposes that have a multi-level structure in organizational, functional or some other way.
All hierarchical systems have the following features:
· vertical decomposition or multi-level hierarchy;
· priority of upper-level actions, or subordination (subordination relationship) of lower-level actions to decisions made at the upper level;
· dependence of decisions made at the upper levels of the hierarchy on the results obtained at the lower levels, i.e. the presence of feedback in the MIS (Fig. 1.3.1).
The wide distribution of IMS and their universal nature are due to a number of advantages that they have compared to other control systems:
· freedom of local actions within the limits determined by the intervention of the upper level;
· the possibility of harmonizing local and global criteria for the optimality of MIS levels in accordance with the goal set for the entire system;
· advantages of generalization, compression, aggregation of information entering the MIS “from the bottom up”, and - specification, detailing of information transmitted “from top to bottom”;
· high reliability of the control system, its flexibility and adaptability to changing situations;
· universal character and, often, cost-effectiveness.
Figure 1.3.1 Hierarchical structure of the economic management system
Main sections of MIS theory: structural analysis and synthesis of MIS; problem of MIS coordination; optimization of IMS functioning.
The tasks of structural analysis and synthesis of MIS are very diverse, the representation of complex
systems in the form of an MIS depends on the principle of detail: it determines the structuring of the system by levels. There are three main concepts for constructing a hierarchical structure “vertically”:
1. decomposition of a system into aspects of activity is called stratification of a complex system, and the levels themselves are called strata. So, for example, a region as a complex system can be represented by the following levels, or strata: political, economic, social, natural-climatic, environmental, etc.;
2. dividing the system according to organizational characteristics makes it possible to build multi-echelon management structures, reflecting the necessary subordination between subsystems, which is fruitful when building a management system for various industries, companies, etc.;
3. dividing a complex problem into specific tasks allows you to present the solution process in the form of a multi-layered hierarchy.
During structuring, each of the levels can be subdivided into a number of subsystems based on a different criterion. As such, you can use a functional approach or a selected management principle: with negative feedback, with adaptation, with training, etc.
In Fig. Figure 1.3.2 shows a diagram of the decomposition of the IMS according to various criteria, the choice of which is determined by the objectives of the study.
The main tasks that arise in the study of IMS are the problems of analysis and synthesis of hierarchical systems.
Let us consider some prerequisites for a formal approach to setting the research task.
An MIS of any degree of complexity can be presented as a set of interconnected modules, which are two-level MIS - the simplest subsystems that have all the characteristic features of an MIS (Fig. 1.3.3).
A two-level IMS is formed by (n + 2) main subsystems:
1. a higher-level control subsystem, or coordinator Co, generating coordinating signals addressed to lower-level control subsystems, which generate feedback signals received at the input of the coordinator, as well as control actions t i intended for control;
2. process P, the connection of which with the external environment is carried out through input X and output Y, and the exchange of information about the results of activities occurs through feedback channels z.
Figure 1.3.3 Two-level hierarchical control system
Interactions between MIS subsystems are dynamic in nature, change over time and form a closed loop, and by definition, the upper level has priority.
At the same time, the superior element C o implements directive function: based on forecasting the state of the environment and the future behavior of the control system (reducing the uncertainty of the situation), establishes a control quality function, determines the form of the relationship of elements or the method of coordination (choice of algorithms and rules) and selects coordination variables and selects coordination variables, and after the development and implementation of control actions #11,(1 = 1, l) and receiving information about the results through channels, adjusts, regulates the activities of control subsystems, implementing incentive function to achieve the system's goals in the best possible way.
Such ideas about the rules of system functioning, using the terminology of set theory, can be written in general form:
f 0: S > Г - directive function С о,
f" 0: Ш>Г - incentive function of C o,
f 1: - control function C i,
f 1: - - result evaluation function, (1.3.9)
f p: XM>Y - production function P,
f" p: XMY>Z - reporting information of object P.
Expressions (1.3.9) illustrate the principles of constructing the corresponding dependencies, the specific form of which is determined by the specifics of the real system.
The task of choosing a method of coordination by an element C o comes down to finding rules that determine the values of the impacts of the set m and, in particular, establish an appropriate method for coordinating actions between subsystems of the same level. Several principles can be proposed that are suitable for these purposes:
coordination by “predicting interactions”: a higher element predicts the state of the external environment and, in accordance with it, determines connecting signals for lower-level subsystems that operate under conditions of certainty;
coordination by “evaluating interactions”: element C o specifies the range of changes in connecting signals for elements;
“unbinding of interactions”: control subsystems act relatively autonomously, independently selecting connecting signals;
the coordinator exercises his right by “assigning responsibility”, determining the relationship between the actions (results) of the control subsystems and the responses (sanctions, rewards) of the coordinator;
coordination through “coalition building,” when a higher-level element determines the type of connections between groups of lower-level elements.
Figure 1.3.4 shows a two-level system with two subsystems at the first level, with the help of which you can clearly demonstrate the essence of coordination methods. The first level (subsystems C 1 and C 2) controls objects P 1 and P 2 using the influences m 1 and m 2. Coordinator C o controls regulators C 1 and C 2, supplying coordinating signals g 1 and g 2 to their inputs, on which the values of m 1 and m 2 depend: m 1 (g 1) and m 2 (g 2). Or in the general case: m 1 (g 1) and m 2 (g 2), where g = (g 1, g 2). Otherwise, m 1 and m 2 can depend simultaneously on r 1 and r 2.
Figure 1.3.4 Two-level coordination system
A system is called coordinated if such values are found that m 1 () and m 2 () satisfy the general goal facing the system. The values of control actions m 1 and m 2 that satisfy the coordination condition will be denoted by and. The values U 1 and U 2 characterize cross interactions between controlled objects P 1 and P 2 . The current values of these quantities U 1 and U 2 are transmitted to the coordinator C o and by comparing them with the values and that satisfy the conditions of system coordination, mismatch errors are determined:
and use them to construct an algorithm for the functioning of the coordinator.
Coordinator strategy, in which the values of control actions and satisfy the overall goal of the system when:
U 1 (g) = u, U 2 (g) = (1.3.10)
that is, a balance of interactions is achieved, called the principle of “predicting interactions», and if relations (6.10) are replaced by
Where - permissible ranges of changes in the connecting signals U 1 and U 2, then the coordination principle is called "interaction assessment".
The choice of one or another coordination method is made based on a comparison of the results of theoretical calculations, modeling and heuristic considerations. When studying IMSs that have more than two levels, when moving from level to level, the nature of tasks and their algorithmization changes and is accompanied by complication: less and less automaticity and more and more heuristics that take into account the motivational aspects of management.
The next clarification concerns choosing a method for formalizing connecting signals. To do this, consider the decomposition of individual subsystems of a two-level IMS, presented in Fig. 1.3.3. In accordance with this scheme, the actual process control R carried out by subsystems C 1, C 2 ..., C n with the help of control actions m 1, m 2, ..., m n, affecting various aspects of activity R. It is logical to assume the need for process decomposition R into some interrelated subprocesses P 1, P 2 ..., P n (according to the number of aspects) such that the result of the new, decomposed system will ensure the achievement of the management goal, and the essence of the management and coordination mechanism will become clearer and simpler. The essence of the decomposition process is presented using diagrams in Fig. 1.3.5. All designations correspond to those presented earlier.
By assumption, the process R is subject to decomposition into aspects and can be represented by a set of subprocesses P 1 , P 2 ..., P n It is assumed that not only the set of controls M, but also many entrances X and exits Y is decomposed in such a way that each of the subprocesses is assigned a certain input action u i and output y i such that t; e.. As a result, we get a set of autonomous subprocesses R(Fig. 1.3.5, b), which differs from R because the subprocesses are not interconnected. In order to obtain a set of interconnected subprocesses (Fig. 1.3.5, c), we assume that the input of each of them receives a connecting signal that ensures coordinated, consistent functioning of the subprocesses. Interrelation of concepts R And is schematically presented in fragment d) Fig. 1.3.5.
The development of connecting signals between subprocesses, from the point of view of the essence of their activity, can be carried out on the basis of: known control actions and results (Fig. 6.5, e), or on the basis of control actions and the situation determined by external inputs (Fig. 6.5, g), or based on management, result orientation and taking into account the situation together (Fig. 1.3.5, f). These conceptual considerations can be used as the basis for determining the interconnection function of subprocesses F in the specific case of studying a real MIS.
d), f), g) various ways definition of connecting signals
A formal description of the process is given by the following relations:
=() i = 1, 2, …,n (6.14)
or u=F(m,y) (6.17)
The decomposition of control subsystems is carried out in a similar way, but it is useful to consider the coordination procedure in connection with the tasks solved in the IMS.
In general, three types of problems are solved in the MIS: global task D facing the entire system; the task solved by the coordinator C o is the task D o; control tasks solved by lower subsystems C i which appear in the description as tasks C i (i = 1, 2,..., n). Note that in the general case, problems D and D 0 do not coincide. It can be assumed, for example, that the global task, specified by the goals of the functioning of the system or external requirements for it from the external environment (channel S in Fig. 1.3.3), is associated with output Y, i.e. predicate (1.3.20) is true , when D(S) is a global problem and Y is its solution.
Let D o be the task of a higher element, which consists in developing coordinating influences y. The goal of a superior element as a reflection of its interests may, for example, be associated not with the result function, but with the efficiency function, and coordinating influences can be aimed at achieving a goal that is dissonant with the requirements of the external environment, which in this case causes the need for coordination, or coordination . Obviously, we can formulate:
And similarly:
where D i is the task of the i-th control subsystem C i, specified by the coordinating signal y /? signals from the control object z i and signals from subsystems of the same level u i ; m i - solution to problem D i., or control signal.
A joint consideration of all three types of problems makes it possible to define the concept of coordination in an automated control system.
Since the solution to the global problem is associated with the result function, which, in turn, is ensured by the choice of control actions from the set M, the solutions to local control problems must be consistent with the solution to the global problem - coordination 1, or coordination of the first kind. Otherwise:
Ensuring joint coordinated control of subsystems of the same level is carried out on the basis of coordination using signals y generated by the coordinator C o, that is, solutions to control problems must be coordinated with respect to the coordinator’s task - coordination 2:
In turn, the coordinator's task must be coordinated with respect to the global task - coordination 3:
Then the concept of IMS coordination presupposes the compatibility of all tasks, or the existence in admissible sets G and M of such elements r G and m M that:
The condition for complete coordination of the ISU is expressed by the proposal:
which is called the task compatibility postulate in MIS.
The main reason for the occurrence of conflicts in the MIS is lack of coordination in the interaction of subsystems. The task of the coordinator is to establish such rules of interaction that lead to the desired result: the implementation of a global task with maximum benefit for subsystems at various levels, and in this regard it makes sense to talk about the problem of optimization in the MIS. The principles of coordination make it possible to postulate the conditions for the interaction of subsystems and indirectly influence the efficiency of the functioning of the automated control system. The criterion for the applicability of a specific principle of coordination is the postulate of compatibility.
Thus, the tasks of ICS synthesis, which are posed in the process of designing such systems, can relate to various aspects of the problem:
synthesis of the coordinator: the global task and control tasks solved by lower-level subsystems are given. It is necessary to find a problem D 0 solvable at the level of the coordinating element C o so that the system is coordinated.
synthesis of management tasks: the global task is known, and the coordinator delegates the authority to manage the process to lower-level subsystems, the composition of whose tasks, structure and nature of interaction are determined by the coordinator so that the postulate of task compatibility is fulfilled.
synthesis of a given complex: in accordance with the global problem, problems D 0 and D i (i = 1, 2,..., n) are formulated, the solution of which must satisfy the compatibility postulate.
6. synthesis of the IMS structure: in accordance with the known problem complex, the required number of hierarchy levels and the number of elements of each level are determined.
5. synthesis of methods or coordination procedures: a two-level MIS is defined, the tasks in it are coordinated. It is necessary to find an effective method for obtaining coordination signals that would allow us to move from partial to complete coordination of tasks.
6. synthesis of control procedures: similar to point 5, the modification of control tasks solved at the lower level of control is determined, such that these modified tasks satisfy the compatibility postulate.
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BASICS OF MANAGEMENT
1. General theory of control
Management- Production Management; a set of principles, methods, tools and forms of production management developed to improve production efficiency and profit management.
Management– the ability to achieve goals using labor, intelligence and motives of behavior of other people who worked in the organization.
Manager (English: manage) – a hired professional manager, management specialist.
Any engineer or economist involved in management cannot be considered a manager. A manager is a person with special training.
The words “entrepreneur” and “manager” are not synonymous. Entrepreneur takes on the risk of organizing a new enterprise; in the future, he can hire a manager to manage this enterprise.
Russia's transition to a market economy increases the role of management and necessitates the training of management specialists. Modern management is a group of individuals performing entrepreneurial and managerial functions within an enterprise (organization).
The practical implementation of these functions is considered in two aspects. Firstly, it can be formulated as the management of an enterprise (organization), operating in market conditions with complete independence and associated with the need to accept independent decisions in any unexpected situations. Secondly, management of an independent activity, which does not necessarily involve the creation of an organization and management of subordinates. For an enterprise, “management” is used in 3 meanings: general management, department-level management and management process. Under general management refers to all managers occupying senior positions responsible for the stated goals, objectives, policies and all issues related to the planning, control and management of the enterprise. Department level management– development of goals, strategies and objectives at the department level in accordance with the overall strategic objectives and the chosen concept of enterprise management. Management process differs from the general manager and the manager at the department level in terms of authority, responsibility, and detail. In the process of mentation, all functions can be performed by any employee of the enterprise within their competence.
2, 3 Control patterns various systems. Management of socio-economic systems (organizations)
Law is considered a necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationship in nature and society. There are three groups of laws governing various systems:
General or universal, for example, the laws of dialectics;
- phenomena common to large groups, for example, the law of social selection;
- private or specific, for example, the law of optimal norm control.
Laws are objective in nature and exist independently of people’s consciousness. Knowledge of laws is the task of science. They cannot be banned, forgotten, canceled or destroyed. The laws of management should be classified as private laws of society, which have been little studied.
All control patterns can be divided into two groups. The first includes the laws inherent in management in general as a purposeful influence, the second law of management. Production management is dual in nature. On the one hand, management expresses the objective process of managing the work of workers in the production of consumer values, that is, management acts as a need for production (management relations are determined by joint labor); on the other hand, the production relations of the parties in the process of creating value. The parties are the employer and the employee who enter into property relations with each other. In accordance with this, production management is considered in two aspects: organizational-technical and socio-economic. In the first case, management is understood as the unification of the labor of all workers on the basis organized system machines and technical means. Its task is to connect the labor of workers with objects and tools of labor, to establish certain proportions, modes and connections in production. Through the organizational and technical direction, the content of management and the composition of its elements are revealed. The socio-economic aspect is that the owner of the means of production carries out the production process not only in his own interests, but also in the interests of those united for joint work workers and society as a whole. There are general and specific control laws. The general laws of management include: the law of specialization of management; law of management integration; law of saving time. Here we will give a brief description of the three named laws. Law of management specialization. Modern production is based on the use of the latest technological processes, technical means, a high degree of organization of production and labor, information systems. To manage such production, highly specialized knowledge and skills are required in various areas science and technology, which leads to the division of general functions, their manifestation in specific conditions, at various levels. Management includes economic, socio-psychological, legal and organizational and technical aspects, so managers must have high professionalism in each of these areas. The risk and uncertainty of the situation inherent in a market economy require managers to be independent and responsible for decisions made, and contribute to the search for optimal organizational, scientific and technical solutions.
4. Management infrastructure and features of management infrastructure in Russia
Management infrastructure is the environment in which managers have to operate.
structure:
1) owners of capital, owner.
Its goal is to preserve and increase capital. The interests of the owner do not always coincide with the interests of the manager
2) employees of the enterprise, workers
their interests: - normal working conditions, permanent place of work, satisfaction of work needs, professional growth, self-expression, salary, need for a hostel
3) owners of borrowed capital - give capital to the company at a certain%
They are interested in increasing %, and managers, on the contrary, are interested in decreasing %
4) supplier
Interested in a high price, profitable terms supplies, volume of supply, long-term nature of the relationship
5) state
Interested in improving the well-being of its citizens, high competitiveness in the international market, and improving the environment of its countries
6) state, non-state, public organizations that solve problems, contribute economic activity, and on the other hand it is limited (brokerage firms, chambers of commerce and industry, Greenpeace...)
Modern management, depending on where it develops and is formed, has a number of general and specific features. General features reflect stage of civilization, socio-economic formation, economic model, socio-economic management needs, level of development of scientific and technological progress and a number of similar factors. Specific features include : national characteristics society, historical features of its development, geographical conditions, culture and other similar factors.
The state of development of Russian society, existing industrial relations, mentality and other factors allow us to identify 4 main features of Russian management:
1. priorities in the issue, emphasis of attention and effort. (The most pressing management problems in Russia are anti-crisis management, employment management, information Technology, support for entrepreneurship and small business, motivation of economic activity in the field of production, banking management)
2. management infrastructure, socio-economic and political conditions of its existence. It is a combination of many factors that make up the socio-economic environment in which Russian management is formed.
Here we can distinguish 3 main groups of factors: a) mentality factors (values, national traditions and culture),
b) factors of social consciousness, i.e. awareness of foreign and domestic practices (manager training system),
c) factors of the level of scientific thinking, methodological culture, development of socio-economic knowledge.
3. a set of factors that hinder or facilitate the strengthening of management in Russia: factors of the level of scientific thinking, methodological structure, development of socio-economic knowledge;
4. cultural environment, features of social consciousness that cannot be changed overnight and which, as shown historical experience development, and does not need to be changed.
5. Sociofactors and management ethics.
One of the requirements for optimal and socially oriented management is compliance with ethics and consideration of social factors in the management process. Therefore, when searching for solutions to problems in management, it is necessary to build into the management structure a value element - ethics, which transforms the informal aspects of the action to manage an object into a system of criteria, the satisfaction of which is the task of management when it is oriented towards the sociality of the processes taking place.
Factors social environment – conditions that determine the nature and possible consequences the changes taking place in it.
From the standpoint of social development management, there are:
1. Factors that indirectly affect the business mood and quality of working life of employees.
Production management is a specific historical method of ordering, purposeful influence on the process of social labor in accordance with the objective laws of production development. The emergence and development of production management functions is an inevitable consequence of the division and cooperation of labor in the system of social production.
The problem of management functions, and therefore the content of management, has remained controversial for several decades. Almost all management researchers could not avoid this central issue of management theory. In particular, it is proposed to distinguish the following as management functions in any area: information and analytical; planning; organization; coordination; regulation; control.
Information and analytical function represents the collection, processing, analysis and evaluation of information in order to improve the efficiency of activities, includes all actions for handling information. This function is allocated in accordance with generally accepted classification criteria.
The importance of the actions of the management subject to work with information is undeniable, since operations with information are not only and not so much of a technical, routine nature, but require a creative approach. Therefore, the management actions that make up this function are relatively isolated in the management process. In addition, these actions are homogeneous, since collection, processing, analysis and evaluation are connected by a single subject - information - and are aimed at achieving one goal - creating conditions for the implementation of other management functions. These management actions, being an attribute of each stage of any management cycle, are characterized by stability.
The function under consideration expresses the nature of management, since purposeful organizing influence is based on information and its assessment. Among other functions, it seems to permeate the stages of the management process. Based on this, it would be incorrect to consider it as a stage or even a stage of one of the stages of the process. Such an underestimation of the role of information and work with it will inevitably lead to negative consequences in practical management activities: the subject of management constantly uses information in its activities. The latter, after appropriate processing, serves as the basis for subsequent management actions at all stages of its activities.
The implementation of the information and analytical function consists of creating a system for collecting the necessary information, as well as conducting empirical research, during which the information is analyzed and the current situation is assessed on this basis. The tools for empirical research include logical methods and statistics. Management activities for the implementation of the information and analytical function are not just a certain set of technical operations, but a coherent system of procedures carried out by the subject of management, both the manager and the apparatus specially created for these purposes.
The main goal of the information support system for the subject of management is to supply reliable, timely information that is optimal in volume. If the first two characteristics of management information can be described by certain characteristics, then the optimal volume of specific parameters is determined in each specific case in accordance with the purpose of the analysis. To increase the efficiency of the information and analytical function, managers and management personnel need to use scientifically based methods for collecting information, analyzing and evaluating it.
The second management function is planning- relies on the information-analytical function and is also inherent in any management subject. Planning justifies and determines the directions of activity of the management system of an economic entity at all levels of the hierarchy. In addition, this function defines goals, objectives and measures for their implementation. Nowadays the planning function is treated somewhat simplistically, believing that it reflects the essence of the command-administrative system, but this is not so.
Planning is a fundamental management principle that permeates management activities from top to bottom. Compliance with the requirements of planning is the main condition for achieving the goal of any activity. The principle of planning provides prospects for the activities of an economic entity.
The main method of planning is forecasting, which allows one to anticipate not only the main characteristics of future actions of the subject and object of management, but also the conditions under which they should be implemented. The transition to new economic relations does not at all deny the principle of planning. Planning is an objective pattern of the life of society, ensuring its purposeful development. Even the activity of one person, and even more so of organizations, institutions, enterprises, to ensure effective achievement of the goal must be based on the principle of planning.
Planning is based on the use of the entire set of objective laws of social development. Planning is carried out by the management apparatus and ensures the proportionality and efficiency of the development of any subject in the most difficult conditions of reforming all aspects of society. Planning ensures purposeful activities. Its attribute is the formulation of a goal and the development of a scenario, according to which the goal can be achieved at the lowest cost and in the optimal time frame. The purposeful functioning of any complex system is impossible without planning. Planning allows you to choose the best options for action, which are dictated by the situation in various directions, providing a general line of behavior to achieve the intended goal. Management planning actions correspond to such classification criteria as: relative isolation; stability, homogeneity, according to which they can be collectively classified as “function”.
Organization is the leading function in the content of management, so some scientists believe that these are concepts of the same order. Meanwhile, it is aimed at creating and adapting control and controlled systems to perform assigned tasks. During the implementation of this function, a network of relationships is created in the system, which ensure its integrity and purposefulness. When implementing this function, the necessary impact on the managed system is ensured, which allows solving the assigned tasks. Organization is preparation, adaptation of the system to their solution. They can be effectively resolved only under the condition of comprehensive comprehensive support and proper use of all resources.
Coordination is a function of streamlining activities. It is designed to ensure consistency of actions to successfully achieve the goal. This function can be implemented in various forms: clarification of functions; coordination of goals and objectives, plans and activities. Coordination is one of the main means of increasing the efficiency of activities in any field, as it allows you to concentrate efforts in the required direction and avoid parallelism and duplication. Despite the wide range of views on the place of coordination in management, taking into account all the classification criteria, there are grounds for highlighting coordination as an independent management function, since it has its own specific goal - maintaining proportionality in the activities of the system. It manifests itself at all stages of the management process.
In the course of any activity, deviations inevitably arise, which are caused, on the one hand, by changes in situations, and on the other, by shortcomings in the activities of both the object and the subject of management itself. In this regard, an appropriate function is needed to absorb negative phenomena. This role is fulfilled by regulation function. The regulation function is aimed at maintaining the dynamic balance of the system during its life support. It helps adapt the system to constantly changing situations, prevent and eliminate deviations from planned activities. Regulation is intended to give normal operation to activities.
Regulation must be distinguished from the organizational function in which it is sometimes included. The latter is explained by the similarity of the goals of their functions. The main difference is that the organization ensures the creation and preparation of a system to carry out assigned tasks, the establishment of the necessary relationships between structural units for this, and regulation is aimed at timely correction of the actions of the performers, the subject of management. As a result of regulation, external and internal factors that disrupt activities are neutralized. An important role in regulation is played by the connection between the subject and the object of control. A well-functioning information system allows not only to eliminate deviations in activities, but also to prevent them. Regulation is carried out mainly through the administrative activities of the subject in the form of orders, instructions, instructions.
Control function is carried out on the basis of information about the functioning of the control object: about specific situations, difficulties that arise, deviations from specified actions, etc. Control is designed to ensure the unity of the management decision and its implementation, that is, the entire management process. It is also one of the means of increasing efficiency, since as a result of control, not only shortcomings are identified, but also positive experience, which subsequently spreads throughout the entire system. Control is a system of observation and verification in the process of any activity to identify deviations from plans that make it difficult to achieve the goal. An integral part of it is taking into account changes occurring in the course of activity. The control function under consideration is essentially an expression of the feedback principle.
The actions of the subject to implement this function are very difficult to formalize: they are as diverse as the tasks solved by individual links of the system. In this regard, each management subject must approach creatively the organization of control at the appropriate level of management, develop a rational system for it, using general methods and forms. Control is organically connected with all management functions, but most closely with the information-analytical function and regulation, since it is implemented as a result of the collection, analysis and evaluation of information, and on this basis the process of any activity is regulated.
In modern economic systems, management principles are provisions that theoretically generalize the real processes that occur in a particular society.
Legality - one of the fundamental principles of management activities. This means that the activities of all participants in the management process must be based on laws and regulations. Laws establish norms for the functioning of economic systems, reflecting the level of their development in all areas. Here you can note such normative documents as the Constitution of the country, presidential decrees, government resolutions, regulations, instructions, charters, etc. ministries and departments.
Scientificity as a management principle is an effective means of overcoming voluntarism. This principle assumes that each participant in the management process is obliged, in the course of their activities, to study and use the patterns and objective trends of social development, to apply modern scientific and technical achievements and scientifically based techniques. The scientific approach to management, which follows from this principle, does not at all deny the use of practical experience. The objectivity of management, on the contrary, requires that management activities be based on the unity of theory and practice. The application of the scientific principle consists in building the entire management system on the basis of modern provisions of management science, those ideas that correspond to the modern development of science.
The principle of economy and efficiency means the rational and most productive use of resources, including human resources. At first glance, this principle can only be attributed to the sphere material production, but, of course, the concepts of “economy” and “efficiency” are qualitative characteristics of human activity in any field, and not just in material and production. Among the requirements of the principle under consideration it is advisable to include the requirement saving qualifications, which involves the rational use of qualified personnel.
Personal responsibility is also an important management principle, as it ensures the smooth functioning of economic systems.
The main conditions for the implementation of this principle are the creation of a clear organizational structure, detailed development of provisions on individual links, clarification of the interrelations and relationships between the latter, establishment of the nature and types of responsibility, as well as its mechanism, determination of the proportional rights and obligations of managers and performers, a clear distribution of responsibility in accordance with the hierarchy of the control system.
Personal responsibility is based on the fact that in the real management process it is not systems, organizational structures and their links that participate and interact, but specific people, whose behavior is based on the laws of psychology and is determined by a number of objective and subjective factors. Responsibility serves as a kind of means of monitoring the proper performance of job duties by both managers at any level and performers. Therefore, we can briefly summarize the essence of this principle as follows: every person belonging to the management system, regardless of the subsystem (managing or managed), having the necessary set of rights and responsibilities for the area of work, bears full responsibility within their limits.
When revealing the principle of personal responsibility in management, it is advisable to dwell on a special type of responsibility for managers - “managerial responsibility” for failure to make or untimely decision-making. The introduction of this type of responsibility not only insures against the passivity or inactivity of the manager, disciplines him, but also, to a certain extent, is a stimulator of creative initiative. If we consider the system of principles in its entirety, it may include private or special management principles as a separate group, in accordance with which individual functions are carried out as types of activity, but they do not have significant significance for the management of higher education.
Disclosure of the theoretical foundations of management requires consideration of such important scientific categories as management methods, since they are determined by the essence of the activity under study and largely determine its content. The essence of management methods is determined by the nature of the impact, which is determined by the dialectical interaction of the goals of the organizing impact on the control object, the specifics of the activity and the means used to manage it.
Management is carried out using two groups of methods: specific and general. The first is related to the specifics of the object. The second group is the result of modification of management methods based on these specifics.
The first group of management methods, designated as specific methods allows us to reveal how management is carried out at the subject level, to show how it is more expedient to organize management activities in the area under consideration. Therefore, some researchers consider the methods of this group given as an example as organizational forms of management.
Having identified specific methods that relate mainly to the object of management and express the specifics of the economic entity, we will focus on general methods, or directly on management methods.
Under general management methods methods and techniques for solving problems by a subject in the process of management activities are understood. The degree of use of objective social and economic laws of society depends on how perfect the methods used are. Methods of different content are used in the management process. Depending on their main characteristics, methods are divided by most researchers into several groups: stimulating; organizational and administrative; socio-psychological, etc.
At the core stimulation methods there are objective interests of an economic and moral order. Stimulation can be of two types: economic and moral. Economic incentives is based on the comparison of costs with labor results and is implemented primarily through the development of objectively justified remuneration. At the same time, the main methods of economic stimulation are varying the forms of payroll and developing a bonus incentive system. The correspondence of the work performed and its volume to the form, size and timing should become an indisputable principle of “pay according to work”. Additional incentives for increasing labor efficiency should be provided for by a clear system of bonuses, which would primarily contribute to the development of priority areas of work, as well as forms of its organization and methods of implementation.
Moral stimulation comes from recognition of the merits, achievements and authority of the specialist. The methods of applying the method of moral stimulation are very different: from a state award to verbal gratitude from a manager. Moral incentives also include the awarding of various personal prizes and honorary titles for merits in a particular area of scientific and pedagogical activity. Stimulation method may include the manager’s concern for the team and the individual: the creation and improvement of living conditions, conditions for work, treatment and recreation, and growth of qualifications.
A specific feature of organizational and administrative methods is power relations in the management process. Organizational work is an important part of management. The actions of the subject of management have, first of all, the direction that is manifested in the organizing influence of the subject on the object of management. The efficiency and quality of management activities largely determine how these activities are implemented. Organizational and administrative methods are implemented in several ways: orders, instructions, instructions, directives, etc.
Quality of management largely depends on the skill of the manager (the subject of management). If the subject of management applies organizational and administrative methods in a timely and skillful manner, then we can talk about the art of a leader. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the following factor: if we recognize the dependence of the effectiveness of using organizational and administrative methods on the skill of the leader, then we should also agree that to a large extent they contain elements of subjectivism.
To ensure objectivity of management, it is necessary to improve not only administrative and administrative methods, but also the mechanism for their application. This is achieved mainly by strict adherence to the requirements of the scientific principle and by avoiding exaggeration of the role of administration in management. One of the effective means of overcoming subjectivism when using administrative and administrative methods is collegiality in the development of decisions.
Social relationships are an attribute of any sphere of life. All achievements in society are the result of human activity. Therefore, the main thing is managing people. In order for a management subject to exercise effective leadership, he must have the following personal and professional qualities: know socio-psychological methods of management; be able to choose the necessary method in a specific situation; have the skills to apply methods in various situations. In theory socio-psychological methods Conventionally, it is customary to divide into management methods: social and mass processes; in groups; intragroup phenomena and processes; individual personal behavior.
Legal methods of management have always played an important role in the system of methods, but their role has especially intensified since the announcement of the construction of the rule of law. Legal methods of management are rules of activity that are guaranteed by the coercive power of the state. In practice, the implementation of these methods is called legal regulation.
To reveal the essence of the group of methods under consideration, it is necessary to identify mechanism of legal regulation. It represents a set of legal means of influencing all elements of management, their connections and relationships. This set of legal means may include legal norms, legal relations, as well as legal acts containing these norms and relations. For clarity, the mechanism of legal regulation can be presented in the form of the following provision: relations between participants in the management process are formulated in rules of law, which are enshrined in legal acts. The content of the legal regulation mechanism includes the establishment of rules governing the activities of subordinates, the development of standard procedures for influencing processes and performers, and the development of unified forms of influence.
The main thing in legal regulation is the normative nature of the control influence. This means that, unlike legal acts of an individual nature, legal norms are addressed to a certain circle of people and are valid for a certain time, which ensures the stability of balanced and sustainable management. The most common legal acts that can be called expressions of legal methods are regulations and instructions.
Management system is one of the basic concepts of management science. This is a set of elements whose functioning ensures effective activity aimed at achieving a goal, that is, an anticipated result.
Management methods are an important element of the theory; they ensure the implementation of this special type of activity. The art of a manager lies in the correct choice of methods for frequently changing management situations. At the same time, we must not forget that only the integrated use of methods can ensure effectiveness.
The control system reflects management structure, which means that it is a statistical characteristic of the activity being studied. The study of this concept is of particular importance in theoretical terms due to the fact that it allows us to visualize control elements in all the complexity of their relationships and interdependencies. The applied significance of such research is that it makes it possible to structure control elements in such a way as to ensure timely achievement of activity goals with optimal energy expenditure, and therefore high efficiency. This concept characterizes one of the most important elements of management in any field of human activity.
Like any system, a control system consists of subsystems and their elements, as well as connections between them. In order to study the control system, it is necessary to define this concept. It is advisable to turn to systems theory. Specialists in the field of systems research provide over 40 definitions of the concept “system”. Such a wide range of definitions of one concept reflects its complexity, which gives rise to a multiplicity of approaches to research and ambiguity in the interpretation of the system.
The management system can be disclosed through the object and subject of management, functional and organizational structure. The control system consists of a control and managed subsystem (subject and object) and a set of necessary connections.
Managed subsystem (object) is leading, determining, since it represents that part of the system due to which and for which control relations arise. A management object is a structured social community that functions under the directing influence of the subject to achieve the general goals of the management system. The object of social management is society as a whole, the objects of management in various spheres are the economy, the state, etc.
Any area of application of social labor needs management, and therefore can be the object of management. In addition, the object of management can be a specific link in the social, state, economic (production) spheres. The control object must be sufficiently structured, since the efficiency of the system largely depends on this. The structure of the control object depends entirely on how complex the phenomenon (activity) that needs control is, as well as on the goal set for the system. Therefore, it will almost always be unique. An exception may be the typical structures of management objects in relation to various areas.
Control subsystem (subject) is a superstructure part of the control system. Due to the fact that management activities are mainly carried out by the subject of management, some researchers (mainly in the field of production management) express the opinion that the management subsystem is the management system. However, such a view does not allow for a comprehensive, comprehensive study of management, since in this case the organically connected parts of the system are torn apart - what is controlled and what is controlled. The subject of control is completely dependent on the object. The subject must be formed in accordance with the law of necessary diversity, that is, so that its structure corresponds as closely as possible to the structure of the object. This means that the more complex and branched the structure of an object, the more complex the structure the subject should have.
Simplification for the sake of economy when forming a subject is inappropriate. And the logic here is simple. In order to promptly and accurately respond to any actions of the structural links of an object, as well as to predict them in order to prevent and neutralize possible negative consequences, it is advisable to have corresponding links in the structure of the subject. Compliance with this requirement ensures the most complete performance of the functions of the system, primarily the object, and a sensitive response to changes in the situation, both external and internal, occurring due to objective and subjective reasons.
The modern management system in Russia is the result of a long evolution, reforms, and upheavals.
With folding by the end of the 10th century. In the structure of a single state, a centralized and ramified management apparatus is formed. Representatives of the druzhina nobility act as officials of the state administration. Under the princes there is a council (duma), which is a meeting of the prince with the top of the squad. The princes appoint mayors from among the warriors - governors in the cities; voivode - leaders of military detachments of various sizes and purposes; thousand - senior officials in the so-called decimal system of dividing society, dating back to the pre-state period; collectors of land taxes - tributaries, court officials - swordsmen, virpiks, emts, doormen; collectors of trade duties - mytniks; minor officials - birichi, blizzard workers. The stewards of the princely patrimonial economy, the tiuns, also stand out from the squad (since the 12th century, they have also been included in the system of public administration).
During the second half of the XII - XIII centuries. the squad breaks up into boyars-votchinniks, who remained vassals of the prince, and the princely court, whose members were called nobles or servants.
In the 15th century Rus' actually turned into a single state, gradually the appanage principalities lost their independence and were subordinated to the Moscow prince. From the second half of the 15th century. The process of active dissemination and legal registration of the local system begins. The expansion of the social stratum of landowners contributed to the strengthening of the centralized Moscow state.
In the 16th century The boyar duma continued to exist as an advisory body under the Grand Duke. Until the middle of the century, there were only two national central institutions: the Palace - in charge of the lands of the grand dukes, and the Treasury (state court) - not only a financial center, but also a state office. By the middle of the century, orders were allocated from the treasury - central bodies: Local, in charge of land distributions to the nobles; Rank, providing them with a salary and keeping records of all service people; Rogue, Ambassador, Petition.
The state was divided into counties (territorially close to the former principalities), and counties into volosts. It was headed by the governor in the district and the volost in the volost. These positions were given, as a rule, for previous military service.
In the 50s, the Elected Rada (a circle of serving nobility and courtiers) was created, which, while not formally a state institution, was, in fact, the government of Russia and for 13 years ruled the state on behalf of the tsar until 1560. The order system was improved, to end of the 16th century there were 30 orders.
In the 17th century The Order of Secret Affairs was created, which was placed over all government institutions and persons, in which the financial management of the country was united for the first time.
At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. A radical restructuring of management is taking place. The Boyar Duma was replaced in 1699 by the “Near Chancellery”, which since 1708 was called the “Concilia of Ministers”. It became the predecessor of the Senate - the highest government institution with judicial, administrative, and sometimes legislative prerogatives, created in 1711 consisting of 9 senators appointed by Peter I. The affairs of the Rank and Local Orders were transferred to it, he took care of state revenues and expenses, was in charge of the appearance of nobles for service, and was a supervisory body over the bureaucratic apparatus. For this purpose, from 1711, the positions of fiscal officers were introduced in the center and locally, who reported on all violations of the laws. Reform 1718-1720 abolished orders and offices and established collegiums where decisions were made collectively. For example, it dealt with financial income - the Chamber Board, expenses - the State Office Board, and control over the collection and expenditure of government funds - the Audit Board. Collegiums did not cover all branches of management. As before, palace, pit, construction, medical affairs and some others were under the jurisdiction of special orders, chambers and offices.
Instead of the voivodeship administration in 1708-1715. A provincial system of institutions was introduced.
In 1719 the country was divided into 50 provinces headed by governors. The provinces remained, but only military and judicial matters remained in the hands of the governors. The provinces were divided into districts headed by zemstvo commissars. After the death of Peter I, all power in the provinces was transferred to the governor, and in the provinces and districts - to the governors.
During the reign of Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740) the Cabinet of Ministers was established, and during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761) it was abolished.
Under Peter III (1761-1762), the Imperial Council became the highest body for governing the country's politics. The “Manifesto on the granting of liberty and freedom to the entire Russian nobility”, which appeared on February 18, 1762, destroyed the compulsory service, both civil and military, for nobles.
During the reign of Catherine II, a reform of the Senate was carried out, the essence of which was fragmentation and limitation of its functions in government; A Council was created, which turned into a permanently functioning highest advisory and administrative body under the Empress. A local government reform was carried out: the number of provinces increased from 23 to 50. Capital provinces and large regions were headed by governors (governors general) with unlimited powers, accountable only to the empress. Under the leadership of the governor, the first created Order of Public Charity operated, which was in charge of schools, medical, charitable and some other institutions. The privileges of the nobility were expanded, the urban population was divided into 6 categories with different rights.
Under Emperor Paul I, the principle of succession to the throne only through the male line was restored. The nobility was placed under strict control of the administration.
Alexander I abolished the Pavlovsk Council and created the Permanent Council. On September 8, 1802, a manifesto was issued on the establishment in Russia of the following ministries: military ground forces, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce and public education, the State Treasury as a ministry and the Committee of Ministers.
Reform 1810-1811 approved a system of departmental management throughout the country.
Nicholas I established the III Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery to direct the secret police. To reform the management of state peasants, the V Department of the Own E.I.V. was created. office, which was transformed into the Ministry of State Property.
The central event of the reign of Alexander II was the abolition of serfdom. This was followed by reforms of local government, the judicial system, reorganization of the army, reform of finance, public education, censorship, etc.
Under Alexander III, a new course was established, characterized by the strengthening of administrative principles, constant confrontation with zemstvos, and violation of laws.
Important links in the system of the state apparatus on the eve of the 20th century. were: His Imperial Majesty's Own Office; State Council (the highest legislative body); Committee of Ministers (highest administrative institution); Governing Senate (the highest body of court and supervision); Holy Synod.*
* History of Russia from antiquity to the present day: A guide for applicants to universities / M.M. Gorinov, A.A. Gorsky, V.O. Daines et al.; Ed. M.N. Zueva. M.: Higher. school, 1994. 431 p.
An integral attribute of public administration in the USSR is the plan and its highest institutional embodiment - the economic center, ensuring the unity and integrity of the country's economic body. Direct management of all enterprises from a single economic center - the highest echelons of government power - negates the independence of enterprises. The state fully controls the production and distribution of products. An equal approach to remuneration prevails. The state apparatus manages economic activities using predominantly administrative and administrative methods, which undermines material interest in the results of labor.
With excessive centralization of executive power, bureaucratization of the economic mechanism and economic relations develops. Giant monopolies, established in all areas of the national economy and supported by ministries and departments, in the absence of competition, do not care about the introduction of new equipment and technology.
The CPSU was the ruling, state structure. IN economic history In the USSR, several periods of state economic management can be distinguished:
1) 1917-1957 - centralized sectoral management system. It was characterized by the following features: the determining role of the country's State Planning Committee; broad powers of the People's Commissariats (then ministries) in the development of subordinate industries; personal responsibility of ministers and directors of enterprises for quantitative and qualitative indicators of production development and the introduction of scientific and technical achievements; stimulation of production costs at each enterprise; low independence of enterprises in production management.
2) 1957-1965 - territorial-sectoral management system. Over 140 all-union, union-republican and republican ministries were abolished, and the enterprises under their jurisdiction were transferred to the subordination of national economic councils, created, as a rule, within the boundaries of a region, territory, or republic. 102 economic administrative regions were established in the country. In the RSFSR there were 67 economic councils, in Ukraine - 14, in Kazakhstan - 9, and in the other union republics - one each.
3) 1965-1985 - departmental-industrial management system. In 1965, economic councils were abolished and ministries and vertical connections were restored. The formal subjects of regional government were the Councils of People's Deputies, real political power was in the hands of party bodies, and real economic power was in the hands of economic bodies. A distinctive feature of the government is the swelling of the apparatus.
4) "Perestroika" (1985-1991). Elections have become alternative and competitive. A distinctive feature was the so-called “war of sovereignties” at both the republican and local levels. The institution of presidency was introduced into the USSR. The Council of Ministers was renamed the Cabinet of Ministers, which began to report directly to the president. The number of ministries and departments was reduced to 55, and at the beginning of perestroika there were 125. A slow abandonment of comprehensive regulation of the work of industrial and agricultural enterprises began. The USSR Cabinet of Ministers ceased to exist in August 1991. During 1989-1991. real power was concentrated in seats in the executive committees of the Soviets. 1989-1990 were a period when real power began to gradually leave the hands of the top of the party apparatus, political parties besides the CPSU appeared. Since August 23, 1991, the CPSU ceased to exist as a ruling, state structure. At the end of August - beginning of September 1991, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR announced its self-dissolution. Since September 1991, the former Soviet Union no longer existed.
There was an attempt to transfer the economy to market relations, and laws appeared on team contracting, on state enterprises, on cooperation, on small enterprises, joint-stock companies, joint ventures, etc. But economic reforms did not affect the fundamental foundations of the “real socialism” built in the USSR.
5) Since 1992, a new stage in the management system in Russia begins.
State power in the Russian Federation is exercised on the basis of division into legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative, executive and judicial authorities are independent.
State power in the Russian Federation is exercised by the President of the Russian Federation, the Federal Assembly (Council of Federations and The State Duma), Government of the Russian Federation, courts of the Russian Federation.
State power in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is exercised by the state authorities formed by them.
Local self-government is recognized and guaranteed in the Russian Federation. Organs local government are not part of the government system.
The President of the Russian Federation is the head of state and determines the main directions of the state's domestic and foreign policy.
The Federal Assembly - the parliament of the Russian Federation - is the representative and legislative body of the Russian Federation.
The executive power of the Russian Federation is exercised by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Justice in the Russian Federation is administered only by the court.
The total number of employees of state authorities and local self-government at the end of 1996 amounted to 1093 thousand people, or 1.6% of the employed population of Russia (excluding the apparatus of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, the Ministry of Defense of Russia and other bodies ensuring law and order and protecting state security, customs). On average, per thousand residents there were 7 employees of government bodies and management at all levels and levels. For the period 1994-1996. the total number of state authorities and local self-government increased by 88.7 thousand people (9%), with a reduction at the federal level by 1.4 thousand people (4%) and an increase at the regional level by 90.1 thousand. people (9%).
If at the first stage of economic reforms the state significantly reduced its role in the economy, now it is beginning to strengthen its position, as President B.N. recently said. Yeltsin. The share of state ownership constitutes one third of all assets, excluding land. The share of government spending in relation to GDP in 1996 was 38%. According to a ranking of economic freedom determined by 47 research institutes around the world for 115 countries, in 1995 Russia was at the bottom of the list with 3.5 points out of 10 - next to Syria, Iran and the Central African Republic.
New governing bodies have been created and are being created: the Administration of the President of the Russian Federation, the Constitutional Court, the State Tax Service Administration, the Federal Debt Center, which assumes the functions of selling the property of budget debtors, bodies related to bankruptcy, privatization, etc.
A market infrastructure is being created: commercial banks, investment funds, financial and industrial groups, insurance companies, etc.
Among management methods, economic methods are becoming increasingly important, and the role of command-administrative management methods is decreasing.
In its management, the state is increasingly beginning to apply norms, rules, and regulatory instruments adopted in the West, to set real, feasible and limited goals in economic policy (and not as before: “the current generation of Soviet people will live under communism”, “to ensure that by the year 2000 . housing for each family", etc.).
Various international organizations have a significant and contradictory influence on the management of the Russian economy.
The Russian state has abandoned directive planning; state target and medium-term programs are becoming increasingly important.
The Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation has prepared the concept of a medium-term program for 1997-2000, which sets the following goals:
1. Achieving sustainable economic growth of at least 5% per year by the end of the century. Ensuring high growth rates of investments necessary for dynamic economic development and structural transformations.
2. Implementation of institutional reforms necessary for the effective functioning of a market economy, ensuring guarantees of property rights, fair competition, regulation of natural monopolies, strengthening the rule of law and order.
3. Ensuring progressive structural changes in production and exports. Increasing on this basis the efficiency and competitiveness of enterprises. Reducing the share of inefficient production.
4. Growth in real income and consumption of the population, significant progress in the fight against poverty.
The rights of the subjects of the Federation in the field of management are expanded and delimited, conditions are created to stimulate economic activity and more fully use the potential of the subjects of the Russian Federation.
The Russian Federation has jurisdiction over:
a) adoption and amendment of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, monitoring their compliance;
b) federal structure and territory of the Russian Federation;
c) regulation and protection of human and civil rights and freedoms; citizenship in the Russian Federation; regulation and protection of the rights of national minorities;
d) establishing a system of federal bodies of legislative, executive and judicial power, the procedure for their organization and activities; federal government bodies;
e) federal state property and its management;
f) establishing the framework for federal policy and federal programs in the field of state, economic, environmental, social, cultural and national development of the Russian Federation;
g) establishing the legal basis for the single market; financial, currency, credit, customs regulation, money issue, fundamentals of pricing policy; federal economic services, including federal banks;
h) federal budget; federal taxes and fees; federal funds for regional development;
i) federal energy systems, nuclear energy, fissile materials; federal transport, communications, information and communications; activities in space;
j) foreign policy and international relations of the Russian Federation; international treaties of the Russian Federation; issues of war and peace;
k) foreign economic relations of the Russian Federation;
l) defense and security; defense production; determining the procedure for the sale and purchase of weapons, ammunition, military equipment and other military property; production of toxic substances, narcotic drugs and the procedure for their use;
m) determination of the status and protection of the state border, territorial sea, airspace, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf of the Russian Federation;
o) judicial system; prosecutor's office; criminal, criminal procedural and criminal executive legislation; amnesty and pardon; civil, civil procedural and arbitration procedural legislation; legal regulation of intellectual property;
n) federal conflict of laws;
p) meteorological service, standards, standards, metric system and timekeeping; geodesy and cartography; name of geographical objects; official statistics and accounting;
c) state awards and honorary titles of the Russian Federation;
r) federal public service.
The following are under the joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation:
a) ensuring compliance of the constitutions and laws of republics, charters, laws and other normative legal acts of territories, regions, federal cities, autonomous regions, autonomous districts with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws;
b) protection of human and civil rights and freedoms; protection of the rights of national minorities, ensuring the rule of law, law and order, public safety; border zone regime;
c) issues of ownership, use and disposal of land, subsoil, water and other natural resources;
d) delimitation of state property;
e) environmental management; environmental protection and ensuring environmental safety; specially protected natural areas;
protection of historical and cultural monuments;
f) general issues of upbringing, education, science, culture, physical culture and sports;
g) coordination of health issues; protection of family, motherhood, paternity and childhood; social protection, including social security;
h) implementation of measures to combat disasters, natural disasters, epidemics, and liquidation of their consequences;
i) establishment of general principles of taxation and fees in the Russian Federation;
j) administrative, administrative-procedural, labor, family, housing, land, water, forestry legislation, legislation on subsoil, on environmental protection;
k) personnel of judicial and law enforcement agencies, advocacy, notaries;
l) protection of the original habitat and traditional way of life of small ethnic communities;
m) establishing general principles for organizing the system of state authorities and local self-government;
o) coordination of international and foreign economic relations of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, implementation of international treaties of the Russian Federation.
Enterprises were given independence in production management. What, how much, how to produce is decided by the main subjects of a market economy.
The transition of the Russian economy to market economic conditions led to fundamental changes in planning, accounting, production and economic activities in the entire enterprise management system. The methods of economic management currently used, based on methods of calculating costs, prices, production and sales plans inherited largely by inertia, do not and cannot give the desired results. It is necessary for every enterprise to master new management methods. In different regions of the world, management uses different methods to achieve its goals: growing “small enterprises” in newly industrialized countries; transition to group labor organization in mechanical engineering in the Scandinavian countries; certification of labor functions as opposed to certification of jobs in high-tech American companies; organizing the submission, evaluation and encouragement of proposals for “small ideas” coming from the personnel of Japanese companies; formation of an innovative organizational culture in European “technology parks” and “technopolises”.
Among the achievements is the controlling system, which appeared after the Second World War, first in the USA and then in leading European countries. Controlling is a system of economic management of the production and economic activities of an enterprise. Its tools include: planning, calculation of financial results, accounting, preliminary control, introduction of a meaningful information support and reporting system, analysis of deviations and discussion of analysis results with responsible managers of enterprise departments, development of alternative solutions, calculation of the effectiveness of new projects, etc.
Business, according to experts, is becoming global and diversified. Therefore, a corporate information system in management is being implemented. In the modern Russian market, two levels of systems can be distinguished: systems for small and medium-sized businesses, designed to automate certain aspects of management. As a rule, these tasks are accounting and warehouse accounting in small enterprises with a relatively simple structure (1 C: Accounting, Finance without problems, Turbo Accountant, etc.); systems for complex automation of management of large enterprises - multi-user network software products, with varying degrees of efficiency and completeness, solving problems of automation of planning, operational management, accounting, control and analysis of enterprise activities in a single information space. Among the domestic manufacturers of such systems: IT (BOSS-Corporation system), Parus (Parus 5), Intellect - Service (BEST 4), Infosoft (Integrator), Rosexpertiza (Olympus).
According to experts, our country is on the threshold of a real managerial revolution; today the enrollment of young people in higher education institutions is increasing. After the Government adopted Resolutions No. 1164 and 1165 on September 15, 1997, the state program for training a new generation of managers prepared for successful work in a market economy begins to take shape. The state plan provides for the annual training of approximately 5,000 senior and middle managers in three main specialties - “Management”, “Marketing”, “Finance and Credit”. Each subject of the Russian Federation is allocated a quota in proportion to the share of its working-age population in the total working-age population of Russia.
However, at this stage of economic development, there is low efficiency of government action.
The success of economic policy is manifested in high growth rates, improved economic structure, and increased living standards, which we cannot say about now.
Low efficiency was manifested in a decrease in the number of small enterprises in Russia as a whole and in most regions over the past two years. Over the past three years, the competitiveness of Russian enterprises has decreased by more than 5 times.
The path to a more effective government involves a two-step strategy. Bringing the functions of the state into line with its potential is the first element of this strategy. The state must concentrate available resources on those tasks that it can and should solve.
The second element of the strategy is strengthening the capacity of the state by activating public institutions. This implies the development of effective norms and restrictions that would curb the arbitrariness of the authorities and combat the dominance of corruption. This means that in order to increase their effectiveness, government institutions must function in conditions of greater competition.*
* The state in a changing world. The World Bank. World Development Report. - 1997. Summary/Economic Issues. 1997. No. 7. P. 4-35.
There are many problems in economic management: the controllability of the national economy is disrupted due to inflation, dollarization of the economy; there is a confrontation between the executive and legislative branches; local authorities are separated from the functioning of state structures; parallelism of local authorities; swelling of the administrative apparatus; problems with the availability of high-quality personnel in management; imperfection of laws. The lack of positive prospects inevitably leads to social tension, loss of confidence in the central authorities, etc.
The concept of innovative socio-economic development is one of the priority areas of theoretical searches and practical solutions both in Russia and throughout the world. Therefore, an important structural component of the general concept of updating the Russian economy is a structural and functional analysis of management systems of economic systems and their changes necessary to achieve operational efficiency in conditions of a sharp acceleration of various economic and social processes.
Modern research into increasing the innovativeness of management systems is due to a number of reasons related to both the urgent need for a critical rethinking of many provisions of management theory and the urgent needs of their practical implementation, in particular, the need to implement proactive management, the increasing role and importance of innovations and related innovations management methods, development of relations of self-government of labor collectives and other self-regulating economic systems. Radical changes taking place in modern economic systems, of which management relations are an integral part, require the development of a concept of an organization and management system, as well as a mechanism for its implementation, that would correspond to an innovation-type economy.
Issues of management, its fundamental reform, and development prospects are among the priorities developed by both domestic and foreign economic science. In the course of previous research, significant results were obtained, some of which are used in modern practice, at the same time, a significant proportion of ideas are still not in demand by existing management systems at various levels. The implementation of the latest achievements of economic theory in economic practice encounters many obstacles and is difficult, which indicates inconsistency, multidirectionality, and a certain imbalance of management systems at the present stage of the movement towards a socially oriented innovative economy. As a result, the development of a systematic research methodology that would synthesize the diversity of ideas about the science of innovation management and innovation management is an urgent task of economic theory.
The content of management in an innovative economy can be revealed as a function of the system of production relations and, in addition, at the present stage it seems necessary to develop and substantiate a concept that assumes that management relations include both an integral part and a subsystem of self-government relations, which in theoretical terms are concentrated in the category self-government. Therefore, it is necessary to methodologically rethink the category of self-government not only in terms of the participation of economic entities in management, but also the very interpretation of this category in the direction of increasing the innovativeness of the functioning of production relations in the conditions of modern economic systems as self-regulation of the innovative activity of economic systems and objects.
In the methodological aspect, it is also necessary to consider the relationships of various economic entities, be it an individual, a group of people, an enterprise, a region, a country and the entire human civilization. In this regard, research into the characteristics of self-government at the appropriate levels is required.
When determining the role and importance of management in an innovative economy, an analysis of the following main tasks is required:
Study of the relationship between management relations in an innovative economy and property relations, the mutual influence of one on the other, the efficiency and interconnectedness of their use, the connection of management with innovations and changes in forms of ownership;
Justification of the objective nature of the relations of management and self-government in an innovative economy on the basis of revealing their qualitative and quantitative certainty as a function of the system of production relations taking place in an innovative economy;
Based on the structural and functional analysis of the content of the innovation management system, clarifying the place of the latter in the system of modern economic relations;
Determining the principles of organizing innovation management and the main directions of its change in modern conditions;
Showing the specifics of individual and collective, regional and national self-government as components of the innovation management system;
Analysis of the current state of innovation management relations at the level of an individual, team, enterprise, region;
Development of the main directions for realizing the innovative potential of all economic entities as an integral structural element of the emerging socially oriented innovative state and society.
The main provisions, as well as theoretical, methodological and practical conclusions and recommendations characterizing innovative processes in management systems are as follows:
1) deepening knowledge about management relations in modern economic systems has been achieved due to the fact that the provision of innovation as the primary “cell” of modern economic relations has been placed at the center of a systematic, comprehensive analysis;
2) self-government is the main part, subsystem and category of innovative management, understood not so much as independence in making decisions by production units and teams, but, first of all, as the relationship of all self-regulating subjects of social and economic relations;
3) an essential attribute is the dominant degree of self-regulation under the influence of commodity-money relations;
4) it is necessary to analyze the following main groups of contradictions in the system of innovative management relations: those caused by economic forms of the emergence and reproduction of relations of innovative management; due to production and technical reasons; determined by organizational and managerial relations; stimulated by market uncertainty;
5) the criteria for the correctness and optimality of the development of modern management systems are its innovative effectiveness and efficiency, while the latter, in turn, is divided into two main components: social and economic;
6) in the aspect of innovative management, the use of an expansive approach is required, suggesting that the right to participate in management and the objective basis for the formation of subjects of innovative management constitute all types of property, including ownership of labor and intelligence;
7) the identification of the following main levels of the innovative management hierarchy is methodologically justified: national, regional, management of individual enterprises, individuals;
8) in the relationship between the categories of innovation management and ownership, there is a dialectical unity of direct and reverse interaction, when innovation management is considered as the most important result realization of property and its function;
9) when analyzing the problems of innovative management, it is necessary to proceed from the identification of two common types of personality: the first - with a material attitude in the economy, aimed at receiving payment for one’s own work, and the second - considering the economy as a means of increasing one’s own innovative potential, leading to an increase in the possession of economic property and power;
10) it is necessary to proceed from the fact that a powerful source of development of modern economic systems is the innovative potential realized by all subjects of social and economic relations;
11) it is necessary to develop forecasting and planning systems at all levels of modern economic systems, aimed at identifying and realizing the innovative potential of all subjects of social and economic relations.
It is necessary to highlight the main factors that determine the relevance of the problem of innovation management. Firstly, the production apparatus, which carries out regulatory-installation and executive-administrative activities, has a superstructural nature. Therefore, proactive management, aimed at maximizing the implementation of the innovative potential of the productive forces of society, comes to the fore in modern economic systems. Secondly, it requires adaptation of social, political, economic, legal systems to the requirements of innovativeness of social and economic development. Thirdly, innovations in the relations of management functions: planning, organization, coordination and control are an objective necessity. Fourthly, the current level of development of economic systems determines the relevance of the problems of innovation management. At the same time, innovations with their specific characteristics, as well as associated methods of innovation management, come to the fore. Fifthly, the most significant are the level and degree of development of the human factor in modern economic systems.
In principle, in the economic literature, most authors in one way or another connect management relations with property relations, in which management is defined as a function of ownership. Methodologically, in this regard, the essence of the management concept is determined by the interpretation of property. For example, when defending the priority of public property, various options for personifying the subject of property were proposed, which, in our opinion, broke the dialectical unity of the subject and the object of property. Such an interpretation does not take into account the diversity of forms of ownership, and also proceeds, in our opinion, from an incorrect premise in the interpretation of the essence of property.
Modern practice has put forward for rethinking and research a number of fundamental issues of management theory, primarily such as: the relationship between the categories of ownership and management, the mutual influence of one on the other, the efficiency and interconnectedness of their use. Indeed, forms of management in modern economic systems must correspond to one or another form of ownership.
In our opinion, if we proceed from the fact that property is an expression of the entire system of production relations, which, in turn, determine the form of management, then in principle we can agree that management is a function of property, i.e., interpreting the category of property broadly, It is possible to identify in methodological terms an approach that seems more correct in the aspect of economic theory: management is a function of production relations.
The broad approach assumes that the category of property includes ownership not only of the means of production, but also of labor, land, capital, and information. That is, from the standpoint of the sale of property, one should recognize the fact that in each specific period, management proceeds from all types of property being sold, which in principle does not deny, however, the fact that all material values are ultimately created by human labor.
One of the most stable and powerful in terms of influence on innovation management is the so-called systemic contradiction. It lies in the fact that the elements combined, even if they are generally similar, are not identical, therefore, to study the problems of innovation management, it is important to study it not only as a relationship, but also as a system.
It is generally accepted in the economic literature that management goals are determined by production goals. Moreover, due to the differences in production goals at different levels, management goals must also have a multi-level nature. In this regard, it is important to emphasize that the qualitative state of the innovation management system is determined by its organization.
The development of innovation management involves consideration of: the content and driving forces of change in innovation management systems; relationships between innovation management systems and the external environment; results of directions for further development of social production. The methodological basis of the theory of innovation management development consists of two components: the methodology for researching the development of innovation management, reflecting the specifics of the object being studied; methodology of system analysis and the actual analysis of the essential characteristics and features of management, such as relationships, function and system.
The right to participate in innovation management is given by all types of property, including ownership of labor, i.e. worker and entrepreneur are legally equal. Therefore, in addition to the social partnership of entrepreneurs and employees, it should also be borne in mind that workers in democratic states have an objective basis for managing not only from a political point of view, but also from the point of view of property - he can be not only the owner of shares, but in any case be the owner of your own workforce.
Thus, in our opinion, the existing methodological approach lacks the following main points:
a) broad interpretation of property:
1) in the sense of accounting for ownership of intelligence, information, labor, land and capital;
2) property as a synthesis of socio-economic relations;
b) recognition that innovative management is, by genesis, a subsystem of production relations and property relations, in particular, despite the fact that the relations of innovative management also contain superstructural elements;
c) taking into account the fact that effective reform of existing management systems of economic and social systems should proceed from its basis - strengthening the innovativeness of economic and social processes;
d) the need to take into account the fact that the social partnership between an entrepreneur and an employee (including managers) is the implementation of management reform at the present stage, in particular, due to the ownership of intelligence and labor.
A methodological analysis of the innovation management system must be carried out both in its entirety and in relation to its individual elements. In our opinion, we can distinguish the following main levels of the innovation management hierarchy. Firstly - national. Here, innovation management should be macroeconomic in nature. The goals of innovation management should also be appropriate, taking into account the trends in innovative development of both the country’s economy and the entire global economic system. The macroeconomic nature of innovation management at the state level should in no case ignore the level of individual people, enterprises, industries, regions and concentrate only on solving macroeconomic problems. Secondly, regional, which should be based on the ownership of the respective regions. Thirdly, innovative management of individual enterprises and their structural components. Fourthly, innovative management carried out by an individual. Naturally, the functions and powers of management bodies at each level are regulated by property rights, legal acts and the sovereignty of the economic entity.
The hierarchy of innovative management simultaneously assumes that there is a certain innovative management ideology. In contrast to the previously existing coincidence of ideology and the managerial hierarchical structure, in the conditions of an innovative economy, the ideology of the dominance of innovative management priorities should come from a new interpretation of the theory of interests. Innovative management must go from the bottom up, from the interests of the individual, team, region to the goals of a state nature. By satisfying his need to increase his own innovative potential, the individual contributes to the growth of the collective, and through it, regional and state innovative potential. Moreover, what is needed here is not the predominance of any particular interest, but their harmonious interaction.
Innovation is an objective economic category, one of the elements of the system of industrial relations, a constitutive element of management in an innovative economy. In modern economic systems, relationships between people are very often largely determined by the magnitude of their innovative potential. It also determines who holds economic, and through it, political power. Methodologically, from the point of view of the relationship between the categories of management and innovation, it is necessary to proceed from the position that the most important forms of implementation of innovations are innovative management and self-government.
Public innovative interest cannot be realized without taking into account the special and the individual, which does not mean their coincidence or subordination of the latter to the former. Their dialectical combination is necessary. But the objective prerequisites for unity cannot be realized on their own. Only society, through its conscious actions, is capable of realizing them.
In the process of development of an enterprise and its workforce, contradictions arise between long-term and current interests. This, in turn, leads to contradictions between the interests of the employee, the team and society. Collective interest in an innovative economy is most realized in increasing collective innovation potential. At the same time, both its underestimation and its exaggeration lead to negative consequences.
When considering the interests of the workforce, we must not forget about the specific interests of the enterprise administration. Underestimating this interest can also lead to negative aspects, so it is necessary to ensure that this interest is reconciled with the interests of all members of the work team. This provision also leads to the understanding that all members of the workforce should not receive wages, but a portion of the income in accordance with their contribution. Otherwise, we will have a destructive contradiction that will not contribute to the optimal combination of interests at the level of an individual enterprise.
When considering personal interest, it must be borne in mind that the development of an individual should not be an end in itself. The development of the individual in isolation from the development of society leads to their opposition. As a result, a structure emerges where the realization of personal interest, including in the field of innovation, becomes the prerogative of the individual, and not of society as a whole. In this case, we have to talk about the fact that the individual exists for society, and not about their interexistence. This, in turn, contributes to the emergence of serious negative consequences.
The tasks of innovative socio-economic development of the country cannot be solved without significantly increasing the effectiveness of the implementation of various forms of management innovations. The concept of implementation is associated with the actual implementation of certain production relations, while management innovation can be implemented both directly and indirectly. Firstly, it can be realized as a specific relationship, and secondly through the entire system of production relations.
In the process of direct implementation, innovation accumulates changes in the productive forces and more fully covers the most significant socio-economic relationships between people. At the same time, the mechanism for implementing innovation is not identical to the system of production relations of an innovative economy.
The implementation of management innovations has its own specific characteristics at various levels: the individual, the workforce, the region, the industry, the entire country and the world community. In this aspect, consideration of issues related to the implementation of management innovations provides a closer understanding of the connection between theory and practice and practical tasks facing society, in particular, such as increasing the efficiency of social, collective and individual production, the use of production factors, ensuring scientific and technological progress and etc.
The forms of implementation of management innovations should demonstrate not only an individual, but also a social character. At the same time, the implementation of management innovation can occur directly in the production process, in distribution, exchange and consumption, in possession, disposal and use, in primary, secondary and further production relations. In this regard, it is important to consider the implementation of management innovation not only by society as a whole, but also by each individual, work collective or population of the region. At the same time, it is wrong to reduce the whole matter only to obtaining the final material result. Here it is very important to also consider social and intermediate, private socio-economic results.
Innovative management is organically inherent in self-government, which is one of the forms of implementation of innovations, presupposing self-regulation, the presence of feedback, and the dialectical unity of the subject and object of management. Self-government helps to unlock the enormous innovative potential in every person. In conditions of self-government, it becomes possible to achieve optimal harmony of interests of an individual and the entire society. It should be noted that until recently, specific forms of implementation of innovative management and self-government did not contribute to the reproduction of the employee as a generator, creator and implementer of innovations.
Management innovations have a multi-level nature of implementation. Accordingly, self-government must be implemented. The most important and decisive factor in this process, in our opinion, is the level of the individual individual. In modern economic systems, the range of self-government decisions is expanding immeasurably.
The problem of self-government, in our opinion, like any other problem that considers a person as an individual in his relationship with nature and society, cannot be analyzed in isolation from his psychophysiological essence. As historical experience has shown, there are many people who, for one reason or another, do not strive to become owners. They are not ready to acquire property, take on the responsibilities of organizing their own business, take on the risk of competition, etc. People of this type prefer payment for labor to economic power. Considering a person in his psychophysiological essence, it is necessary to recognize that it is impossible to forcefully form the owner of the means of production; they can only become one of their own free will, in accordance with interests and vocation. An important factor in this matter is the objective differences between people caused by their interests, lifestyle, upbringing, education, etc.
The most important and fundamental condition for achieving equality between members of society is their participation in self-government. The fact is that without this, the direct connection of producers with the means of production is inadequate to the achieved innovative potential of the economic system. Consequently, self-government is an integral property of the economic system of ownership in an innovative economy.
In this regard, many countries are also in the process of rethinking the issue of workers' participation in management. So, Grayson J.K. Jr. and O'Dell K. indicate that one of the reasons for the decline in labor productivity in the US economy was that “in production, workers are not sufficiently involved in management,” while “improving the skills of workers, their moral stimulation... is given secondary attention.” *
* Grayson J.K. Jr. and O"Dell K. American management on the threshold of the 21st century: Translated from English. M.: Economics, 1991. P.94.
Firstly, to increase the efficiency of using various forms of employee involvement in the management process, Grayson J.K. Jr. and O'Dell K. believe that when introducing new forms and methods of management into practice, it is necessary to start with changes in the process of implementing management innovations. The traditional approach provides that this process will be carried out by a group of specialists. Meanwhile, much more promising is the approach in which the implementation of new forms of management is entrusted to people who will use them in their daily work. Secondly, the activities of all small problem groups must be linked to the overall goals of the company and aimed at achieving them. Thirdly, the participation of trade unions in preparing any changes in management system and work methods. Fourth, work to involve workers in management must be linked to such organizational changes as the introduction of a just-in-time system, a new customer service system and new production lines. Fifthly, it is necessary to increase the level of general and social training of workers in solving production and sales problems, otherwise their activities to improve company management will be ineffective. Sixth, the most promising direction for using various mechanisms for employee participation in management is not improving the existing one, but creating a new, more effective management system that can provide solutions to any non-traditional problems.*
* Ibid. P.174-175.
At the same time, one should remember about another principle of self-government in an innovative economy - self-regulation of all levels of the economic system in conditions of the free functioning of commodity-money relations. This, in turn, presupposes maximum use of all economic laws and a certain role of the state in regulating the innovative economy. In this regard, the following main regulatory functions of the state can be identified: creating conditions for the effective implementation of the innovative potential of all economic entities; strengthening the innovativeness of economic development; regulation of social relations in an innovative economy.
The cardinal issue in modern economic systems is the need for forecasting and planning on a national scale, their structure, as well as the relationship between state regulation and the degree of self-government of production units. Many leading Western economists are actively developing this methodological position, while many Russian scientists and politicians have turned away from planning. Thus, Dallago B. distinguishes two levels of economic decisions. The first is microeconomic (individual, household, enterprise). At this level, the basis of microeconomic management is decisions made individually or by a group, as well as a number of government decrees and preferences. The second level is macroeconomic, when the main proportions within the national economy are determined (such as the rate of accumulation, the level of aggregate demand, the rate of economic growth, etc.). This design, in our opinion, should also be supplemented without fail by another level - regional, which is especially important for the economy of a country such as Russia.
B. Dallago also notes that planning should be used only in those industries where it is stronger than the market, while showing its coordinating role.* Further, B. Dallago highlights the following advantages of planning: it facilitates the collection, processing, coordination and dissemination of information ; identifying the picture at the macro level of the economy under study; coordination of the work of economic entities and cooperation of their activities with government bodies; creates conditions for the rational and efficient use of government resources, as well as for the coordination of various government impacts on the economy; forms the prerequisites for long-term foresight in the regulation of economic processes (in the field of education, energy supply, research activities); contributes to the formation of a favorable economic environment; allows you to remove the negative effects associated with personal property rights, especially in cases where the unlimited implementation of these rights leads to small organizational forms; can be an effective means of tightening the budgetary constraints of business units; contributes to the creation of a stable political situation, which is a condition for the implementation of the principles of freedom and democracy.** All these advantages of planning and forecasting receive their further logical development in the activities of innovative economic entities and the innovative economy.
* Dallago B. Is there a future for macroeconomic planning in Eastern Europe // Russian Economic Journal. 1992. No. 3. P.106 -108.
** Ibid. P.109-111.
The next aspect of the problem, which obviously cannot be overlooked, is that self-government in an innovative economy presupposes the priority of the interests of the individual, the collective and the regions of the Russian Federation. And here, methodologically, the question of the final social result of production, i.e., should come to the fore. about the standard of living and social conditions of all citizens of the country. Unfortunately, we have to admit that according to all the indicated parameters that determine the final degree of self-government, this socio-economic direction in Russia is only at the initial stage of its development.
In this regard, the question is specified at the moment of correspondence between the subject and the object of innovation management. There is a dialectical contradiction between them, which lies in the dual unity of unity of command and self-government. The process of innovation management should involve not only persons professionally performing this function, but also all, without exception, participants in various production processes.
In modern economic systems, the role of work collectives in the process of management in general and innovation in particular is increasing, which is due to both objective and subjective circumstances. The objective prerequisite for this process are innovations that are implemented both in the activities of the work collective itself and with its direct participation. As a member of the workforce, each individual realizes his or her innovative potential. The main task of work collectives in an innovative economy is the development of social production in the direction of increasing the innovative potential of both the work collective itself and the entire society as a whole. From this logically follows an objective prerequisite for the most active participation of work collectives and their members in the process of innovative management as direct subjects of this process.
At the level of the labor collective, until recently, there were minimal rudiments of genuine self-government. In accordance with new requirements and circumstances related to increasing the innovativeness of ongoing economic processes, there is a need to create, essentially, a new mechanism for implementing self-government of labor collectives, which consists in developing genuine responsibility and independence in increasing innovative potential.
An enterprise and its workforce represent the essence of various levels of implementation of innovations, therefore, at the enterprise level, the collective interest in increasing innovation potential should be realized, and through the workforce - innovative self-government. Expansion of independence, leading to the liberation of initiative and entrepreneurship, becomes a reality only when there is an increased interest in the growth of innovative potential as a function of the results of production activities. This implies one of the defining criteria for the feasibility of possible changes in existing management systems. They will act as a simple change of forms that will not affect the essence, if they do not contribute to the consolidation and reproduction of the innovator in every person.
All economists understand that management is necessary to regulate economic processes. But in this regard, the question arises about specific directions or functions of management activities in an innovative economy. Theoretically, these functions are objectively determined and come from the stages of the management process: forecasting and planning; development of management activities; making management decisions; organization of work; coordinating and regulating them during implementation; activation and stimulation; control and accounting of the implementation of management decisions and, finally, analysis of the correctness of the decisions made. Therefore, innovation management can be defined as a special branch of human activity for the creation and operation of an adaptive system for studying and satisfying customer demand, forecasting trends in its changes, production, distribution, sales and consumption.
Currently, planning should, in its essence, largely reorient itself to planning as a process of identifying new trends in the development of the economy as a whole, its structure, economic relations, regions, enterprises and individuals. Therefore, the urgent need is to coordinate and organize work on innovative management and the development of innovative management activities based on innovative marketing. Accordingly, it can be noted that insufficient work is being done to reorganize the existing management structure and reorient its goals at various levels. In modern economic systems, increasing the innovative potential of products and production should become the main principle of activating and stimulating the economic activity of business teams. In turn, this involves focusing on various aspects of innovation activity and the essential characteristics of innovation.
It is important to note that in many countries, and not only economically developed ones, there is a fundamental change in approaches to the management process. Very often, the winners are those subjects of social and economic relations who are able to overcome numerous stereotypes in management and build a new vision of the future of their organizations and the workers employed in them.
In modern conditions, complete accounting and calculation of everything down to the smallest detail becomes unrealistic, and the task of a manager is to create adaptive, innovative, responsive management mechanisms. The task of managers in these conditions is to implement appropriate innovative approaches. Thus, the well-known General Motors corporation proceeds from the fact that there are constantly imperfections in the management structure, and therefore is constantly engaged in its reorganization in order to achieve a mechanism for making flexible and effective decisions. In turn, management flexibility is impossible without complete and timely information. Under these conditions, the manager must be capable of foresight in managing the production situation, i.e. carry out innovative management. Otherwise, the manager will only be able to react to the emerging situation, as well as eliminate the consequences.
In our opinion, the essence of the methodological approach to the issue of functions and methods of innovation management lies in their optimal combination. In this regard, individual methods should not be absolutized, as this can lead to deformations of innovation management and its results.
In modern conditions there is an urgent need to use marketing. Enterprises that focus on the social and ethical concept of marketing, which presupposes the primacy of the interests of not only individual consumers, but also the entire society as a whole, have better economic indicators compared to others. Methodologically, this management method seems to be one of the most important aspects of the innovation management system.
Marketing is a direction of management activity, consisting of studying, analyzing, planning, implementing and monitoring the implementation of programs to study consumer demand and create operational production management for the sale of products that best meet the requirements of both consumers and manufacturers. There is a certain overlap between the management functions of self-governing production units and the functions and goals of marketing.
In an innovative economy, new requirements are imposed on planning and forecasting carried out at the national level, which should include: making forecasts of market conditions; determining priorities for the country's economic and social development; determining the areas of the most effective application of domestic and foreign capital; identification of industries and enterprises that in the foreseeable future may face problems in marketing their own products. For the successful implementation of adopted plans and forecasts, they must be controlled.
As an analysis of the functioning of modern economic systems shows, legal support and legislation in many countries, including Russia, lags behind the realities of modern reality, including in the field of innovation. In such conditions, it is difficult to talk about the stimulating role of legislation.
The immediate goal of social production is to achieve economic efficiency, while the focus of all production is to satisfy the needs of people, individual producers. Therefore, the degree of satisfaction in a variety of goods and services and social infrastructure with minimal negative impact of production on people and environment defined as social efficiency production.
The social development of the workforce refers to such changes that are associated with the improvement or deterioration of the parameters of social organization. The latter occurs, as a rule, as a result of spontaneous processes, such as staff turnover, all kinds of conflicts between people, etc. Therefore, there is a need to reduce the degree of negative impact of these processes, which is achieved through external regulation in the course of social planning.
At the level of the work collective, there is a coordination of the interests of the individual included in this work collective, the team itself, the region and the whole society as a whole. The effective functioning of the country’s economy depends on how optimally this coordination occurs. The negative side of the economic reforms carried out in Russia is the lack of attention to their social consequences.
Let us further consider such an important source and incentive for self-government as economic power from the point of view of self-government of the labor collective and the region. Economic power is possessed not only by owners, but also by individuals or work groups who, due to their specific position, are capable of exerting a certain influence on economic processes. In our opinion, the greatest economic power should be possessed by an individual with high innovative potential, regardless of the hierarchical position in the structure of innovation management, followed by work collectives, regions, and the state. The state here is understood not as an organizational form that dominates all others, but as a spokesman for the interests of the entire population.
Based on what has been said in relation to the problem of innovative management, we can conclude that the potential of the economic power of the labor collective should be higher than the potential of the region where the enterprise is located. Only in this case can we talk about effective self-government at all levels. Thus, when analyzing the systems of self-government of the labor collective and the region, it is necessary to take into account the following main factors: the potential of the economic power of the labor collective should be higher than the potential of the economic power of the region, the system of regional self-government should stimulate the interest of an innovator in labor collectives and individuals.
Management processes are the subject of research in several scientific directions. Yes, general principles of control are studied in cybernetics. Problems of controlling technical systems without human participation are studied in theory automatic control(TAU). Features of management in socio-economic systems are the subject of management. But in all these industries, the necessary knowledge of the general laws of the functioning of systems, which are based on the application of a systems approach and are studied within the framework of the general theory of systems and systems analysis.
Control is understood as the process of forming purposeful behavior of a system under conditions of changes in the external environment through information influence, which is carried out by a person (a group of people) or a device.
In systems with control, in any case, one can distinguish a control subsystem (CS) and a controlled subsystem, or control object (CO). Management is based on the collection and processing of information, which is considered as a kind of resource. Therefore, one of the main prerequisites for control is feedback, that is, the transfer of information about the state of the controlled subsystem and the external environment to the control system, the exchange of information between these systems and the external environment.
The control system is shown schematically in Fig. 18. Here X is information about the state of the external environment (external influence on the control object), X / is information about the state of the external environment, which is available in the control system, Y is information about the state of the control object, Y / is information about the state of the control object, which available in the control system, u - command information.
Rice. 18. General diagram of the system with control
The control system implements the task of stabilization, program execution, surveillance and optimization, and thereby ensures either the maintenance of the initial characteristics and state of the system when external influences change within specified limits, or the system performs actions regarding changes in its characteristics or the characteristics of the external environment (transition to a new trajectory).
The control object in this case acts as a tool or means that implements the main function of the system. The communication system ensures the exchange of information between the control system and the control center.
Management tasks in this case will be:
Synthesis of the structure and parameters of the op-amp, which corresponds to main goal system (law of functioning);
Synthesis of the structure and parameters of the control system, that is, determination of the type of management structure, the number of hierarchy levels and the type of connections between them, taking into account the main goal of system management and restrictions on costs (for development, the number of management personnel, etc.), determining the arrays of information that are subject to transfer , processing and storage;
Synthesis of parameters and structure of the communication system.
Control functions. Specific management functions are implemented through the use of certain management methods. Depending on their content, methods of managing economic systems are divided into:
Economic;
Organizational;
Legal;
Social.
The principles of management are the same for all levels of the hierarchy of socio-economic systems, but they are implemented differently depending on the object of management and the functions that are performed. Among the main functions that are performed when managing socio-economic systems are:
Planning (operational, tactical and strategic);
Forecasting;
Organization;
Analysis and control;
To take into account the human factor, the functions of stimulation and motivation are separated into a separate group.
Strategic planning. At the stage of strategic planning, the need and possibility of changing the structure, properties, and operating laws of the system are considered, the main goals of the system are selected, the desired end results and methods for achieving goals and results are determined. Methods and means of achieving the goals (including the necessary resources, the sequence of their use) are determined without detail. At this stage, the course of action is determined and principles for future long-term decisions are provided.
Tactical planning consists in determining intermediate goals on the way to achieving strategic ones, that is, in determining the trajectory of the system. At the same time, the means and methods for solving tasks, using resources, necessary procedures and technologies are determined in detail. Strategic planning considers issues of possible changes in the characteristics of the entire system due to changes in its composition, structure or properties. For example, it is possible for an enterprise to increase production capacity through the construction of new workshops, acquisition of equipment, changes in specialization or technology, and the like. In tactical planning, the properties of the system are considered given.
Forecasting aims to take into account the level of uncertainty in the state of the system and the external environment, possible changes in the structure, properties or finding the law of functioning of the system in the future. A forecast is a scientifically based judgment regarding the state of the system in the future, or regarding alternative ways and timing for the system to achieve the desired (target) state.
Organization is a management function, which consists in establishing permanent and temporary relationships between all elements of the system, in determining the order and conditions of their functioning. This means uniting people, production, material, natural, information resources into a single system aimed at solving certain goals. This is understood as defining the structure of the system, relationships between subsystems, distribution of functions between subsections and granting powers.
Analysis and control provide identification and clarification of the reasons for the deviation of the system from the desired state.
Operational management ensures the functioning of the system in accordance with the developed plan. It consists in periodically comparing the actual results obtained with the planned level of the corresponding indicators in the plan and subsequent correction of production processes. Operational management is closely related to tactical planning in the case when deviations of the state of the system from the planned plan require a change in the trajectory of the system.
All groups of management methods are interdependent and are used in combination. Consequently, the processes of managing socio-economic systems include a number of such aspects:
Information (collection and processing of information);
Algorithmic and model (development of a system of models);
Regulatory (development of forms of influence to coordinate the interests of individual subsystems and the system as a whole).
The presence of different aspects of management, as well as the functions of the system, predetermines the simultaneous formation and functioning of different hierarchical structures in accordance with different signs of separation of the plurality of elements that form the control object. The interaction of such structures is not reduced to a simple relationship of subordination in the hierarchy.
An important task for improving the management of economic systems is to build a rational system of relationships between individual subsystems. On the one hand, an increase in the number of hierarchy levels or intermediate chains in the control system leads to increased costs for the control system and reduces its efficiency. On the other hand, an insufficient number of management levels leads to overload of management workers and a decrease in the efficiency of their work. Therefore, the choice of a rational management structure should ensure maximum system efficiency.
2.1 Concept, types and stages of management of socio-economic systems
Control is an activity related to the complex targeted influences subject to an object and its structural components (elements, relationships, processes), aimed at maintaining or changing its state, taking into account the development trends of the object (its components) and changes in the external environment.
The following types of management of socio-economic systems are distinguished:
1. By object:
Humanity as a whole;
State;
Group of organizations;
A group of people;
An individual.
2. By area:
Management of political organizations;
Management of commercial organizations;
Management of non-profit organizations;
Management of creative organizations.
3. By methods of influencing objects:
Administrative command;
Democratic;
Self management.
General management;
People management;
Technological process management;
Materials management;
Financial flow management:
Information flow management.
5. Depending on the period covered by management activities:
Current management;
Long-term (strategic) management.
The management process is continuous and includes the following steps:
1. Diagnostics of the current state of the control object and the environmental factors influencing it;
2. Formulation of goals (long-term, medium-term and short-term) with their consolidation in the plans being developed and the determination of controlled parameters;
3. Organization of work to implement planned decisions;
4. Implementation of solutions;
5. Continuous current monitoring of the results obtained and the established parameters of the control object, and making adjustments;
6. Reward or punishment of performers (covers all stages of management).
Types of managerial work:
1. Heuristic work is aimed at studying problems and developing options for solving them. Performed by managers and specialists.
2. Administrative work is associated with the ongoing coordination of the activities of subordinates, control, orders with encouragement or punishment. Performed only by the leader.
3. Operator work consists of operations for technical support of production and management processes and is associated with the implementation of stereotypical, constantly repeating operations. It is carried out by technical performers.
Management tasks:
1. Tactical – maintaining the sustainability of the company and all its elements (divisions, departments, divisions);
2. Strategic – development of the company and its transfer to a qualitatively new state.
The following can be distinguished types of management:
1. Production management – solves the following problems:
Determination of the optimal volume and structure of product output;
Improvement of applied technologies;
Determination of rational loading of equipment;
Rational use of labor resources (placement of people);
Troubleshooting;
Current control production process;
Personnel management;
Conflict resolution.
2. Supply and sales management
Organization and conclusion of contracts for the purchase, delivery, storage of raw materials, materials and finished products;
Delivery of finished products;
3. Personnel management, whose tasks are:
Placement, training, advanced training of personnel;
Resolution of labor disputes and conflicts;
Improving working conditions.
4. Financial management, the objectives of which are:
Definition of current and future financial condition enterprises;
Formation of a rational structure of property and capital of the enterprise;
Formation and rational use of financial resources;
Financial planning and budgeting;
Implementation financial control and financial discipline;
Taking measures to strengthen the financial condition of the enterprise.
5. Marketing management, which is the process of making management decisions aimed at meeting customer needs for the goods produced by the enterprise. Marketing management includes 4 areas:
Market analysis, which is the process of collecting and assessing information about the marketing environment of an enterprise;
Search and selection of target markets, which consists of market segmentation, selection of target segments and positioning of a product or service in the market;
Development of a marketing mix, which consists of product development, pricing, selection of distribution channels and promotion of a specific product or service on the market;
Carrying out marketing activities consisting of developing marketing strategy and monitoring its implementation.
6. Innovation management, the object of which is the process of scientific research, implementation applied developments, creating prototypes and introducing new products into production.
7. Accounting management, which consists of managing the process of collecting, processing and analyzing data on the company’s activities, comparing them with initial and planned indicators, as well as with the performance results of other companies in order to identify reserves and possible problems.
2.2 Basic principles and methods of management activities
For the first time, the basic principles of management were formulated by the French theorist and practitioner of management, the founder of the administrative school of management Henri Fayol (1841-1925). These principles were presented in the work General and Industrial Management" (French: Administration Industrielle et Générale). Basic management principles according to the administrative school of management include:
1. Division of labor.
2. Power (authority and responsibility).
3. Discipline.
4. Unity of management
5. Unity of leadership.
6. Subordination
7. Staff remuneration
8. Centralization.
9. Hierarchy (scalar chain).
10. Order.
11. Justice
12. Constancy of personnel composition
13. Initiative
14. Personnel unity (corporate spirit)
In modern conditions of development of management science and practice, these principles can be expanded, and the following can be identified as management principles:
1. Science combined with elements of art
2. Focus. Any management activity is aimed at achieving set goals. The key in this case is the process of goal setting. Goal setting is the process of developing enterprise goals and corresponding management tasks; priority areas of development; development trends of all types of enterprise policies (personnel, production, financial, etc.).
3. Specialization combined with versatility.
4. Consistency. Management activity is a sequential process, starting with diagnosis, goal setting and activity planning, and ending with monitoring its implementation.
5. Continuity. Management activity is a continuous process aimed at achieving a useful result.
6. Optimal combination centralized regulation and self-government of individual elements of the organization.
7. Accounting individual characteristics and psychology of workers, patterns interpersonal relationships and group behavior.
8. Competitiveness of management participants based on personal interest in success, supported by material, moral and organizational incentives.
9. Humanism. This principle means that personnel management should be based on standards business ethics, as well as the norms of morality and morality accepted in society.
10. Differentiation, which is the division of large problems into smaller ones:
a) by blocks (operational, strategic, innovative);
b) areas of development (technique, technology, quality, competitiveness of products, etc.);
c) departments (main production workshops, plant management, etc.);
d) types of work (division of labor), etc.
11. Unity of command. This principle means that the production and economic activities of the enterprise (its divisions), as well as the activities of one or another employee, are managed by only one, authorized manager. The consequences of the principle of unity of command are the following principles:
a) unity of rights, duties and responsibilities;
b) hierarchy;
c) unity of leadership.
12.Executive discipline is the obligation of subordinates to follow the instructions of their superiors.
13. Systematicity - consideration of problems in their interrelation and mutual influence. By implementing this principle, the subject of management: 1) ensures the mutual coordination of the tasks being solved; 2) coordination of interaction between various departments within the enterprise.
14.Feedback. A feedback mechanism is established between the object and the subject of management, for which accounting, control and reporting are used.
15.Professionalism. This principle presupposes, firstly, competent leadership, and, secondly, competent implementation of decisions made.
16. Regulation - the establishment of rules that determine the order of activity of an enterprise (organization), as well as its individual structural divisions, managers, specialists, employees, and workers. The main documents regulating the activities of enterprise personnel are: labor legislation; constituent documents; inner order rules; regulations for intra-company interaction; provisions; job descriptions.
17. Adaptation to external conditions. The managed system is in conditions of constant social and economic changes (external and internal), and therefore it must promptly respond to these changes, actively adapting to them.
18.Development of creative initiative, involvement of a large number of employees in management.
19. Subordination. The principle of subordination involves the development of rules of service discipline and the establishment on their basis of a system of service subordination of juniors to seniors. Implementing the principle of unity of command, the manager makes decisions that are binding on all employees of the team he leads. At the same time, the manager bears full responsibility for the decisions made.
20.Efficiency. This principle covers a wide range of problems - from the economic efficiency of management (cost-benefit ratio) to the search for effective leadership styles, adequate motivation, improving the organizational structure, optimizing decision-making processes, etc.
Management methods represent specific ways of influencing a controlled object to achieve a set goal. The features of this impact distinguish management methods from each other
Classical methods management activities are:
1. Administrative (regulatory) methods are methods of direct influence that are directive, mandatory, based on discipline, responsibility, power, and coercion. Administrative methods are implemented in the form of: orders, resolutions, instructions, instructions, recommendations.
2. Economic methods, representing a system of techniques and methods of influencing performers using a specific comparison of costs and results (material incentives and sanctions, financing and lending, wages, cost, profit, price). To use economic methods, there must be a built-in management system focused on the target result, establishing quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the enterprise’s performance (for example, a balanced scorecard - BSC). The main management methods here are a system of wages and bonuses, which should be maximally connected with the performance results of the performer.
3. Social and psychological methods influence the increase in labor activity through the formation of a favorable moral and psychological climate in the team and through the disclosure of the personal abilities of each employee. Social and psychological methods are implemented in the form of moral encouragement, social planning, persuasion, suggestion, personal example, regulation of interpersonal and intergroup relations, creating and maintaining a moral climate in the team.
In addition to these methods, organizational and legal methods are also distinguished. In this case, create the necessary conditions functioning of the company, management structures are formed, rationing and regulation of activities takes place, and the rights and responsibilities of personnel are determined.
When choosing a management method, you must consider:
- speed of achieving the goal;
- probability of achieving the goal;
- relationships of subordination;
- personality of the managed;
- personality of the manager;
- economic independence;
- climate in the team.
Comparative characteristics management methods
| Signs of management methods | Management methods | ||
| Administrative | Economic | Socio-psychological | |
| 1.Basic use | Laws of statehood and rights, legal interests | Economic laws and economic interests | Laws of socio-psychological development, social interests |
| 2. Instruments of influence | Administrative, legal and organizational forms | Economic forms | Social and psychological factors |
| 3. Objects of compliance | Organizational and legal environment | Economic environment | Favorable socio-psychological climate |
| 4. Substance of methods | Directive, discipline | Optimization of motives | Psychology, sociology |
| 5. Management goal | Implementation of laws, directives, plans | Achieving the competitiveness of manufactured objects | Reaching mutual understanding |
| 6. Management structure | Tough | Adaptable to situations | Adaptive to personality |
| 7. Form of ownership where methods are predominantly used | State | Corporate, private, public, etc. | Private |
| 8. Subject of influence | Team, individual | Individual | Individual |
| 9. Form of influence | Regulatory and methodological documents | Motivation | Management of socio-psychological processes |
| 10. The main requirement for the subject when applying methods | Efficiency, organization | Professionalism | Psychological stability |
| 11. Needs that the methods are aimed at satisfying | Physiological, safety | Physiological | All needs |
| 12. Type of organizational structure for which these methods are most suitable | Linear, functional | Linear, functional, matrix | Design |
| 13. Predominant direction of control action | Top down | Vertical (top to bottom and bottom to top) | Vertical and horizontal |
| 14. Leadership style characteristic of this group of methods | Authoritarian | Mixed | Democratic |
| 15. Type of management decision most often made | Strict compliance with regulatory and methodological documents and directives | Solutions based on modeling and comprehensive justification | Decisions based on judgment, intuition, experience |
| 16. Specific methods and methods of management | 1. State regulation of the economy. 2. Standardization and certification. 3. Ecosystem monitoring. 4. Normative and methodological regulation of the management system. 5. Planning, accounting and control | 1. Economic incentives. 2. Analysis of costs, quality and other parameters of systems (photography of working hours, timing, questionnaires, testing, factor analysis and etc.). 3. Economic and mathematical modeling. 4. Balance sheet methods | 1. Monitoring of socio-psychological processes. 2. Modeling of socio-psychological processes. 3. Psycho-technologies. 4. Moral stimulation |
2.3 Concept and content of basic management functions
The process of managing a company can be presented as a set of functions performed, which can be presented in three main groups:
1. general management (establishment of regulatory requirements and management policies, innovation policies, planning, organization of work, motivation, coordination, control, responsibility);
2. management of the structure of the enterprise (its creation, subject of activity, legal forms, connections with other enterprises, territorial issues, organization, reconstruction, liquidation);
3. specific areas of management (marketing, R&D, production, personnel, finance).
Management functions are a set of types of management activities that are objectively necessary for the implementation of the management process. The process of implementing the management function is a sequence of actions to implement the management function.
The structure of a management function is a characteristic of a management function that determines the set and interrelation of actions associated with the implementation of the corresponding function.
All management functions can be divided into general and specific (special).
General control functions are essential for the successful operation of any organization. For the first time, general management functions were identified by the French practitioner and scientist Henri Fayol in his work “General and Industrial Management” in 1916, to which he included foresight, organization, management, coordination and control.
Subsequently, the general management functions were expanded and currently include:
1. Planning;
2. Organization;
3. Disposition;
4. Coordination
5. Control.
6. Motivation (Working with personnel, personnel management.
1. Planning includes the choice of goals, strategies, lines of conduct, development of programs and procedures for their implementation. Planning applies to all levels and divisions and represents a quantitative formalization of the goals and objectives of the enterprise.
2. Organization is to create the intended role structure. This is done through:
Determining the types of activities necessary to achieve goals;
Groupings of these activities;
Assigning certain types of activities to specific managers;
Delegation of powers to carry out certain types of activities;
Coordination of powers;
Ensuring communication in the organizational structure.
3. Essence dispositions is that the manager must work a lot with his subordinates, communicating to them the goals and objectives of the enterprise, and also coordinate their work. This function works effectively when the manager is also a leader. The task of a managing leader is to coordinate the activities of his subordinates with a focus on the final result.
4. Coordination consists in coordinating activities between employees and structural divisions of the organization. Coordination is carried out in the form of meetings, personal contacts of managers, coordination of work plans and schedules, etc.
5. Control means assessing and adjusting the activities of subordinates so that events that occur correspond to those planned. When monitoring, results are compared with goals and plans. If negative deviations are detected, measures should be developed to minimize possible subsequent deviations both by improving the operation of the enterprise and by adjusting the plan.
6. Motivation (working with personnel) includes accounting, assessment, selection, training of personnel in order to ensure that the relevant cells, relevant posts provided organizational structure, were filled by people with appropriate qualifications. Working with personnel also involves developing a system of employee motivation, focused on employees achieving maximum useful results.
Special (specific) control functions are carried out in the process of managing a specific organization (functional area of the organization), the nature of the implementation of which is determined by the object of management.
The special functions of a modern enterprise include the following:
1. supply;
2. production;
3. sales and marketing;
4. financial management;
5. innovation management;
6. personnel management;
7. business communications;
8. conflict management;
9. risk management;
10.organizational development;
11.product quality management;
12.organizational culture.
When systematically studying management functions, it is necessary to answer the following questions:
1. What is the nature and purpose of this function;
2. What are the structural properties of this function;
3. How each function is carried out;
4. What key concepts apply to this function;
5. What principles and what theory are fundamental;
6. Which methods are most useful;
7. What difficulties are encountered;
8. How to create an appropriate environment for the implementation of each function.
2.4 The concept of mission, goals and strategy of the organization.
Mission
Company mission- this is, in a concentrated form, the expressed meaning and reason for the existence of the company, as well as its purpose for employees and the external environment.
Formation of a mission includes three aspects:
1. Understanding what business the organization is currently engaged in;
2. Deciding whether there is a need to change the strategic course;
3. Communicating or distributing information about the mission in such a way that it becomes clear and can interest employees and create a positive reaction.
The appearance of a mission can have an impact on changing the perception of the organization by its employees, which can have a beneficial effect on their involvement in work and dedication to the organization. In addition, the formulated mission can have a beneficial impact on the contact audience, improving its awareness and perception of the organization, which can have a beneficial effect on changing the competitive status of the company.
The mission statement must answer four basic questions:
1. What is our business?
2. What needs to satisfy?
3. The interests of which consumer groups should be satisfied?
4. How to satisfy needs?
An example of a construction organization's mission: Creating comfortable living conditions for the population through high-quality construction of modern residential buildings, which ensures the development of the company, the well-being of its employees and the socio-economic development of the region.
Goals
Goals express individual specific results of the company's activities and reflect what the company strives for in its activities.
In terms of period, goals are divided into short-term (up to 1 year), medium-term (1-3 years), long-term (over 3 years).
Short-term goals have specific content and can be expressed as making a profit. Medium- and long-term goals are to achieve the firm's strategic goals and realize its mission.
For different organizations, medium-term and long-term goals differ, and this depends on the payback period of the company’s activities, that is, the duration of the production and operating cycles.
Goals represent the results that the organization seeks to achieve in the short and long term. Goals can be set for the organization as a whole, for its structural divisions, and also for specific performers.
Goals are formed in accordance with the value system of the organization and those who manage its key resources.
Goal functions:
1. Goals reflect the main meaning and concept of the company’s development;
2. They form the basis of the general and management structures of the organization;
3. Reduce the uncertainty of the subject’s current activities;
4. They form the basis of criteria for identifying problems, making decisions, and evaluating results;
5. They are a team building tool;
6. Officially declared goals serve as the ideological basis for the existence of the organization.
Tasks- specification of the goals of the enterprise, expressed in the required actions. Traditionally, there are 3 categories of organizational tasks: working with people, objects and information.
The distinctive features of goals are called SMART - characteristics that the formulated goal must meet .
S (specific) – be precise and clear so that there is no room for misinterpretation or multiple interpretation.
M (Measurable) – goals must be measurable and quantify everything that needs to be achieved, including subjective expectations. Performers must have a clear understanding of the quantitative indicators that need to be obtained to achieve the goals.
A (Achievable) – goals must be achievable, so all employees of the company must be sure that the set goal is achievable. The achievability of goals should be assessed from the point of view of the organization's internal resources, as well as the influence of external environmental factors.
R (Relevant) - goals must be result-oriented and correlated with other goals, primarily with strategic goals, mission and interests of performers.
T (Timely) – goals must be clearly defined in time, so that performers have a clear idea by when certain actions necessary to achieve the goals must be completed.
Examples of goals: Receiving a profit of 100 million rubles. within 1 year. Increase sales by 10% for the coming quarter. Increasing market share to 50% over the next 3 years.
Strategy
Strategy 1 is a master plan of action that defines the priorities of strategic objectives, resources and the sequence of steps to achieve strategic goals.
Strategy 2– developing a company’s line of action in order to determine its place in the market, consolidate on it and subsequently expand despite the changes that await the company in the near and distant future.
Strategy answers the question: “How, through what actions, will the company be able to achieve its goals in a changing competitive environment?”
The strategy provides answers to the following questions regarding the essence of the organization:
1. What is our business today?
2. What should our business be like tomorrow?
3. What are our products, functions and markets?
4. What needs to be done to achieve your goals?
Strategic management is an organization’s management system focused on achieving its long-term goals through maximum use of its internal potential and external opportunities, flexible response and timely changes, taking into account changing external conditions.
Strategic management is focused on actions determined by the developed strategies of the enterprise, which contribute to the achievement of its strategic goals.